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WEBSTER,  N.Y.  14580 

(716)872-4503 


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CIHM/ICMH 

Microfiche 

Series. 


CIHIVI/ICIVIH 
Collection  de 
microfiches. 


Canadian  Institute  for  Historical  Microreproductlons  /  Institut  Canadian  de  microreproductions  historiques 


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Technical  and  Bibliographic  Notes/Notes  techniques  et  bibliographiques 


The  Institute  has  attempted  to  obtain  the  best 
original  copy  available  for  filming.  Features  of  this 
copy  which  may  be  bibliographically  unique, 
which  may  alter  any  of  the  images  in  the 
reproduction,  or  which  may  significantly  change 
the  usual  method  of  filming,  are  checked  below. 


D 
D 
D 

D 
D 
D 

D 


n 


Coloured  covers/ 
Couverture  de  couleur 

Covers  damaged/ 
Couverture  endommag^e 

Covers  restored  and/or  laminated/ 
Couverture  restaurde  et/ou  pelliculde 

Cover  title  missing/ 

Le  titre  de  couverture  manque 

Coloured  maps/ 

Cartes  g^ographiques  en  couleur 

Coloured  ink  (i.e.  other  than  blue  or  black)/ 
Encre  de  couleur  (i.e.  autre  que  bleue  ou  noire) 

Coloured  plates  and/or  illustrations/ 
Planches  et/ou  illustrations  en  couleur 

Bound  with  other  material/ 
Relid  avec  d'autres  documents 

Tight  binding  may  cause  shadows  or  distortion 
along  interior  margin/ 

La  re  liure  serr^e  peut  causer  de  I'ombre  ou  de  la 
distortion  le  long  de  la  marge  intdrieure 

Blank  leaves  added  during  restoration  may 
appear  within  the  text.  Whenever  possible,  these 
have  been  omitted  from  filming/ 
II  so  peut  que  certaines  pages  blanches  ajout^es 
lors  d'une  restauration  apparaissent  dans  le  texte, 
mais,  lorsque  ceia  6tait  possible,  ces  pages  n'ont 
pas  6t6  film^es. 

Additional  comments:/ 
Commentaires  suppl^mentaires; 


L'Institut  a  microfilm^  le  meilleur  exemplaire 
qu'il  lui  a  6td  possible  de  se  procurer.  Les  details 
de  cet  exemplaire  qui  sont  peut-dtre  uniques  du 
point  de  vue  bibliographique,  qui  peuvent  modifier 
une  image  reproduite,  ou  qui  peuvent  exiger  une 
modification  dans  la  m^thode  normale  de  filmage 
sont  indiquds  ci-dessous. 


I      I    Coloured  pages/ 


D 


D 
D 


Pages  de  couleur 

Pages  damaged/ 
Pages  endommagdes 

Pages  restored  and/or  laminated/ 
Pages  restaur6es  et/ou  pelliculdes 

Pages  discoloured,  stained  or  foxed/ 
Pages  d6color6es,  tachet6es  ou  piqu6es 

Pages  detached/ 
Pages  ddtachdes 


Showthrough/ 
Transparence 


I      I    Quality  of  print  varies/ 


Quality  in^gale  de  I'impression 

Includes  supplementary  material/ 
Comprend  du  materiel  suppldmartaire 


Only  edition  available/ 
Seule  Edition  disponible 

Pages  wholly  or  partially  obscured  by  errata 
slips,  tissues,  etc.,  have  been  ref limed  to 
ensure  the  best  possible  image/ 
Les  pages  totalement  ou  partiellement 
obscurcies  par  un  feuillet  d'errata,  une  pelure, 
etc.,  ont  6t6  film^es  d  nouveau  de  fa^on  d 
obtenir  la  meilleure  image  possible. 


This  item  is  filmed  at  the  reduction  ratio  checked  below/ 

Ce  document  est  filmd  au  taux  de  rMuction  indiqud  ci-dessous. 

10X  14X  18X  22X 


12X 


16X 


20X 


26X 


30X 


0 

24X 


] 


28X 


32X 


aire 
details 
ues  du 
t  modifier 
ger  une 
I  filmage 


The  copy  filmed  here  has  been  reproduced  thanks 
to  the  generosity  of: 

Library  of  Congress 
Photoduplication  Service 

The  images  appearing  here  are  the  best  quality 
possible  considering  the  condition  and  legibility 
of  the  original  copy  and  in  keeping  with  the 
filming  contract  specifications. 


L'exemplaire  film6  fut  reproduit  grfice  d  la 
g6n6rosit6  de: 

Library  of  Congress 
Photoduplication  Service 

Les  images  suivantes  ont  6td  reproduites  avec  le 
plus  grand  soin,  compte  tenu  de  la  condition  et 
de  la  nettetd  de  l'exemplaire  film6,  et  en 
conformity  avec  les  conditions  du  contrat  de 
filmage. 


i6es 


ire 


ly  errata 
Bd  to 

nt 

ne  pel u re, 

i9on  d 


J2 


32X 


Original  copies  in  printed  paper  covers  are  filmed 
beginning  with  the  front  cover  and  ending  on 
the  last  page  with  a  printed  or  illustrated  impres- 
sion, or  the  back  cover  when  appropriate.  All 
other  original  copies  are  filmed  beginning  on  the 
first  page  with  a  printed  or  illustrated  impres- 
sion, and  ending  on  the  last  page  with  a  printed 
or  illustrated  impression. 


The  last  recorded  frame  on  each  microfiche 
shall  contain  the  symbol  — ^>  (meaning  "CON- 
TINUED"), or  the  symbol  V  (meaning  "END"), 
whichever  applies. 

Maps,  plates,  charts,  etc.,  may  be  filmed  at 
different  reduction  ratios.  Those  too  large  to  be 
entirely  included  in  one  exposure  are  filmed 
beginning  in  the  upper  left  hand  corner,  left  to 
right  and  top  to  bottom,  as  many  frames  as 
required.  The  following  diagrams  illustrate  the 
method: 


1  2  3 


Les  exemplaires  originaux  dont  la  couverture  en 
papier  est  imprimde  sont  film6s  en  commenpant 
par  le  premier  plat  et  en  terminant  soit  par  la 
dernidre  page  qui  comporte  une  empreinte 
d'impression  ou  d'illustration,  soit  par  le  second 
plat,  selon  le  cas.  Tous  les  autres  exemplaires 
originaux  sont  film6s  en  commenpant  par  la 
premidre  page  qui  comporte  une  empreinte 
d'impression  ou  d'illustration  et  en  terminant  par 
la  dernidre  page  qui  comporte  une  telle 
empreinte. 

Un  des  symboles  suivants  apparaTtra  sur  la 
dernidre  image  de  cheque  microfiche,  selon  le 
cas:  le  symbole  — ►  signifie  "A  SUIVRE",  le 
symbole  V  signifie  "FIN". 

Les  cartes,  planches,  tableaux,  etc.,  peuvent  dtre 
film6s  d  des  taux  de  reduction  diff6rents. 
Lorsque  le  document  est  trop  grand  pour  dtre 
reproduit  en  un  seul  clicht!),  il  est  filmd  d  partir 
de  Tangle  supdrieur  gauche,  de  gauche  d  droite, 
et  de  haut  en  bas,  en  prenant  le  nombre 
d'images  n^cessaire.  Les  diagrammes  suivants 
illustrent  la  mdthode. 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

■..irv#*«Ba«»si«»»t.'c4«UJ'«rRi 


m: 


THE 


EARTH    AND    ITS    INHABITANTS. 


ASIA 


BY 


iSLISfiE  RECLUS. 


EDITED  BY 

A.  II.  KEANE,  B.  A., 

MKUD.   or  COUNCIL,    ANTIIROPOLOOICAL    INSTITL'TE. 


/^ 


VOL.  II. 

V/  EAST  ASIA: 

CHINESE    EMPIRE,  COREA,  AND   JAPAN, 


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ILLUSTRATED  BY  NUMEROUS  ENGRAVINGS  AND  MAPS. 


NEW  YORK: 
D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPAN 

1,   3,   AND    6    BOND    STREET. 

1884. 


RAR  ). 


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■is 
J) 


*• 


CONTENTS. 

VOL   II. 


"h 


EAST  ASIA. 


!• 


PAOK 
I 


CiiAP.  I.  Gexeuai.  Suuvev      .        .        .        .     . 

East  and  West  contrasted,  p,  2.  Isolation  oiF  China,"  p.  3.  Intercourse  with  India  and  Europe, 
p.  4.  Foieign  Influence:  Russian  Encniuchmcnt?,  p.  8.  Rivalry  of  the  Eastern  and  Western 
Races,  p.  9.     Future  Prospects,  p.  12.  i.       ,  v,.. 

Chap.  11.  Tiiiet 13 

Nomenclature,  p.  13.  Physical  Oinlines,  p.  14.  Extent,  Exploration,  Divisions,  p.  15.  The 
Kucii-Iun  Range,  p.  17.  Khachi:  Lacustrine  System,  p.  19.  Eastern  Highlands  and  Rivers, 
J).  22.  South  Tibet,  Trans- Himalayas,  p.  23.  Mount  Kailas,  Upper  .Satlaj,  and  Indus,  p.  24. 
Lake  Pang-kong,  p.  ^9.  The  Tauiigho  River,  p.  30.  Head  waters  i)f  the  Great  Indo-(;hineso 
Rivers,  p.  36.  Climate,  p.  38.  J  auna  and  Flora,  p.  40.  Inhabitants:  the  Tibetans,  p.  41. 
liuddhism,  p.  44.  Diet,  Social  Customs,  Population,  p.  48.  Topography,  p.  50.  Trade  and 
Trade  Routes,  p.  54.     Adniinistrution,  Postal  [Service,  p.  50. 

CiUF.  III.  Chinese  Tukkhsta.v:   The  Tauim  Basiv 53 

Progress  of  Discovery,  p.  58.  Extent,  Population  Water  System,  p.  60.  The  Yarkand  and 
Knshgar  Rivers,  p  61.  The  Tarim  and  Lob-nor,  p.  62.  The  Takla-makan  Desert,  p.  64. 
Flora  and  Fauna,  p.  66.  I>ih  tbitants :  the  Kashgarians,  p.  67.  Routes  and  Passes,  p.  69. 
Topography ;  Administrative  Divisions,  p.  70. 

CiiAP.  IV.  MosnoLiA 75 

I.  The  KiKU-Noii,  p.  74.  Relief  of  the  ImuA,  p.  74.  Lake  Kuku.  p.  77.  The  Clmidam Biisin, 
p.  78.  Inhabitants :  the  Tangutans,  p.  79.  II.  Mokoolian  Kansu,  p.  80.  Climate,  p.  81. 
Routes,  Extent,  P..pulation,  p.  82.  Inhabitants,  Topography,  p.  83.  III.  Zf  ncjahia  ANn 
KuLJA,  oa  Ili,  p.  88.  Historical  Routes,  p.  88.  Lake  Zair.m,  p.  90.  Inhabitants:  the 
Zungarians,  Dung.ns,  tmd  Taranchi,  p.  90.  Topos-raphy,  p.  91.  IV.  North  Mongolia  and 
THK  OoHi,  p.  93  The  Ektag  Altai  and  Tannu  f)la  Ranges,  p.  95.  Lakes  Ubsa  and  Koso,  p.  95. 
The  Gobi  Desert,  p.  96.  The  Khinjan  and  In-»han  Highlands,  p.  99.  The  Ordos  Plateau 
and  Ala-shan  Uplands,  p.  100.  The  Great  Wall,  p.  102.  Inhabitants:  the  Mongolians,  p.  I(i3. 
Topography,  p.  HI.  V.  Chinese  Maschukia,  p.  113.  Physical  Features,  p.  116.  Tho 
Sunuari  nnd  Liuo-ho  Rivers,  p.  11".  Flora  and  Faun«,  p.  119.  Inhabitants:  tho  Manchus, 
p.  120.     Topography,  p.  1:^3. 

Chah.  V.  China 128 

General  Survey,  p.  128.  Progress  of  Discovery,  p.  129.  Physical  Features,  Climate,  p.  132. 
Flora  and  Fauna,  p.  134.  Inhabitants:  tho  Chinese  Race,  p.  136.  Tho  Chinese  Language, 
p.  137.  Religion,  p.  140.  Tho  Feng-shui,  p.  143.  Buddhism,  p.  145.  The  Jews  and 
Mohammedans,  p.  147.  The  Christians,  p.  161.  Habits  and  Customs,  p.  153.  Secret 
Societies,  tho  Taipings,  p.  150.  Basin  of  tho  Pei-hn,  Province  of  I'echili,  p.  10.'.  Topography : 
Peking,  p.  164.  The  Shantung  Peninsula,  p.  174.  Topography,  p.  175.  The  Hoangho 
Basin,  Kansu,  Shensi,  Shansi,  and  Honan,  p.  179.  The  Grand  Canal  and  Lower  Hoang-ho, 
p.  185.      Tho  Tsing-ling  and  other  Riuges,  p.  187.     Tho  Yellow  Li.nd«,  p   189.     Topography, 


M^  JL^^'k 


CONTENTS. 


p.  102.  Bnsin  of  tho  Yiinff-tzr-kinnK,  Soohuon,  Kwcichow,  Hupch,  Hunan,  X({aiihwci, 
Kiiiiif^mi,  Kiiiii^i,  Chckiiin^,  ]i.  IttU.  Tho  rppiT  Yan^-t/.i!  anil  Min,  p.  100.  Tho  Midilli) 
Yann-tzt!  ami  lliin-kiiin^,  p.  '201.  Lako  I'oynnjjf  ami  tho  Lower  YaiiK-tzo,  p.  '202.  Hiichxum 
IliKlilamlii,  p.  '20").  Inhaliitanti  of  .Sochucn,  Iho  .Sifan,  p.  '200,  Tlio  Mantxo,  IjoIo,  iiml 
Chini'Ho  of  .Si'ihucn,  p.  '210.  I'roviiico  of  Kwrichew,  tho  .Miiiot/.i',  j).  '2U.  Ilinian,  Kiani;si, 
and  ChcKianj?,  j).  217.  Iiihahitaiits  of  tho  Lower  Yanf?  t/i'  Itasin,  p.  219.  Topojjraphy, 
p.  220.  Kastern  SliipeH  of  tlie  .\aii-Hlian,  210.  InhahitantH  of  Fokion,  p.  2tl.  Topo^rapliy, 
p.  212.  IliiHin  of  tli(^  Si-kiati(r,  Kwiiii|,'si,  ami  Kwani»tiinfj;,  ]).  247.  Tlio  Si-kian^  Kiver 
KyNtein,  p.  218.  Tlie  Canton  Delta,  p.  210.  Ciiniato  of  South  Ciiina,  p.  2<')0.  InhaliitantH, 
J).  2.")1.  To])0!iriiiihy,  p.  2."):).  JIouh;  Koiijf,  p.  2')7.  Miieao,  p.  '2'>9.  Yunnan,  p.  2(i;i. 
Inliuliitantrt,  p.  207.  Tlio  I'authay  Insurrection,  p.  2flH.  Topograjjiiy,  p  2'iO.  Hainan,  p.  27.'i 
Formosa,  p.  27'>.  InhaliitantH,  p.  2S0.  TopoH;riqihy,  p.  281.  Material  and  Soeiiil  ('onilition 
of  ('hina,  ]).  2St.  The  Chine.so  TownH,  p.  28.'i.  Agriculture,  \>.  287.  Tho  Tea  Tradis  p.  201. 
Land  Tenure,  tlu'  Commune,  p  202.  InduHtries,  p.  20.>.  AlineralH,  Metal  Work,  Kronzos, 
p.  208.  I'rintinfj;,  tho  Labour  Market,  p.  200.  Inland  and  Foreign  Trade,  p.  .'100.  Tho 
Ojaum  Question,  p.  ItOl.  Tho  Treaty  Ports  and  Foreign  F.m  hanges,  htapios  of  Trade,  p.  ;)0;l. 
Highways,  liailwuy  Prospects,  Telegraphs,  p.  IIO.V  Foreigners  in  Cuina,  (Jhineso  Emigration, 
p  08.  The  Xew  Ideas,  Social  Progress,  Public  Instruction,  Tho  Literati,  p.  312.  Ponding 
Changes  in  the  Social  System,  p.  :114.  Administration,  Filial  Devotion  to  tho  Head  of  the 
Family  and  of  tho  State,  p.  31."),  Imperial  Authority,  tho  Emperor's  Ilouseh'jld,  p.  317. 
Kducatiou,  Public  Examinations,  p,  320.  Tho  Mandiirins,  p.  322.  Pi'ual  Codo,  p.  3'20. 
Army  and  Xavy,  p.  328.     Uuvenuo,  Curroucy,  p.  331.     Adniinistrativu  Divisions,  p.  333. 

Chap.  VL  Kohea 334 

Progress  of  Discovery,  Foreign  liolations,  p.  337.  Physical  Features,  Orographic  System, 
p.  339.  Thu  Korean  Archipelagos,  p.  340.  Mineral  NVealth,  Flora  and  Fauna,  Climate,  p.  341. 
Inhabitiints,  Language,  p,  344.  Social  Condition,  Itcligion,  p.  340.  Habits  and  Customs, 
Trade,  Industries,  p.  348,     (iovcrinnent,  Administration,  p  3.')1.     Topography,  p.  353. 

Chai'.   Yll.  Jai'an 366 

Fonn,  I']xtent,  Name,  p.  3.56.  Progress  of  Discovery,  p.  3.')8.  Tho  Kurilo  Archipelago,  p.  300. 
Y"eso,  p.  302.  Hondo,  p.  3G4.  Tho  Xikko  Highlands,  a  Buddhist  Legend,  p.  3G7.  Asama- 
yama  and  Fuzi-san,  p.  369.  The  Highlands  of  South  Hondo,  p.  371-  Lake  Biva,  p.  373. 
Tho  Inland  8ea,  p.  37.).  Tho  Island  of  Sikok,  p.  376.  Tho  Island  of  Kiu-siu,  p.  378.  Tho 
Iliu-kiu  (Lu-ch\i)  and  Ooto  Archipelagos,  p.  381,  Ilydrogruphic  System,  Chief  liivcrs, 
p.  386.  Clinmto,  p.  387.  Vegitation,  p.  389.  Fauna,  p.  393.  Inhabitants,  tho  Aino.i, 
p.  390.  The  Aborigines  of  Japan,  p.  400.  The  Jupanesc  Hace,  p.  401.  Language  and  Letters, 
p,  408.  The  Art  of  Printing,  p.  410.  Religion:  Sintoism,  p.  411.  Buddhism,  p.  41.'). 
("hristianity,  p.  416.  Topography  of  the  Kuriles  and  Y'eso,  p.  418.  Topography  of  Nip-pon, 
p.  421.  Topography  of  Sikok,  Kiu-siu,  and  liiu-kiu,  p.  441,  Tho  Bonin  Archipelago,  p.  444, 
Vital  Siatistics,  Agriculture,  p,  446,  Uico  and  Tea  Culture,  p,  447.  Natural  Uesources  of 
Y'eso,  p.  460.  Land  Tenure,  Mining  Industry,  p,  400,  Manufactures,  Japanese  Art, 
Porcelain,  p.  4.53.  Lacquer-waro,  Paper,  p.  4.55.  Decline  of  Art,  Traffic  in  "  Curios,"  p.  459, 
Foreign  Trade,  p,  462.  Shipping,  p.  466.  Roads,  Railways,  Telegraphs,  p.  467.  Literature 
iiii'l  Public  Instruction,  p.  469,  Historic  Retrospect,  the  Revolution,  p.  470.  Administration, 
p.  473.     Finance,  Army  and  Navy,  p.  475. 

Statistical  Tables 477 


IND.JX 


485 


i'Xum 


i*'ii>  iMTi 


^        A 


4 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


VOL.  II, 


334 


MAPS  PRINTED  IN  COLOURS. 


355 


[0,  p.  300. 
Asimm- 
I,  p.  373. 
178.  The 
•i  Rivers, 
ho  Aino.i, 

1(1  LotUTB, 

I,  p.  413. 
E  Nip-pon, 
;o,  p.  444. 
sources  of 
■nose  Art, 
8,"  p.  409. 
Litcraturo 
nistration, 


477 
48a 


1.  Tiirkcstun  and  luiicr  Asia  . 

2.  China 

3.  Peking  und  Neighbourhood 


58       4.  runton  iind  the  Pearl  Ruur 
128       f).  The  Islands  of  Jupun  . 
10 1       0.  Tukio  and  its  Uay 


TAOM 

249 
366 
423 


PLATES. 


Tho  Yang-tze-kiang— Mitan  Gorge  To  face  page 

The  Lantzan-kiang — Hogg's  Gorge 

Ovis    Ammon— Ibex    Siherica— Ovis    Nahur.i 

— Markhor  Ram  .... 
Monastery  at  Shigatze  .... 
Lassa— Liimassery  of  Potala  in  tho  Seventeenth 

Century     

Chinese  Turkestan— Types  and  Costumes 
Upper  Kara-kash  Valley .... 
Street  Scene,  Yarkand  .... 
Mongolian  Desert— Tomb  of    Lama  and    En 

campment 

Dungans  and  Taranchis— Types  and  Costumes 
Manc'hu  Ministers— Chiefs  of  Banners     . 
View  tdken  from  tho  Summer  Palace,  Peking 
Nan-kow,  Southern  Gate  of  the  Great  Wall  - 

View  taken  from  Pat  «-ling 
View  on  the  Upper  Yang-tze-kiang 
Road  cut  through  the  "  Yellow  Earth  "    . 
River  View  on  tho  Upper  Yangtze-kiang 
Chinese  Miners— Upper  Yangtze  Highhinds 
Hankow  —  Han  -  kiang    and    Yang-tze    Con 

fluonce 


3 
37 

40 
51 

62 
58 
CO 

72 

80 

91 

121 

164 

173 
190 
192 
203 
221 

227 


A  Slroot  in  Kin-kianij— Typos  and  Cos- 
tumes      ....         To  face  page 

Tower  of  Long-hua,  Shanghai 

Fomale  Types  and  Costumes -Pi  ovince  of 
Fokien 

Buddhist  Monaster,-  at  Vucn-fu  on  the  Min, 
South  of  Fui    1  V  fii 

Lake  Tali— View  uik  a  from  tho  North  . 

Formosan  Types  and  Costumes— Butan  Captives 
in  .Tiipan 

Paper-mill,  China 

M.  Tseng— Chinese  Minister  in  Paris 

Korean  Mandarins 

Fuzi  Yania — View  taken  from  tho  South-west 

Lake  Htikono 

Capo  Homer— View  taken  from  tlie  Entrance 
of  Kngo-sima  Bay 

Japanese  Peas;intry 

Aino  Types  and  Costumes        .... 

Japanese  Typos  and  Costumes 

Types  and  Costumes  of  Citizens  of  Tokio 

View  of  Odovara  ;  taken  from  Tokai-do  . 

Birdseyo  View  of  Naguski        .... 


229 
236 

241 

243 
270 

-.280 
299 
317 
344 
370 
372 

380 
386 
397 
409 
423 
4-29 
442 


.     ! 


VI 


LIST  Ui-'  ILLL'siTHATlUNa. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  TKXT. 


KAST  ASIA. 

1.  Itincruiy  of  ll'wcn-'rHiinsf 

2.  Km  ri>;ii')iiiii'iits  iiC  ANiittic  UiiHHia  on  Chiiiii 

3.  lUiicraiirM  of  tlio 'I'ilMt'iii  Kx|ili>rrr!t  . 

4.  Uri'KU  Kaiia-kasii   Vai.i.kv 

6.  Liiko    Diingrii-yum    anil    Tiirgot    Jloun- 

tniim 

0.  'IVtigri-noi-         ...... 

7.  Mount  Kiiiliis  iind  the  Four  Sucrod  Uivors 

8.  Till'  Mansiii'iiiir  Hisiii         .... 

'.•.    J.AKH     1'AN()-K0M1  ;      K.NCAMI'MKNT    OF    TlIK 
K.\(iI,IHll     Kxi'EDlTIO.N   Ol'    1871      . 

10.  Lakn  ranif-koii(f 

11.  .'^i!;(^  ralti 

12.  Course  of  til '  Tuanglio  .... 
1.3.  (.'ourse  of  tlic  Tsanjflx)  .... 
14.  Ct'Ursu  of  tho  Tsunj^lio  .... 
111.  C'oHiso  of  tho  Tsanfjjbo  .... 
IG.  TilKtan  Ethnography         .... 

17.  I'llAYKIl    INSC'rtlHEn    ON    A    lioCK . 

18.  TiiiKrAN  Amtlbt 

19.  LiiHsa 

i!0.  Tri'dn  lloutoM  of  Tihct        .... 

i!l.  Itineraries  of  tho  Tian-shnn  Nnn-lii  . 

22.  Tho  Tian  shan    Nan-lu,   from   a    Chinese 

Map 

23.  Lake  Karishar 

24.  Lob-nor 

2.5.  lluees  of  Cliineso  Turkestan 

26.  Koutos  from  Kashgar  to  Ferghana     . 

27.  Khotan  and  the  Southern  I'latuaux   . 

28.  Yarkand  and  Yangi-sh  ihr 

29.  Sources  of  the  Iloang-hc,  from  ii  Chincso 

Map 

30.  Kuku-nor 

31.  West  Knd  of  tho  Great  Wall     . 

32.  FoiiTiFiEO     Villages    nkau    Laxtciiew, 

Province  of  Kaxsu  .... 

U.3.  Ousoi  of  Jlarkul  and  Hami 

31.   L'rumtsi,  Turfan,  and  surrounding  Moun- 
tains   

35.  £bi-nor      ....... 

3G.  Chuguohak  and  the  Tarbagatai  Hange 

37.  Valley  of  tho  Tekcs 

38.  Section  of  the  Gobi,  going  East  and  West 

39.  View  in  the  Gobi  .... 

40.  Section  of  tho  Gobi  between   Urga  and 

Kiilgan 

41.  South-east     Corner    of    tho    Mongolian 

Plateau 


0 

H 

43. 

10 

19 

44. 

4.). 

20 

40. 

21 

47. 

2'! 

•;s. 

20 

49. 

60. 

23 

-)1. 

•.'9 

.52. 

30 

32 

.-,3. 

33 

*U. 

34 

55. 

35 

.50. 

43 

57. 

4.') 

58. 

10 

(52 

59. 

04 

00. 

59 

01. 

02. 

01 

03. 

63 

64 

01. 

08 

65. 

70 

60. 

71 

73 

07. 

08. 

7(i 

77 

69. 

82 

70. 

84 

71. 

86 

72. 

73. 

87 

74. 

89 

92 

75. 

93 

76. 

94 

77. 

97 

78. 

98 

79. 
80. 

81. 

99 


The  (luKAT  Wai.i..     Vikw  taki.n  at  tmk 

Xankow  1'ahk  .... 
Mongol  invaNiiiUH  and  Conquests  of  their 

Hucce.sSorH  ..... 
InhabitantH  of  .Mungolia     . 

Kobdo  lial(;iu 

I'rga 

Moiigoli.in  llii;hways 

Mcjulb  of  till'  l.iio-lio 

Manliii;  Wo.man        .... 

(/'oiillucncc  ot  the  Nonni  and  ^nn^aii 

Lower  Tumen  Valley  and  I'onsiet  Kay 

Tlio    Nino    Provinees    according    to    tho 

Yukuiig 

China  aeeordia,'  to  tho  Native  Oeograplu'rH 
Kiang-su,  according  to  Maitini 
Isothcrmals  of  Cliiiia .... 
Range  of  the  (Jhineso  Fauna 
Chneso  Dialects        .... 
The  Nine  Sacred  Mountains. —T'ho  Chew 

Epoch 

The  Taiki,  on  Maokj  Lookino-olass 

UUI>I)HIRT    PulEHT        .... 

The  Godobss  Kwawix   .        , 
l)0MK8Tic  Altar.— The  Siwilino  Bimidha 
Ilegicms  was'.ud  by  ihe  Mohammedan  In 

surrcctions  .... 

A  Chinese  Savant  .... 
Chinese  Childuen  .... 
Tekuack    with     P\'neual     Uuns    neai 

Amoy 

Manchu  Ladv  

Lauds    wasted    by    tho    'I'uiping  Insur. 

rcction 

ItoutoB  of  the  Chief  Modern  Exjilorers  in 

China 

Range  of  tho  Floodings  of  the  Lower  Pochili 
Successive  Displacements  of  Peking  . 
The  High  Stueet,  Peki.no 
The  Temi'Le  of  Heaven,  Peking  . 
Celestial  Sphekb  in  the  Old  Observa 

TORY,  Peking    .... 

Tientsin 

The  Lower  Pei-ho  .... 
Old  Shantung  Strait .... 
Tengchew  and  Sliao-tao  Archipelago 

Cliefu 

Trans-0rdo3 

Cliki-s  or  Yellow  Earth  on  the  Uo.ing 

uo 


102 

104 
105 
111 
112 
113 
118 
122 
12, 
120 

129 
130 
131 
133 
135 
139 

141 
143 
145 
140 
148 

150 
163 
154 

156 

157 

160 

161 
163 
165 
166 
167 

169 
171 
172 
175 
176 
177 
180 

131 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTUATIONS. 


tU 


N    AT    TIIK 

. 

102 

(if  tlii'ir 

101 

,         , 

lOo 

111 

. 

112 

. 

11  :> 

UH 

122 

,'aii 

124 

liny 

120 

to    tlio 

. 

129 

)f,'i'iHilicrM 

13U 

. 

131 

. 

i.'ia 

. 

13.) 

. 

139 

Iio  Chow 

. 

in 

ULAHS 

143 

.             , 

iir> 

, 

HO 

Itri>i>iu 

1>8 

dUuii  In- 

. 

150 

. 

liiii 

. 

1(')4 

8      NEAIt 

. 

IfiO 

, 

167 

160 

101 
103 
105 
160 
167 

109 
171 
172 
175 
176 
177 
180 

131 


R2. 

83. 
8t. 

8.'>. 
80. 
87. 
8H. 
89. 

OU. 

Ul. 

92. 

03. 

01. 

Oo. 

0«. 

07. 

98. 

99. 
100. 
lUl. 
102. 


103. 
1U4. 
1U5. 
106. 
107. 
lOS. 
109. 
110. 
111. 
112. 
113. 
114. 
11a. 
116. 

117. 
118. 
119. 
120. 
121. 
122. 
123. 
121. 
125, 
120. 
127. 


HhiUiiiKH  of  tho  I loanf^-ho  during  Thn^u 

Th<iMH;iiii|  Vnirn         .         ,                  .  182 

Ui'criit  Mliil'tiiigN  of  tiiii  iliiung-liu    .          ,  1H3 

Vcllow  H(ui IHO 

'I'l'rrHi'o  l.iituis  ef  Shuniii ,         ,         .         .  IHH 

rtni-slmii IHO 

Vulluw  L.iiili*  of  North  Chimi .        .        .  190 

Siiif^.in  mid  till'  [,owtT  W'ci-ho  V'ulloy  .  193 
Ciiiiip'irutivii   niHi'lmr^o  of  tho  Yiin^-t/.u 

iiixi  othiT  Uivi'M  .  .  .  .197 
NitviKithlii  CoiirHi.'  of  tln'  Yitng-tzo  utid  itN 

Triliiititiii'H 19H 

Olil  .MoutliN  of  thii  Viiiig-t/i!  .  .  .  204 
Cliiiiini'lH  anil  nri'iikwiiti'nt  hotwocn   thii 

lloang-hi>  anil  Y.mg-t/.u  .  .  ,  20') 
ChunnuU  and   IlroakwatorH  butwuun  tho 

Iloang-ho  and  Yang-t/.u     .         .         .  200 

MmiiitainN  lii'tworn  Tatiiirnlii  and  Hatung  207 

Frum  thu  Min  Valluy  to  Tatsivnlu   .         .  208 

The  Skciii  i:n  Hioiilanhh       .         .         .  213 

Itaces  of  .South- wi'Ht  (>'hina       .         .         .  210 

Chiiigtii-fii  Diwin 221 

Tho  T«ing-ling  and  Singan      .         .         .  223 

Coiirso  of  tho  \'ang-t/.i)  dbovo  tho  Oorgi's  224 

I-i'hang  Oorgoa 225 

WrcHANo  :     ViBW    taken     tmom     tiik 

ToWKll   Ol'   THK   Y'eLLOW   CuaNK    (Ho- 
AN(l-no-I.K\v) 

Hankow  and  ^llrrollnding  Iiukos 

Nanking 

Chingkiang 

Shanghai  and  tho  Iloung-pu    . 
Shanghai  ...*.. 

Suc'how  boforo  the  Taiping  War 
llangchow  and  the  Si-hu 
Ningpo  and  Tsinhai  .... 

Gland  Chusun  and  I'utu  .... 

Mouth  of  tho  Min 

Fuchow-fu 

SlIl'I-KOW,  O.V  THE  UlTEU  Mf.N,  FoKIBN    . 

Amoy 

Comparative  Tempcntturo  of  Canton  and 
othor  Towns 

Inhabitants  of  Kwangtung 

Female  Coiffi'UB,  Swat<iw    . 

Canton,  Whampoa,  and  llonan  Island     . 

Tlong  Kong 

HoNO  KoNO  ;  View  taken  fiiom  Kowi.un 

Macao 

I'akho'i 

\Vei-chew 

,  Upper  Song-koi  Valley    .... 

Chinese  of  Yunnan  .... 
.  Kouto  between  Momein  and  Tali-fu 


228 
229 
230 
232 
233 
234 
235 
237 
238 
239 
243 
244 
215 
246 

251 
252 
254 
256 
258 
259 
260 
201 
202 
205 
208 
260 


128.  Tali-fu  and  l.uki<  Tali       ....  270 

129.  YiiiiniiM '.''i 

I'll).   IIiiiiMii  Strait 273 

131.  Forniimu  iitiil  Kokicn  Htrnit       .         .         .  270 

132.  llHiHI.A\M   l.\NI)K(  Ar»:,    FlIUMOHA         .            .  277 

133.  'ryphoiin  of  till)  "  Novara "  .  •  .  270 
131.  rKi'ii-HiiAN  Woman  and  Ciiilu  .  .  282 
135.   Ki'Iiiiig 283 

130.  (iriitiil    Lu-rhi'W,    arrording    to    an    old 

Clunimi  .Map 284 

137.   DriiNity  of  thiiChini'Ni'  Population  in  IHI2  285 

1.18.  Hinguii-fu 2H0 

139.  IllKKIATINO  VvMi;  Soi'TII  China        .           .  287 

140.  Uolativo  Iniportanri>  of  tho  CropH  in  tlio 

(^'liincso  I'rovinri'M       ....  288 

111.  Chii'f  Crops  of  China        ....  293 

112.  Mini's  of  .Shantung 290 

143.  Mini's  of  Yunnan 298 

144.  PoUTAdE  IN  CUEKIANO        ,            .    °       .            .  300 

145.  Chini'Hi  Trraty  Ports  ....  302 
140.  (Jenekai,  View  of  Nankino  .         .         .  300 

147.  Uoutcs,  Tt'IrgraphH,  and  Linos  of  Steam 

Navigation  in  (.'liinu  ....  .307 

148.  HiONAi,  TowEiis 300 

149.  Hangii  of  Chinos.)  Migration     .         .         .  310 

150.  ^1.    Yanii,    AttaihI^:    of    the    CiiiNtSB 

IiKOATIliN    IN    PaHIS      .  .  .  .313 

151.  Chinese  (luartor,  Shanghai       .         .         .  310 

152.  Simmer    Palace— IJuonze     Lions,     Em- 

IILKMH   OF   THE   iMrUIIIAL    PoWEU            .  318 

153.  Vaokant  Convicts 325 

154.  DofonuoB  of  tho  Mouth  of  tho  Pni-ho  .  320 
165.  I'roi'inc'ial  Chief  Towns,  Fu  and  Chew,  in 

China 332 

150.  General   View    of    Kanu-hoa,   Lower 

Uanu-kiano 335 

157.  Korea  Strait 536 

158.  K.YpIorations   of  Korea  and  surrounding 

Waters 337 

150.  South-west  Archipelago  of  Korea     .         .  338 

100.  Entrance  to  the  Gulf  of  Pechili        .         .  342 

101.  island  of  Quolpaert 343 

162.  Ilan-kang,  or  Soul  River          .         .         .  352 

163.  Administrative  Divisions  of  Korea    .        .  353 

164.  Curves  of  the  Japanese  Archipelago          .  357 

165.  Strait  of  Yeso 350 

106.  Tho  Kurile  Islmds 360 

167.  Pakamusiiiu  Iklanu— Kukiles         .         .  361 

168.  Section  of  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk           .        .  362 

169.  Tsugar  Strait,  between  Y'cso  and  Hondo  .  303 

1 70.  Mouths  of  tho  Tonc-gava  .  .  .  365 
\',1.  Oga-sima  Island, and  Ohokata-hatsiro  Sea  366 

172      XlKKO PoUTICO  OP  THE   TeMFLB    OF   TUB 

FoUll  DUAQONB  .....  368 


I 


ft 


11! 


173. 

171 

l-.). 

ITO. 

177. 

17M. 

170. 
I  mi. 

IHt. 
\Wi. 

IHIt. 
1H». 
IS.-). 

1811. 
1H7. 

\m. 

180. 
I'.'O. 
101. 
102. 

lo;». 

104, 


LIST  OF  IliMJSTllATIONS. 


(;ult  of  Simoiln  nnd  Oho-ninm 

I.iikc  llivii 

Niirutti  Nlritit 

Yumii-giiMi 'ii>'l  Mount  Kiumcin 

Kii((o-mma  iiml  Mi-liikt-  Volnmn 

Urlii  (  <p(  .liipim  iintl   l)f|ithii  of  i\iv  niii 

roiitiiliuK  NVnttT* 
(Icdlony  nf  .IllpUll     .  .  .  • 

'rHU-Hiiiia 

IkoIIu  rniaU  of  .Iiipiiii 

jAI'A>tHI'.  I.AMiMAIT.  VlKW  TAKEN  AT 
l>'l/,IHAVA 

IlAIIOfcli:   KACHIM1I.K  OF  .lAI'ANrHK  Dr.KKI 

Tacsimilk  of  a  .IaI'ANFKK    IIiiii>   UtMIl 

riimitivc  ropuliilioiiHof  Nip-pon,  nnord 
inK  to  llii^  .Iii|Hni('Ho  AniuilH 

.Iai'Anf.hf.  Woman   . 

Jafankhk  (JlllL 

.Ia»'ankm«  MiHKUSH  ANi>  Dkai.ek 

Jai>anihr  TATrooiNO 

Jai'anf.»f,  Womkn    . 

Nikko  un.l  the  Uppor  Trnc-Biivii 

l»l  lUIIIIHT   Tr.MlM.K    AT    NlKKO. 

NnnHWiki  iinil  IJnzcn-san 
Uttkodato  Uay 


fkOU 

.    :i71  ' 

lO.V 

.  ;i7.i 

Kill. 

.  377 

107. 

.  ;i78 

108. 

.  ;i:o 

too. 

.  ;>Hu 

200. 

.  wi 

201. 

.     383 

202. 

.  300 

203. 

20  J. 

.  301 

20.5. 

N  304 

20(1. 

n  30.» 

207. 

208. 

.  400 

2UI). 

.  40'J 

210. 

.  403 

211. 

.  404 

212. 

1 

.  40.') 

2i;). 

.  400 

214. 

.  412 

2ir,. 

.  414 

j  'iiu. 

1 

.  417 

.  410 

217. 

Ilnkoilntn 

Nihi-Kiitu  nml  Siiilo  Isliiml 
Kiim/uvii  iiiul  the  White  Momitain  . 

MoNKTItU     lUI.L     IN     Tlir.    SlHA   tilAUTIH 
'I'llKIO 

JiNMiKHiA,  Jaimnf.»f.  IIanii-caut 

SiiiuhIii  Hay 

N.inoyii  and  Dilta  of  thu  Ki«o-gava 

l.aki'  llivA 

( lluiHiika  ...••• 
llioK<i-k()h(^      .         .         .         ■         • 

Mntituyii 

Niifa  mid  Kiiiii  in  the  iHliiiid  of  Okinav 
lloiiiii,  or  O^jMHavara  Anhipcliigo     . 
Miiuiai  Di'iMmitM  of  YcHo 

SlKNKM   OF    iNlllhTlllAI.    LlU;      . 
StKFRT    SlKSKX  .  .  .  • 

Tub  (loiii* 

ItATH  AH  Hub  Mkuliianth 
I'ortH  open  to  lort'igti  T.udo    . 
Japant'Ho  Linis  of  Navigation  . 

,    VlF.W  TAKKN  on    IIU',   To\Al-I>0    HlOIIWAY 
.    TllF.      riLUlIlY      IN      JaI'AN      IIF.FOIIB     TUB 

Hf.volution 

.  Adminislrativu  PivisionH  of  Julian  . 


FAOB 

420 
421 

422 

424 
427 
42U 
431 
434 

438 
430 
443 
44U 
4.V2 
45.5 
408 
100 
40 1 
40.) 
lUO 
408 

474 
47d 


I '  <<■- jw^ui^h uiKmv  ■^■'■' . 


-**.* ' 


.-  A 


no 
i'ii 
in 

427 
4'iU 
431 
434 

435 
438 
139 
143 
tlO 
4.Vi 
loj 
4.')H 
KlU 
401 
4(i'> 
tUH 
408 

474 
47o 


THE  EARTH  AND  ITS  INHABITANTS. 


I:AST   A8IA. 

CHINESE  EMl'IKE.  fOREA,  JAPAN. 


CHAPTER  I. 


GENERAL  8UUVEY. 


HE  nutural  divisions  of  tlio  Asiatic  continent  lire  druwn  in  bold  lines. 
Wo  luive  seen  that  the  vast  Russian  domain  comprises  the  Aralo- 
Cuspian    depressions    and   the    northern    slopes    of   tlio  mountain 
systems,    which     stretch    from    the    Alai   and    Tian-shan    to    tlie 
Manchurian    coasl    ranges.      Southwards  and   westwards,  the   two 
Indian  peninsulas,  the  Iranian  plateau,  Asia  Minor,  and  Arabia  are  no  less  clearly 
defined  by  snowy  barriers,  great  inlets  and  seas.     In  the  I'ust,  also,  China,  with 
Corea  and  the  neighbouring  archipelagos,  forms,  so  to  say,  a  world  apart,  enclosed 
by  an  amphitheatre  of  plateaux  and  highlands  with  a  total  frontier-line  of  C.OOO 
miles.      From   Manchuria   to   Indo-China,   the   Shanyan-alin,  the   DAs-alin,    the 
Khingan,  the  Kentei,  the  Tannu-ola  and  Ektag  Altai,  the  Tian-shan,  the  Tsfing- 
ling,  the  Himalaya,  the  rugged  hills  pierced  by  the  rivers  of  Transgangetic  India, 
form  together  a  continuous  semicircle  round  about  that  portion  of  the  Asiatic  conti- 
nent which  now  constitutes  the  Chinese  Empire.    Japan  has  taken  the  name  of  the 
"Land  of  the  Rising  Sun;"  but  relatively  to  the  rest  of  the  Old  World  China  also 
faces  eastwards.     Its  general  slope,  as  indioat6d  by  the  course  of  its  rivers,  is 
towards  the  Pacific  Ocean.     From  the  peoples  of  the  West,  Cliina  and  Japan  have 
rightly  received  the  name  of  the  extreme  East,  an  expression  also  extended  to 
Indo-China,  the  Philippines,  and  Malaysia. 


^.M>- 


■  -SSSf^^St**--*??*^*" 


EAST  ASIA. 


East  and  West  contrasted. 

Coinparod  with  Weatorn  Asia,  and  especially  with  Europe,  which  may  in 
certain  respects  be  regarded  as  u  group  of  peninsulas  belonging  to  Asia,  the  eastern 
regions  of  the  continent  enjoy  certain  privileges,  but  have  also  some  great  dis- 
advantages as  lands  of  human  culture.  The  most  striking  contrast  between  Kast 
and  West  is  presented  by  their  respective  seaboards.  In  Asia  Minor  and  Europe 
the  coast  lands  are  cut  up  Into  numerous  peninsulas,  forming  secondary  groups  in 
the  Mediterranean  and  Atlantic  waters.  The  peninsulas  are  moreover  prolonged 
by  arcliipelagos,  or  the  coasts  fringed  with  islands ;  so  that  Europe  has  by  Carl 
Hitter  and  othei-s  been  compared  to  an  organized  body  well  furnished  with  limbs. 
This  continent  seems,  so  to  say,  endowed  with  life  and  motion  beyond  the  dead  mass 
of  the  Old  AVorld.  But  China  cannot  boast  of  such  a  surprising  diversity  of  out- 
lines. From  the  shores  of  ^lanehuria  to  those  of  Cochin  China  one  important  penin- 
sula alrne,  that  of  Corea,  is  detaclied  from  the  continental  mass,  while  the  land  is 
penetrated  only  by  one  gidf  deserving  the  name  of  sea — the  Iloang-hai.  The  I'acific 
waters  are  here  doubtless  animated  by  two  large  islands,  Formosa  and  Hainan,  and 
by  the  magnificent  ^Vrchipelago  of  Japan.  But  how  insignificant  arc  these  penin- 
sulas and  islands  of  Eastern  Asia  compared  with  the  Cyclades  and  Sporades,  Greece 
and  Italy,  the  British  Isles,  Scandinavia,  and  the  whole  of  Europe,  itself  a  vast 
l)eninsula  everywhere  exposed  to  the  moist  and  warm  sea  breezes! 

The  high  degree  of  culture  attained  by  the  Chinese  people  cannot  therefore  be 
explained  by  any  exceptional  advantages  in  peninsular  or  island  formations.  But 
here  the  absence  of  marine  inlets  has  been  partly  supplied  by  the  great  rivers.  If 
the  Chinese  seaboard  proper  presents  but  few  deep  indentations,  the  great  streams 
of  navigable  water  by  which  the  land  is  irrigated,  and  by  whose  ramifications  and 
canals  it  is  divided  into  inland  islands  and  peninsulas,  give  it  some  of  the  advan- 
tages in  water  communication  enjoyed  by  Europe,  Hero  the  Yang-tze-kiang  and 
Hoang-ho  replace  the  yEgean  and  Tyrrhenian  Seas,  and  like  them  have  served  to 
develop  and  diffuse  a  co.nmon  civilisation.  Formerly  China  had  another  advantage 
in  the  possession  of  the  largest  extent  of  productive  land  held  under  one  social 
system  in  a  temperate  climate.  North  America  and  Europe,  which  at  present 
possess  an  equal  extent  of  such  territory,  were  till  recently  still  covered  by  forests 
which  had  to  be  laboriously  cleared.  In  China  is  found  that  vast  stretch  of 
"  Yellow  Lands  "  which  forms  pre-eminently  an  agricultural  region,  and  where  were 
naturally  developed  those  peaceful  habits  which  are  acquired  by  the  pursuits  of 
husbandry.  To  this  region  are  attached  other  arable  lands  possessing  a  different 
soil  and  climate,  with  corresponding  animal  and  vegetable  forms,  and  thus  it  came 
about  that  civilised  life  encroached  step  by  step  on  the  vast  domain  stretching  from 
the  Mongolian  wastes  to  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Tonkin.  These  conditions  admitted 
of  much  variety  in  cultivating  the  land,  and  thus  was  trade  developed  between  the 
different  ])rovinces.  All  partial  improvements  reacted  beneficially  on  the  whole  land, 
and  the  general  civilisation  was  easily  promoted  amongst  the  Chinese  themselves 
and  in  the  neighbouring  countries.     Comparing  East  Asia  with  the  Western  world, 


lr 


vhich  may  in 
ia,  the  eastern 
me  great  dis- 
,  between  Kast 
3r  and  Europe 
lury  groups  in 
ver  prolonged 
e  has  by  Carl 
od  with  limbs, 
the  dead  mass 
versity  of  out- 
portant  penin- 
ile  the  land  is 
i.  The  Pacific 
i  Hainan,  and 
c  these  penin- 
nrades,  Greece 
,  itself  a  vast 

)t  therefore  be 
mations.  But 
?at  rivers.  If 
great  streams 
lifications  and 
of  the  advan- 
tze-kiang  and 
lave  served  to 
her  advantage 
ler  one  social 
sh  at  present 
red  bj'  forests 
ist  stretch  of 
ttd  where  were 
16  pursuits  of 
ig  a  different 
I  thus  it  came 
retching  from 
tions  admitted 
rl  between  the 
le  whole  land, 
se  themselves 
'^cstern  world. 


.^'      -"•■ 


■ft 


ISOLATION  OF  CHINA. 


8 


o 

o 


i 


I 


we  ace  how  greatly  (.hina  proper  differs  from  Kurope  in  it«  goographicnl  unify. 
From  the  yellow  lands  of  the  north  to  the  pltiins  tniversed  by  the  Yunf?-tze  on  tho 
Indo-('hincse  frontier  the  people  hud  a  coinnion  centre  of  gravity,  and  their  civil- 
isation was  consequently  developed  more  rapidly  in  that  "  Flowery  liand,"  whence 
it  was  carried  later  on  to  Japan  and  Formosa.  But  how  much  more  distinct  and 
individual  has  been  the  growth  of  culture  in  the  various  regions  of  the  West,  from 
Asia  Minor  to  Great  Britain  and  Ireland !  Greece  cut  off  from  the  rest  of 
Europe  by  moimtain  ranges  still  imperfectly  cxplorwl ;  Italy  so  sharply  limited  by 
its  Alpine  barrier ;  the  Iberian  peninsula  even  more  complctelj'  shut  out  by  the 
almost  impassable  Pyrenees  ;  France  with  its  twofold  drainage  to  tho  Atlantic  and 
jNIediterrunean  ;  the  British  Isles  washed  by  warm  seas  and  wrapi)ed  in  fogs,  all  form 
so  many  geographical  units,  each  of  which  had  to  develop  its  special  civilisation 
l)cfore  a  higher  culture  could  be  formed,  in  the  production  of  which  all  the 
European  nations  took  part.  Without  being  insurmountable,  the  natural  obstacles 
between  the  various  countries  of  Europe  are  greater  than  between  the  different 
provinces  of  East  China,  and  it  was  these  very  obstacles  which,  by  preventing 
political  centriklization  while  permitting  mutual  intercourse,  have  fostered  the 
individual  energies  of  the  Western  races  and  made  them  the  teachers  of  the  rest  of 
mankind. 

Isolation  of  China. 

But  if  the  communications  were  easy  between  the  north  and  south  of  China, 
and  if  the  inhabitants  of  the  mainland  could  without  much  difficulty  cross  the 
narrow  seas  separating  them  from  Formosa  and  Japan,  the  East  Asiatic  world 
seemed,  on  the  other  hand,  almost  entirely  shut  in  from  the  West.  In  prehistoric 
times  the  forefathers  of  the  Chinese,  Hindus,  Chalda^ans,  and  Arabs  must  no  doubt 
have  been  close  neighbours,  maintaining  frequent  relations  with  each  other ;  for 
these  various  peoples  have  inherited  the  same  astronomic  conceptions,  while  the 
coincidences  of  observation  and  views  may  be  traced,  even  in  their  details.  But 
these  mutual  relations,  explaining  a  common  civilisation,  can  only  have  taken  place 
at  a  period  of  greater  humidity  in  the  Old  World,  when  the  now  dried-up  desert 
regions  of  Central  Asia  enabled  the  populations  to  connnunicate  more  freely  together. 
At  that  time  tho  Tarim  basin,  now  hemmed  in  by  the  sands,  still  belonged 
to  the  Aryan  world,  and  the  civilisation  of  its  inhabitants  was  allied  to  that  of 
India.  Since  the  nations  grouped  on  either  slope  of  the  Pamir  were  compelled  to 
advance  farther  down  to  the  plains,  leaving  a  broader  zone  of  deserts  and  steppes 
between  them,  the  centres  of  civilisation  have  been  removed  to  greater  distances 
from  each  other.  That  of  China  has  gradually  approached  the  Pacific,  while  an 
analogous  movement  has  been  going  on  in  an  inverse  direction  west  of  Babylonia 
towards  Asia  Minor  and  Greece.  After  these  centres  thus  Ix-came  isolated,  no 
commercial  intercourse  or  exchange  of  ideas  could  take  i)lace  for  long  ages  between 
the  eastern  and  western  extremities  of  the  continent.  Distant  rumours  alone  kept 
up  the  common  traditions  of  other  nations  dwelling  b(\vond  tho  rivers  and  lakes, 
the  plateaux,  highlands,  forests,  and  deserts,  and  the  inhabitants  of  those  remote 


.,yViir-'^-r--.Kjj'i^^-- 


4  FAST  ASIA. 

rej^ions  were  in  tho  popular  ima}»iiiation  transformed  to  strange  and  terrible  monsters. 
The  two  civilisations  were  independently  developed  at  either  extremity  of  the  con- 
tinent without  exercising  any  mutual  inHuence  one  on  the  other,  following  parallel 
lines,  yot  as  distinct  one  from  the  other  as  if  they  had  been  born  on  two  different 
planets.  There  was  undoubtedly  a  time  when  South  China  had  even  more  frecpient 
relations  with  the  scattered  islands  of  the  South  Sea  than  with  the  western  regions 
Avith  which  it  is  coiniected  by  an  unbroken  continental  mass.  Common  physical 
traits  prove  that  towards  the  south  the  ('hinese  race  has  been  intermingled  with  the 
tribes  peojding  the  oceanic  regions. 

Nevertheless,  the  barrier  of  plateaux  and  highlands  shutting  in  the  Chinese  world 
offers  here  and  there  some  wide  gaps,  some  opening  towards  the  south,  others  in  the 
direction  of  the  north.  Nor  are  the  snowy  ranges  themselves  inaccessible.  Altai, 
Tian-shan,  Tsung-ling,  Kuen-lun,  Nan-ling,  are  all  crossetl  by  tracks,  over  which 
the  trader  makes  his  way  regardless  of  fatigue  and  cold.  The  slopes  of  these 
uplands,  and  oven  the  plateaux,  are  inhabited  to  an  elevation  of  from  10,000  to 
15,000  I'eot,  and  traces  of  the  pennanent  or  passing  presence  of  man  are  everywhere 
met  along  the  route.  IJut  owing  to  their  barbarous  lives  and  rude  political  state 
these  highland  populations  added  a  fresh  obstacle  to  that  presented  by  the  physical 
conditi»ms  to  free  international  inten-ourse.  The  unity  of  the  Old  World  was 
finally  established  when  the  Europeans  of  the  West,  by  means  of  the  sea  route,  esta- 
blished direct  relations  with  the  peoples  of  the  eastern  seaboard.  But  before  that 
time  direct  communications  even  between  the  Yang-tze  and  Amur  basins  across 
the  barbarous  populations  of  the  intervening  plateaux  took  place  only  at  rare  inter- 
vals, and  were  due  as  much  to  the  great  convulsions  of  the  Asiatic  peoples  as  to 
the  growing  expansive  power  of  the  Chinese  political  system.  But  such  rare  and 
irregular  international  movements  had  but  little  influence  on  the  life  of  the  Chinese 
nation.  For  thousands  of  years  this  race,  being  almost  completely  isolated  from 
the  rest  of  mankind,  was  thrown  back  on  its  own  resources  in  working  out  its  natural 
development. 

Intercourse  with  India  and  Europe. 

The  first  great  internal  revolution  of  China  took  place  at  the  time  of  the  intro- 
duction of  the  Indian  religious  ideas.  However  difficult  it  may  be  to  interpret  the 
ancient  doctrine  of  Lao-tze,  there  can  be  scarcely  any  doubt  that  it  was  affected  by 
Hindu  influence.  Some  of  his  precepts  are  identical  in  form  with  those  of  the 
sacred  writings  of  the  Buddhists,  and  all  are  imbued  with  the  same  sentiment  of 
hunumity  and  universal  philanthropy.  Nor  does  Lao-tze  ever  cite  the  leading 
characters  of  Chinese  history  as  models  of  virtue  or  as  examples  to  be  followed,  so 
that  the  body  of  his  doctrines  is  associated  by  no  traditional  ties  with  the  past 
annals  of  his  country.  According  to  the  unanimous  tradition  he  travelled  in  the 
regions  lying  to  the  west  of  China,  and  the  pojndar  legend  ixunts  to  the  Khotau 
highlands  as  the  place  whence  he  was  lM»rne  heavenwaifls. 

The  barrier  raiscfl  by  the  mountains,  plateaux,  and  their  barbarous  inhabitants 
between  China  and  India  was  so  difficult  to  be  crossed  that  the  comnninications 


INTERCOURSE  WITH  INDIA  AND  EUROPE. 


e  monsters. 
)f  the  con- 
ng  piirullel 
o  different 
re  frequent 
3m  regions 
•n  physical 
h\  with  the 

inese  world 
hers  in  the 
)lo.  Altai, 
over  which 
?8  of  these 
10,000  to 
jverywhero 
litical  state 
le  physical 
World  was 
route,  esta- 
before  that 
.sins  across 
rare  inter- 
oples  as  to 
h  rare  and 
he  Chinese 
lated  from 
;  its  natural 


'  the  intro- 
terpret  the 
affected  by 
lose  of  the 
ntiment  of 
be  leading 
ollowed,  so 
b  the  past 
'lied  in  the 
he  Khotau 

nhabitunts 
lunications 


betw(  t  II  the  two  countries  were  effected  by  a  detour  through  the  Oxus  basin.  The 
Buddhist  religion  itself  was  not  propagated  directly,  and  penetrated  into  the  empire 
not  from  the  south,  but  from  the  west.  During  the  periods  of  its  peaceful  expan- 
sion China  included  the  Tarim  basin,  and  maintained  free  intercourse  with  the  ( >xus 
basin  over  the  Pamir  passes.  At  that  t' ne  traders  followed  the  famous  "Silk 
Highway,"  which  was  also  known  to  the  Greeks,  and  it  was  by  this  or  other  routes 
across  the  plateaux  that  were  introduced  the  rich  products  of  Southern  Asia,  as 
well  as  the  more  or  less  legendary  reports  of  the  marvellous  region  of  the  Ganges. 
The  same  road  was  also  followed  by  the  liuddhist  ])ilgrims.  After  three  centuries 
of  religious  propaganda  the  new  faith  was  finally  established  in  the  country  of  Con- 
fucius, and  received  official  recognition  in  the  sixty-fifth  year  of  the  new  era. 
Ihiddhism  found  favour  with  the  Chinese  people  from  its  pompous  rites,  the  rich 
ornaments  of  its  temples,  the  poetry  of  the  symbolic  lotus  blooming  in  the  midst  of 
the  waters.  It  also  pleased  them,  because  it  opened  up  vistas  of  those  magnificent 
Southern  lands  hitherto  concealed  from  their  gaze  by  the  intervening  snowy  ranges 
and  plateaux.  But  after  all  the  Fo-Kino,  or  worship  of  Buddha,  changed  little  in 
the  social  life  of  China.  The  ceremonial  was  modified,  but  the  substance  remained 
much  the  same.  Whatever  be  the  sacred  emblems,  the  religion  that  has  survived 
is  still  that  which  is  associated  with  the  rites  in  honour  of  ancestry,  with  the 
conjuring  of  evil  spirits,  and  especially  with  the  strict  observance  of  the  old 
traditional  formulas. 

But  at  any  rate  the  relations  established  between  China  and  Hindustan  during 
the  period  of  Buddhist  propagandism  were  never  again  completely  interrupted,  and 
from  that  time  China  has  no  longer  remained,  even  for  Europeans,  excluded  from 
the  limits  of  the  known  world.  Communication  by  sea  was  kept  up  between  India 
and  South  China,  especially  through  the  Gulf  of  Tonkin.  Even  two  hundred  years 
before  the  vulgar  era  an  emperor  had  sent  a  whole  fleet  to  the  Sunda  Islands  to 
cull  the  "  flower  of  inmiortality."  Later  on,  other  vessels  were  sent  to  Ceylon  in 
search  of  relics,  sacred  writings,  statues  of  Buddha,  and  besides  these  things 
brought  back  rich  textiles,  gems,  precious  stones,  taking  thtm  in  exchange  for  their 
silks,  porcelains,  and  enamelled  vases.  This  route  was  also  followed  by  the 
embassies,  amongst  others  by  that  which,  according  to  the  Chinese  annals,  came 
from  the  great  Tsin ;  that  is  to  say,  from  Rome,  sent  by  the  Emperor  An-tun 
(Aurelius  Antoninus)  in  the  year  106  of  the  Christian  era. 

In  the  seventh  century,  when  the  Chinese  Empire,  after  a  series  of  disasters  and 
internal  convulsions,  resumed  its  expansive  force  and  shone  with  renewed  splendour, 
at  the  very  time  when  Europe  had  again  lapsed  into  barbarism,  exploring  exjjcdi- 
tions  became  still  more  numerous.  China  now  took  the  lead,  and  the  pilgrim, 
H'wen-Tsang,  whose  itinerary  in  Central  Asia  has  since  been  rivalled  oidy  by 
Marco  Polo,  was  a  true  explorer  in  the  modern  sense  of  the  term.  His  writings, 
embodied  in  the  annals  of  the  Tang  dynasty,  have  a  special  value  for  the  geography 
of  Centnd  Asia  and  India  in  mediaeval  times,  and  their  importance  is  fully  appre- 
ciated by  European  savants.  Thanks  to  the  Chinese  documents,  it  has  been  found 
possible  to  determine  with  some  certainty  the  whole  of  his  itinerary,  even  in  those 


'i!7i»ifsits>'*:f 


I  I 


!  I 


I  ' 


I  I 


0  EAST  ASIA. 

"Snowy  Mountains,"  \\hert'  travellers aro  ex])o,se(l  to  the  attacks  of  the  "dragons," 
tliose  niystie,  animals  which  may  possibly  symbolize  nothing  more  than  the  sufferings 
entailed  by  snow  and  ice.  Like  the  other  Huddhist  pilgrims  of  this  epoch,  Il'wen- 
Tsang  skirted  the  Tibetan  plateaux,  where  the  liuddhist  religion  had  oidy  just  l)een 
introduced,  and  reached  India  through  the  Oxus  valley  and  Afghanistan.  Hut 
some  twenty  years  after  his  return,  in  (i()7  or  008,  (^hinese  armies  had  already 
traversed  Tibet  and  N(>])al,  thus  pem>trating  directly  into  India,  where  they  cap- 
tured ov(>r  six  hundred  towns.  At  this  time  the  Chinese  Empire  comjjrised,  with 
the  ti'ilmtary  states,  not  only  the  whole  depression  of  Eastern  Asia,  but  also  all  the 

Fig.  1.— Itinehauy  ok  II'wen-Tsano. 

Snalp  1  ;  !W,0On,OOn. 


0  to  10,000  Fee;. 


m2^ 

10,000  to  10,600  Kpot. 


"J 


\%T-fXS  Feet  and  upwiu'ds. 
—  COO  Milea 


outer  slopes  of  the  highlands  and  plateaux  surrounding  it  as  far  as  the  Caspian. 
It  was  also  during  this  period  that  the  Nestorian  missionaries  introduced  Chris- 
tianity into  the  empire. 

The  progress  of  Islam  in  the  west  of  Asia  and  along  the  shores  of  the  Medi- 
terranean necessarily  isolated  China,  and  long  rendered  all  communication  with 
Europe  impossible.  But  in  the  northern  regions  of  the  Mongolian  steppes  warlike 
tribes  were  already  preparing  for  conquest,  and  thanks  to  their  triumphant  march 
westwards  to  the  I)nie])er,  they  opened  up  fresh  routes  for  explorers  across  the  whole 
of  the  Old  World.     In  oi-der  to  protect  themselves  from  these  northern  children  of 


-.■--rftrr:!«*,-(;ffKSS^>>-p  ._4f^-^;ff^^^tc-^f^,^igg-^ 


INTERCOURSE  WITH  INDIA  AND  EUROPE. 


"  dragons," 
lie  Butforings 
oeh,  H'wen- 
»ly  just  l)con 
listan.  ]{ut 
hud  idroudy 
re  they  ciii)- 
iprised,  with 
:  ultMi  ull  the 


40' 


m 


w 

m 
m 


'4i 


the  Caspian, 
duced  Chris- 

of  the  Mefli- 
icution  with 
ppes  warlike 
phant  march 
388  the  whole 
1  children  of 


the  steppe,  the  Chinese  emperors  hud  already  raised,  rebuilt,  and  doubled  witli  parallel 
lines  that  prodigious  rampart  of  the  "  (Jreat  Wall  "  whieh  stretches  for  thousands 
of  miles  between  the  steppe  and  the  cultivated  lands  of  the  south.  Curbed  by  this 
barrier  erected  between  two  physically  ditferent  regions  and  two  hostile  societies, 
tli(>  nomads  had  passed  westwards,  where  the  land  lay  open  before  them,  and  the 
onward  movement  was  gradually  propagated  across  the  continent.  In  the  fourth 
and  fifth  centuries  a  general  (convulsion  had  hurled  on  the  West  those  conquering 
hordes  collectively  known  as  Huns;  in  the  twelfth  century  an  analogous  movement 
urged  the  Mongols  forward  under  a  new  Attila.  Holding  the  Zungarian  passtw, 
which  gave  easy  access  from  the  eastern  to  the  western  regions  of  Asia,  Jenghiz 
Khan  might  have  at  once  advanced  westward.  But  being  reluctant  to  leave  any 
obstacle  in  his  rear,  he  first  crossed  the  Great  Wall  and  seized  l*ekin,  and  then 
turned  his  arms  against  the  AVestern  states.  At  the  period  of  its  greatest  extent 
the  Mongolian  Empire,  probably  the  largest  that  ever  existed,  stretched  from  the 
I'acific  seaboard  to  the  Russian  steppes. 

The  existence  of  the  Chinese  world  was  revealed  to  Europe  by  these  fresh 
arrivals  from  the  East,  with  whom  the  Western  powers,  after  the  first  conflicts, 
entered  into  friendly  relations  by  means  of  embassies,  treaties,  and  alliances  against 
the  common  enemy,  Islam.  The  Eastern  Asiatic  Empire  was  even  long  known  to 
them  by  the  Tatar  name  of  Cathay,  which  under  the  form  of  Kitai  is  still  current 
amongst  the  Russians.  Envoys  from  the  Pope  and  the  King  of  France  set  out  to 
visit  the  Great  Khan  in  his  court  at  Karakorum,  in  Mongolia ;  and  Plan  dc  Carpin, 
Rubruk,  and  others  brought  back  marvellous  accounts  of  what  they  had  seen  in 
those  distant  regions.  European  traders  and  artisans  followed  in  the  steps  of  these 
envoys,  and  Marco  I'olo,  one  of  these  merchants,  was  the  first  who  really  revealed 
China  to  Europe.  Henceforth  this  country  enters  definitely  into  the  known  world, 
and  begins  to  participate  in  the  general  onward  movement  of  mankind. 

Marco  Polo  had  penetrated  into  China  from  the  west  by  first  following  the 
beaten  tracks  which  start  from  the  Mediterranean  seaboard.  Columbus,  still  more 
daring,  hoped  to  reach  the  shores  of  Cathay  and  the  gold  mines  of  Zipaugo  by  sailing 
round  the  globe  in  the  opixisite  direction  from  that  taken  by  the  great  Venetian. 
But  arrested  on  his  route  by  the  New  World,  he  reached  neither  China  nor  Japan, 
although  he  long  believed  in  the  success  of  his  voyage  to  Eastern  Asia.  But  others 
continued  the  work  of  circumnavigation  begun  by  him.  Del  Cano,  companion 
of  Magellan,  returned  to  Portugal,  whence  he  hud  set  out,  thus  completing  the 
circumnavigation  of  the  globe.  All  the  seas  had  now  been  explored,  and  it  was 
possible  to  reach  China  by  Cape  Horn  as  well  as  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 
Notwithstanding  the  determined  opposition  of  the  Pekin  Government  to  the  entrance 
of  foreigners,  the  empire  was  virtually  open,  and  within  two  hundred  and  fifty 
years  of  this  event  China  and  Japan,  which  had  never  ceased  to  be  regularly  visited 
by  European  traders,  were  obliged  to  open  their  seaports,  and  even  to  grunt  certain 
strips  of  land  on  their  coast,  where  the  Western  nations  have  already  raised  cities 
in  the  European  taste.     The  conquest  may  be  said  to  have  already  begun. 


^'^>r^r^r^mfy 


^ff^^na^-,  v^^s^i.  J 


-    HIWrMW 


In 


I 


'i|    ! 


8 


EAST  ASIA. 


FoKKiox  Influence — Rishian  Encuoachmen'I's. 


Tho  power  of  the  Wostorn  states  has  even  made  itself  felt  l)y  the  tempornry 
oecupution  of  the  (!hiiiese  capital  and  the  suck  of  the  imperial  pulaees.  It,  hus 
been  revealed  still  more  by  the  support  j^iven  by  the  Mnglish  and  Kreneh  allies  to 
the  Chinese  (ioveinment  aj^uinst  internal  revolt.  AVhilst  tho  Kuroi)ean  troops  were 
storminj?  the  l*ei-ho  forts,  oceiipyinji;  Tientsin,  and  driving  the  Emperor  from  IVkin, 
other  KuniDcans  were  arresting  the  Taiping  relxds  ut  the  gates  of  Shanghai  and 
barring  their  approach  to  the  seu.     At  the  same  time  the  Russians  kept  a  garrison 

Fig.  2.— Knckoachmbntb  op  Ariatic  RusaiA  on  Ciii.sa. 

SoiUe  1  :  80,000,000. 


L'liine8e  tarritoiy, 

occoi-dinv  to  the  Tientjr 

I  f  Nerahinsk. 


'Jen Korjr  held  by  China 

before  the  annexation 

to  Siberia. 


.000  Miles. 


in  Urga  to  curb  tho  Diingalns,  and  it  was  probably  this  intervention  of  the  Western 
powers  that  saved  the  Tsing  dynasty.  The  integrity  of  the  empire  was  upheld, 
but  only  because  the  Europeans  were  interested  in  its  maintenance.  By  merely 
folding  their  arms  China  would  probably  have  been  .split  into  two,  if  not  three  or 
four,  fragments.  No  doubt  its  unity  seems  at  present  unexposed  to  danger  from  the 
west,  but  on  its  northern  frontier  Russia  is  continually  gathering  strength,  and  is 
already  cohterminous  with  it  for  a  distance  of  nearly  5,000  miles,  more  than 
half  of  this  line  running  through  countries  formerly  subject  to  the  "  Children  of 
Heaven."  The  temiwrary  and  permanent  annexations  of  Russia  in  Kulja  belonged 
till  recently  to  China,  and  the  same  is  true  of  Transbaikalia  and  the  whole  Amur 


-*..w^-«faK».w^flfct-,.wja««.aKfsa<g5ijjjr;,^ 


UIVALUY  OF  THE  KA8TKUN  AND  WKHTKUN  KACKS. 


the  tempornry 
tliuros.  It,  hua 
KrtMU'li  ulHc>.s  to 
L'un  troops  were 
ror  from  IV'kin, 

Shuiij^luii  and 
kept  u  gurrinon 


v-\^\^- 


V!>Moy  us  fur  us  the  rcindcHT  pastures  of  llio  Nortliorn  Tiin^rusrs.  At  prcsoiit  all  tlic 
rf^'.oii  uloiif;  till-  loft  Imiik,  lur;,'(>r  than  the  \vlioI.>  of  Kruiicc.  forms  an  intogrul  part 
of  .SilH'ria.  Lastly,  tin-  Mancliuriuii  soulxiard  as  far  as  the  Corcan  frontier  lias 
hccome  Russian,  and  iis  southern  i»orts,  distant  two  days  by  steum  from  -Japan, 
stand  on  waters  now  known  as  the  (iulf  of  Peter  the  Great,  as  if  to  renjind  the  world 
that  the  empire  of  the  Czars  is  as  aj,'f,'ressive  in  the  east  as  in  the  west.  At  the 
slightest  diphanatie  imbroglio,  or  whenever  the  dignity  of  Uussiu  nniy  rnpiire  her 
to  muke  u  military  promenade  in  the  Chinese  waters,  she  may  easily  seize  the  nu)st 
convenient  port  on  the  Corean  coast,  and  lH>re  found  a  naval  arsenal  still 
more  fonnidublo  than  that  of  Vladivost»)k,  commanding  ut  once  the  entry  to  th(>  Sco 
of  Japan,  the  mouth  of  the  Yung-lze,  and  the  inland  Japanese  waters.  Notwith- 
standing the  tinanciul  embarrassment  of  thcGovernment,  the  periwlical  famine  and 
droughts,  and  the  abject  misery  of  the  masses,  the  resources  of  the  State  arc  still 
disposed  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  her  great  power  for  aggressive  purposes.  Iler 
military  strength,  even  5,000  nnles  from  the  cujjital,  is  superior  to  that  of 
China  and  Japan  in  their  own  domain.  In  spite  of  its  stockades  and  forts  armed 
with  steel  guns,  IVkin  is  probably  as  much  at  the  mercy  of  Russia  as  it  recently 
was  of  the  Knglish  and  French  allies.  Its  position  is  extremely  exposed.  S<»  long 
as  it  hud  nothing  to  fear  except  from  Mongolian  inroads  or  local  revolts  it  held  an 
excellent  strategical  position  near  the  fortified  ranges  protecting  it  tnmi  the  north, 
not  far  from  the  Great  Cunal  whence  it  drew  its  supplies,  and  at  no  gieat  distance 
from  the  ]\Ianchu  tribes,  ever  ready  at  the  first  signal  to  luisten  to  the  succour  of 
their  threatcn-xl  fellow-countrymen.  But  the  security  of  the  empire  may  now  bo 
menaced  by  far  more  formidable  enemies  than  Mongolian  nomads  or  Taiping 
fanatics,  and  in  case  of  a  Ilusso-Chinese  war  the  troijps  of  the  (^zar  would  no  doubt 
land  near  the  capital.  Notwithstanding  the  recent  military  equipments  and 
improved  discipline,  the  army  of  the  "  brave  and  ever  victorious  "  could  scarcely 
hope  for  success  so  long  as  the  State  refuses  to  place  a  railway  system  at  its  service. 
But  this  innovation  may  soon  be  intro<luced,  while  a  change  of  system  and  well- 
chosen  alliances  might  also  bring  about  u  shifting  of  equilibrium  in  the  respective 
forces  of  the  two  empires. 


of  the  Western 
re  was  upheld, 
B.  By  merely 
,  if  not  three  or 
langer  from  the 
jtrength,  and  is 
les,  more  than 
e  "  Children  of 
Eulja  belongcfl 
he  whole  Amur 


Rivalry  of  the  Eastern  and  AVesterx  Races. 

But  whatever  be  the  political  and  military  destinies  of  China  and  Japan,  the 
concert  of  the  Eastern  and  Western  nations  is  henceforth  an  accomplished  fact. 
Through  the  interchange  of  produce,  the  travels  of  Europeans  in  the  Mongolian 
world,  of  Chinese  and  Japanese  in  Europe  and  America,  and  permanent  migrations, 
the  various  civilisations  have  been  brought  into  mulaal  contact.  AVhat  arms  have 
failed  to  do  is  being  far  more  efficaciously  accomplished  by  free  commercial  inter- 
course ;  nor  can  further  advances  be  any  longer  prevented  by  political  frontiers, 
diversity  of  speech,  traditions,  laws,  and  customs.  AVhile  European  quarters  are 
springing  up  in  the  cities  of  China  and  Japan,  Chinese  villages  are  appearing 
in  the  United  States,  Peru,  and  Australia;  and  Chinese  coimting-houses  have 
34 


■:  --"jgflewy^r^^-is-JFW"! 


J II 


Ml 


n 


i 


! 


11'  I 


I 


EAST  ASIA. 

ulrcady  l><'*'ii  opciu-*!  in  liOiulon  and  New  York.  Tt»  fhow  outward  Mijfiis  corrcsiMHid 
pndouiKl  internal  niiHlitinitions.  Tlit.>n>  i.s  an  intcirlian^c  of  idtuiH  an  well  nn  of 
cotnnioditics,  and  tlic  juMtpicH  ol'  the  Kast  and  West  hoj^in  to  underntand  oaeh  other, 
and  eons('(|nently  In  perceive  how  niiieh  ihey  have  in  eoninion.  The  world  Iium 
heeonie  |oi»  narrow  to  allow  ol'  any  lurlher  isi»late<l  evolutions  of  eulture  in  si-parate 
^eo;fraplii('al  areas  without  hlendin^'  in  u  >,'eneral  civilisation  of  a  hi^dier  order. 
The  Kuropean  and  Asiatic  races  formerly  dwelt  altogether  apart  ;  now  the  United 
States  of  America  have  Inst-n  pe«)ple(l  by  enii^;rants  who  have  made  this  region 
another  Kurope  ;  and  thus  it  is  that  the  Chinem^  nation  now  finds  it.self  hennned  in 
between  two  Kurojjes — those  of  the  (Jld  and  New  T'ontinents.  From  east  and  west 
conu>  the  same  types  and  ideas,  and  a  continuous  current  8et8  from  people  to  people 
around  the  globe,  across  seas  and  continents. 

The  historic  period  on  which  mankiiul  is  now  entering,  through  the  definite 
union  of  the  Kastern  and  Western  worlds,  is  pregiumt  with  great  events.  As  the 
rutHed  sin-face  of  the  water  seeks  its  level  by  the  force  of  gravity,  so  the  conditions 
tend  to  balance  themselves  in  the  labour  nuirketH.  Considered  merely  as  the  owner 
of  a  ])air  of  hands,  man  is  himself  as  much  a  commodity  as  is  the  produce  of  his 
labour.  The  industries  of  all  nations,  drawn  more  and  more  into  the  struggle  for 
cxisti'uce,  seek  to  produce  cheaply  by  purchasing  at  the  lowest  price  the  raw 
material  and  the  "  hands  "  to  work  it  up.  But  where  will  manufacturing  states 
like  those  of  New  England  find  more  skilful  and  frugal — that  is,  less  expensive — 
hands  than  those  of  the  extreme  East  ?  Where  will  the  great  agricultural  farms, 
like  those  of  Minnesota  and  AVisconsin,  find  more  tractable  gangs  of  labourers, 
more  painstaking  and  less  exacting,  than  those  from  the  banks  of  the  8i-kiang  or 
Yang-tze?  Europeans  arc  amazed  at  the  industry,  skill,  intelligence,  spirit  of 
order,  and  thrift  displayed  by  the  working  element  in  China  and  Japan.  lu  the 
workshops  and  arsenals  of  the  seaports  the  most  delicate  operations  may  be  safely 
intrusted  to  ( -hinese  hands ;  while  eye-witnesses  bear  unanimous  testimony  to  the 
superior  intelligence  and  instruction  of  the  peasantry  over  the  corresponding  classes 
in  I'jurope.  If  the  Chinese  gardeners  have  not  modified  their  system  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  coast  factories,  it  is  only  because  they  have  had  nothing  to 
learn  from  the  stranger. 

The  struggle  between  white  and  yellow  labour — a  struggle  whicn  threatens  to  set 
the  two  hemispheres  by  the  ears — has  even  already  begun  in  certain  new  districts 
where  JOuropean  and  Asiatic  immigrants  meet  on  common  ground.  In  California,  New 
South  Wales,  Queensland,  and  Victoria  the  white  labourers  have  had  to  compete 
in  most  of  their  trades  with  the  Chinese,  and  the  streets,  workshops,  farms,  and 
mines  have  been  the  scenes  of  frequent  bloodshed,  occasioned  less  by  national 
hatred  than  by  international  rivalry  in  the  labour  market.  Continued  over  a  whole 
generation,  this  social  warfare  has  already  cost  more  lives  than  a  pitched  battle : 
it  even  increases  in  virulence  as  the  competition  grows  more  fierce.  Hitherto  the 
white  element  has  had  the  best  of  it  in  California  and  Australia.  With  large 
majorities  in  the  legislatures,  they  have  triumphed  over  the  manufacturers, 
farmers,  and  contractors,  whose  interest  it  is  to  secure  cheap  labour;  and  they 


--»-.rvr*-r.,.,„,^-.,,35^^,,,^^^..^^^^^^_ 


UIVAMIY  OF  TIIK  EARTOUN  ANP  WKSTKKN  IIACKH. 


11 


Its   will     tlH    <»f 

1(1  i«iich  nthcr, 
III-  world  has 
pt«  in  Hi>i>anito 
lii^rliiT  oriU-r. 
iw  the  United 
I'  this  iTgion 
If  lu-nmu-d  in 
oust  and  west 
opK'  to  people 

h  the  definite 
,ents.     As  the 
the  eonditiona 
y  us  the  owner 
produce  of  his 
lie  struggle  for 
price  the  raw 
iicturiug  states 
8s  cxijensivc — 
cultural  farms, 
8  of  labourers, 
he  Si-kiang  or 
fence,  spirit  of 
Japan.     In  the 
s  may  be  safely 
jstimony  to  the 
ponding  classes 
system  in  the 
had  nothing  to 

threatens  to  set 
lin  new  districts 
Calil'ornia.New 
had  to  compete 
ops,  farms,  and 
ess  by  national 
led  over  a  whole 

pitched  battle : 

Hitherto  the 

ia.     With  large 

manufacturers, 
ibour;  and  they 


have  passed  liiws  throwing  difficiiltios  iu  the  way  of  rhiiiesr  coolie  ininiigratinn, 
constituting  this  olcnirnt  ii  distinrt  and  <ipprt>ss(i|  rlii>s,  witli<iiil  riglits  ul' ijii/rn- 
ship.  IWit  such  warliM'c  cuts  liolli  ways.  \  uiitiuislu'd  in  niic  (|iiinl('i'.  (In- ( 'liiiiisc 
worknuMi  nuiy  prevail  in  another  witii  the  aid  of  the  capitalists  and  Irgislntive 
InhUcs;  and  the  free  admission  of  ChincM'  hands  into  the  workshop  would  ulti- 
mately involve  the  extinction  of  their  white  rivals.  The  Chinese  immigrants  need 
not  even  gain  access  to  the  Kuropean  and  American  factories  in  order  to  lower  the 
rate  of  wages  generally.  It  will  suflice  to  I'stahlish  cotton,  woollen,  and  similar 
industries  throughout  the  Kast,tli(>  products  of  which  might  soon  compete  nuccess- 
fully  with  the  h)cal  numufactures  in  the  Wtst.  Hence,  from  the  economic  point 
of  view,  the  definite  cimccrt  of  the  Mongolian  and  white  races  invtdves  conse(|uences 
of  supreme  importance.  The  balance  will  d«)ul)tless  Im?  idtinuit(>ly  cstablislied,  and 
humanity  will  learn  to  adapt  itself  to  the  new  destinies  secured  to  it  by  a  connnon 
possession  of  the  whole  worhl.  Hut  during  the  transition  ])eriod  gnat  disasters 
nnist  be  anticipated  in  a  utruggle  in  which  upwards  of  a  billion  of  hunmn  beings 
will  be  directly  engaged.  In  |)oint  of  numbers  the  civilised  element  in  KurojM) 
und  America  is  about  ecpial  to  that  of  Must  Asia.  On  either  side  hundreds  of 
millions  stand  uvrayed  against  each  other,  impelled  by  opposing  interests,  and 
incapable  as  yet  of  understanding  the  higher  advantages  of  a  common  human 
«!oneert. 

For  the  antagonism  of  East  and  West  flows  as  much  from  the  contrast  of  ideas 
and  morals  as  from  the  opiM)sition  of  immediate  interests.  lU'tween  the  moral 
standards  of  Europeans  and  Chinese,  both  of  whom  have  a  certain  personal  self- 
respect,  the  ideal  is  not  the  same,  and  their  c(mcei)tion  of  duty,  if  not  contradictory, 
is  at  least  different.  This  moral  conti'ast  reappears,  in  a  more  or  less  conscious 
form,  in  the  nations  themselves.  It  will,  howeviT,  doubtless  be  partly  neutralised 
by  intercourse,  instruction,  and,  hero  and  there,  by  intennixture.  The  civilisations 
will  be  mutually  influenced,  not  only  in  their  outer  aspects,  but  also  in  their 
tendencies,  and  the  very  ideas  which  are  their  true  controlling  force.  It  has  often  been 
remarked  that  Europeans  look  forward,  while  the  Chinese  look  backward  ;  but  the 
statement  is  too  general,  for  society  is  everywhere  decomposed  into  two  groups — 
one  continually  renewed  by  ceaselessly  striving  to  improve  its  destinies  ;  the  other, 
through  fear  of  the  future,  falling  back  on  tradition.  The  frequent  civil  wars  in 
China,  and  notably  the  recent  insurrection  of  the  Taipings,  or  "Great  Pacifiers,"  show- 
that  beneath  the  official  world,  wedded  to  the  old  ways  and  seeking  its  golden  age 
in  the  past,  there  seethes  a  fiery  element  which  does  not  fear  the  ri.sk  of  facing  the 
unknown.  If  the  Chinese  Government  has  for  ages  succeeded  in  holding  fast  by 
the  traditional  forms,  if  the  disasters  of  Tatar  conquest  and  intestine  convulsions  have 
but  slightly  affected  the  outward  framework  of  society,  it  is  none  the  less  true  that 
the  Eastern  world  will  now  have  to  learn  from  European  civilisation  not  only 
new  industrial  methods,  but  especially  a  new  conception  of  human  culture.  Its 
very  existence  depends  upon  the  necessity  of  shifting  its  moral  stand-point. 


vrztg 


■  ■K^SiX-Tf^^'-'V^*^ 


IB 


l'.A.ST  ASIA. 


Fin  hi;  IMiiisPKcis. 


'hi 


lliif  it  iiiuy  !'«'  iiskod,  Will  iiol  tlic  idt-iil  (»f  tho  <Mihiirc<l  wliitc  rnroH  l)r  nlwi 
Nliil'ltil  y  NVIicii  two  «'lcmciits  conif  to)j;ctli('r,  iMttli  iirc  MiimiltaiiiDiiHlv  iiuMJilicd ; 
when  two  rivers  iiiiii^rU>  their  Htr«>aiiis,  tlie  limpid  wiitern  of  tlie  oiu>  are  troiiiiled  Ity 
llie  tiii-i>iil  elements  of  tin;  other,  uiul  neither  ever  apiin  recovers  its  primitive  eon- 
(lition.  Will  the  eonttict  of  these  two  «'ivilisations  in  tlu-  same  way  result  in 
raisinjjf  tho  one  and  lowering;  \\w  other h  Will  the  projrress  of  the  Mast  Ih»  attended 
by  11  t'orrespondinj^  retroj^rade  movement  in  the  West  J*  Are  eomin^^  j^eneratioiiH 
<h<Ntined  to  pass  thron;;;h  a  period  like  that  of  niedia-val  times,  in  which  Komaii 
civilisation  was  eclipsed,  while  the  I'arharians  wt're  horn  to  a  new  lijijht  Y  I'rophets 
of  evil  have  already  raised  a  cry  of  alarm.  After  speiidin;;  years  in  the  interior  of 
('hina,  traveUers  like  Ilichthofen,  Armaud  David,  Vasilyev,  have  returned  full  of 
terror  at  those  formiihihle  multitudes  swarmin>jf  in  the  vast  empir(<.  They  ask 
thems<'lves  what  these  hosts  may  not  do  when  disciplined  and  hurled  hy  victorious 
leaders  aj^ainst  the  Kuropean  world.  May  they  not,  under  other  conditions,  renew 
the  .Mon;;olian  invasions  when,  armed  with  the  same  weapons,  hut  more  united 
than  the  Western  peoples,  tln'y  will  he  marshalle<I  hy  a  second  Jenjjhiz  Khan  ^ 
I'Varinjf  lest  in  the  "  struj^gle  for  existence  "  the  ('hinese  may  easily  become  our 
masters,  certain  writers  buvocvon  seriously  urf!;ed  that  the  Kuropean  ])overs  should 
retrace  their  steps,  clost>  the  ports  already  opened  to  connnerce,  and  CiUleavour  to 
confine  tlie  Chinese  to  their  former  seclusion  and  ifj;norance.  Others  are  rejoicinj^ 
that  the  ("hinese  nation  are  becotnin<;  slu^fj;ish  under  the  iufluenee  of  opium,  which 
prevents  it  fnmi  recof^nisinp;  its  own  strenj^th.  "Hut  for  opium,"  says  Vasilyev, 
"  China  would  sooner  or  later  overrun  tho  whole  world — would  stifle  Kuropo  and 
Anu>ricu  in  its  embrace." 

But  it  is  now  too  lato  to  attempt  to  separate  the  Kast  and  West.  With  tho 
exception  of  Tibet,  Corea,  and  a  few  remote  highlands,  Kast  Asia  henceforth  forma 
])art  of  the  open  world.  What  will  be  the  consequences  for  humanity  of  this 
accession  of  half  a  billi(m  of  human  beinj>:8  to  the  general  nu)vcnu>nt  of  history  ? 
No  more  serious  (piestion  can  l)e  asked.  Hence  too  much  importan(!e  cannot  Ik) 
ntta<'hed  to  the  study  of  the  Far  East  and  of  the  "  yellow  "  races,  which  must  one 
day  play  so  great  u  part  in  the  future  development  of  human  culture. 


I 


-  *»■  4^  ,1,  --w^wt  fi-^v* ,  .-s-rn*  -,■  i^»v«  ?»wrTOTwn.-Wr«*- 


races  !»<>  also 
inIv  iiiiMlitinl ; 
re  truiihird  Ity 
|»riiiiitiv('  luu- 
wiiy  result   ill 
st  he  attended 
i>r  ^jcneiatioiiN 
whicli  Uoiiiiin 
it?     Priipliets 
the  interittr  of 
I'tiinied  full  of 
re.     They  ask 
I  hy  vietoriouH 
ulitioiiM,  renew 
it  more  united 
en^;lliz  Khan  ? 
ly  hc(roino  our 
pov  ers  Hhouhl 
d  Oiideavoiir  to 
[•H  are  rejoicing 
t'  opium,  which 
'  Huy«  Vusily(>v, 
flo  Europe  and 

?st.  With  tljc 
L<nceforth  forms 
nnimity  of  this 
ent  of  history  ? 
tanco  cannot  be 
which  must  one 


niAI'TEU  TI. 

THE  CIIINKSK  KMl'IltE. 


r.— TIUKT. 

EYOXT)  the  "  >[id(ne  Kin^j^doni  "  tlie  Chinoso  Kinpiro  enihraces  vast 
f(><,'i(»iis,  with  a  joint  area  more  extensive  than  that  of  C'liina  proper. 
It  inchicU's  Tibet,  tlieTarim,  and  Kiiku-nor  basins,  tlieuiiland  valleys 
drainiii},'  to  Lake  Halkhash,  Zuiif,'aria,  Mon;,'olia,  Maiicliuria,  and 
tlio  ishinds  of  l-'oriiiosa  and  Hainan.  It  also  claims  as  tributaries 
the  Horean  iieiiinsula,  and  even,  on  the  southern  sh.pe  of  the  irimalayas,  Nepal  and 
Hhutun,  lands  which  belonj,',  at  least  geo^'raphicully,  to  India.  All  these  countries, 
while  reco)>:nisin<,'  the  common  supremacy  of  Chinu,  are  severally  distinj,Miished  l)y 
their  physical  features,  the  institutions  and  habits  of  their  inhabitants.  Hut  none 
of  them  have,  in  recent  times,  so  effectually  repelled  foreij,Mi  influences  as  Tib(<t,  which 
is  still  what  China  formerly  was — an  almost  inaccessible  land.  In  this  respect  it 
may  be  said  to  represent  tradition,  henceforth  lost  by  most  of  the  other  East  Asiatic 
states. 

NoMKNCLATITRE. 

The  name  of  Tibet  is  applied  not  only  to  the  south-west  portion  of  the  Chinese 
Empire,  but  also  to  more  than  half  of  Kashmir  occupied  l)y  peoples  of  Tibetan 
ori<rin.  These  regions  of  "  Little  Tibet "  and  of  "  Apricot  Tibet  "—so  called  from 
tlie  orchards  surrounding  its  villages — consist  of  deep  valleys  opening  like  troughs 
between  the  snowy  Himalayan  and  Karakorum  ranges.  Draining  towards  India, 
these  uplands  have  gradually  been  brought  under  Hindu  influences,  whereas  Tibet 
proper  has  pursued  a  totally  different  career.  It  is  variously  known  as  "  Great," 
tlie  "  Third,"  or  "  East  Tibet ;"  but  such  is  the  confusion  of  nomenclature  that  the 
expression  "Great  Tibet  "  is  also  applied  to  Ladak,  which  forms  i)art  .)f  Kashmir. 
At  the  same  time,  the  term  Tibet  itself,  employed  by  Europeans  to  designate  two 
countries  widely  differing  in  their  ])hysical  and  jwlitical  conditions,  is  unknown  to 
the  peoi)le  themselves.      Hermann  Schlagintweit  regards  it  as  au  old  Tibetan  word 


yi«fv:^^%^'m^^^vr^^- 


^i^ 


14 


EAST  ASIA. 


'!;■ 


moaning;  "  stronf^th,"  or  "  empire  "  in  a  pre-eminent  sense,  and  thin  is  tbc  inter|)re- 
tiition  supplied  by  tlie  missionaries  of  the  seventeenth  century,  who  give  the 
country  the  Italian  name  of  Pofrnte,  or  "Powerful."  But  however  this  be,  the  present 
inhabitants  use  tlie  term  7?w/-//v/ alone ;  that  is,  "land  of  the  15od,"  itself  probably 
identical  with  Ji/mfnii,  a  Hindu  name  restricted  by  Europeans  to  a  single  state  on 
the  southern  slope  of  the  Himalayas. 

The  (yhinesc  call  Tibet  either  Si-Tsang — that  is,  West  Tsanji^,  from  its  principal 
province — or  Wei-Tsan<j^,  a  word  applied  to  the  two  provinces  of  AVei  and  Tsang, 
which  jointly  constitute  Tibet  i)roper.  To  the  inhabitants  they  give  the  name  of 
Tu-Fan,  or  "  Aboiiginal  Fans,"  in  opposition  to  the  Si- Fan,  or  "  Western  Fans," 
of  Sechucn  and  Kansu.  The  Mongolians,  in  this  imitated  by  the  llussians  of  the 
last  century,  often  called  Tibet  the  Tangut  country,  from  the  tribes  inhabiting  its 
northern  parts.  IJut  they  more  commonly  gave  it  the  name  of  Baran-tola,  or 
"  Ilight  Side,"  in   contrast   to   Zogun-tola,  or  "  Left  Side ; "  that  is,  the  present 


Zungaria. 


Physical  Outlixks. 


Tibet  forms  almost  exactly  one-half  of  the  vast  semicircle  of  highlands  which 
stretch  with  a  radius  of  4H0  miles  west  of  China  from  the  first  Mongolian  spurs  of 
the  Tian-shan  to  the  gaps  in  the  Eastern  Himalayas,  through  which  the  Tsangbo,  the 
Salwen,  and  Mekhong  escape  to  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  lofty  border  range  of 
the  Kuen-lun  divides  this  semicircle  into  two  parts  presenting  striking  contrasts 
with  each  other  In  the  north  stretches  the  closed  basin  of  the  Tarim  and  several 
other  streams  which  arc  lost  in  the  sands.  In  the  south  rises  the  elevated  table- 
land of  Tibet.  Thus  the  most  massive  plateau  on  the  earth's  surface  rises  close  to 
one  of  the  deepest  depressions  in  the  interior  of  the  dry  land. 

Overlooking  the  irregularities  of  outline  caused  by  its  political  frontiers,  Tibet 
is,  on  the  whole,  one  of  the  most  clearly  defined  natural  regions  in  the  Old  World. 
Resting  towards  the  north-west  on  the  broken  masses  intersected  by  the  Ladak  and 
Kashmir  Aalleys,  it  spreads  out  gradually  towards  the  east  and  south-east  between 
the  main  continental  chains  of  the  Kuen-lun  and  Himalayas.  Like  the  Pamir,  these 
two  mighty  ranges  are  regarded  by  the  peoples  dwelling  at  their  base  aa  "  roofs  of 
the  world,"  and  the  "Abode  of  the  Gods."  They  seem  to  form  the  limits  of 
another  world,  to  which  its  snowy  diadem  sparkling  in  the  sun  gives  the  appearance 
of  an  enchanted  land,  but  which  its  few  explorers  learn  to  recognise  as  the  region 
of  cold,  snow-storms,  and  hunger.  Suspended  like  a  vast  terrace  some  14,000  or 
1(),000  feet  above  the  surrounding  plains,  the  Tibetan  plateau  is  more  than  half  tilled 
with  closed  basins  dotted  with  a  few  lakes  or  marshes,  the  probable  remains  of 
inland  seas  whose  overflow  discharged  through  the  breaks  in  the  frontier  ranges. 
Hut  at  a  distance  of  about  700  miles  from  the  highlands  on  its  western  frontier  the 
Tibetan  plateau  is  limited  eastwards  by  a  broken  ridge  running  south-west  and 
north-east.  West  of  these  mountains  the  plateau  slopes  east  and  south-eastwards, 
here  branching  into  numerous  chains  with  intervening  river  valleys.  Yet  on  this 
side  the  plateau  is  even  less  accessible  than  elsewhere  round  its  periphery.      On  the 


il 


_ —  *,    — 


■~'~M»  an^Ha.\.^tV 


w^AT^  Wi»*-^J»'R--3;«c-T'y?a»yM-,yiSt>^'jip>«Stfei 


EXPLORATION-EXTENT-DIVISIONS. 


15 


■i  the  interpre- 
wlio  give  the 
be,  the  present 
tsclf  probably 
single  state  on 

[n  its  principal 
\n  and  Tsang, 
,'0  the  name  of 
rcstern  Fans," 
lussians  of  the 
s  inhabiting  its 
Daran-tolu,  or 
is,  the  present 


iffhlands  which 
igolian  spurs  of 
ic  Tsangbo,  the 
lorder  range  of 
'iking  contrasts 
rim  and  several 
(  elevated  table- 
ice  rises  close  to 

frontiers,  Tibet 
the  Old  World. 
r  the  Ijadak  and 
ith-east  between 
the  Pamir,  these 
lase  as  "  roofs  of 
m  the  limits  of 
s  the  appearance 
ise  as  the  region 
3  some  14,000  or 
•c  than  half  tilled 
)able  remains  of 
I  frontier  ranges, 
item  frontier  the 
^  south-west  and 
south-eastwards, 
ys.      Yet  on  this 
•iphery.      On  the 


eastern  frontiers  of  Tibet  travellers  arc  arrested  by  the  rugged  gorges,  the  extensive 
forests,  the  absence  of  population,  and  consequently  of  supplies  of  idl  kinds,  and  to 
these  obstacles  is  now  added  the  ill-will  of  the  Chinese  authorities.  During  the 
present  century  the  Tibetan  Government  has  succeeded  belter  than  any  other 
Asiatic  state  in  preserving  the  political  isolation  of  the  people,  thanks  cliieHy  to  the 
relief  and  physical  conditions  of  the  land.  Tibet  rises  like  a  citadel  in  the  heart  of 
Asia ;  hence  its  defenders  have  guarded  its  approaches  more  easily  than  those  of 
India,  China,  and  Japan. 

P]XPL0UATI0X — EXTKXT — DIVISIONS. 

The  greater  part  of  Tibet  remains  still  unexplored,  or  at  least  geographers  have 
failed  to  trace  with  certainty  the  routes  of  the  Roman  Catholic  missionaries  who 
traversed  the  land  before  their  entry  was  interdicted.  In  the  fii-st  half  of  the  four- 
teenth century  the  Friuli  monk,  Odorico  di  I*ordenone,  made  his  way  from  China  to 
Tibet,  and  resided  some  time  in  Lassa.  Three  centuries  later  on,  in  lG2o  and  1G20, 
the  Portuguese  missionary  Andrada  twice  penetrated  into  Tibet,  where  he  was  wvW 
received  by  the  Buddhist  priests.  In  16G1  the  Jesuits  Griiber  and  D'Orville 
travelled  from  China  through  Lassa  to  India.  In  the  following  century  the  Tuscan 
Dosideri,  the  Portuguese  Manoel  Freyre,  and  others  visited  the  Tibetan  capital  from 
India.  But  the  Capuchins  had  already  founded  u  Catholic  mission  in  I^assa  under 
the  direction  of  Orazio  della  Penna,  who  spent  no  less  than  twenty-two  years  in  the 
country.  At  this  time  the  Tibetan  Government  allowed  strangers  to  penetrate 
freely  over  the  Himalayan  passes,  which  are  now  so  jealously  guarded.  A  layman 
also  lived  several  years  in  Lassa,  whence  he  went  to  China  by  the  Kuku-nor, 
again  returning  via  Lassa  to  India.  This  was  the  Dutch  traveller  Van  de  Putte, 
who  is  known  to  have  been  a  learned  man  and  a  great  observer,  but  who  unfortu- 
nately destroyed  his  papers  and  charts,  fearing  lest  these  ill-arranged  luul  mis- 
understood documents  might  be  the  means  of  propagating  error.  He  left  nothing 
behind  him  except  a  few  notes  and  a  manuscript  map,  carefully  preserved  in  the 
Middelburg  Museum  in  Zealand. 

Itineraries  traced  either  astronomically  or  by  the  compass  and  chroiumicter 
are  still  very  rare.  The  English  explorers  and  the  Hindu  surveyors  employed  by 
the  Indian  Government  have  only  visited  the  south-western  districts,  and  the 
upland  basin  of  the  Tsangbo  north  of  Xepal  and  Sikkim.  South-east  Tibet  has 
been  traversed  by  French  missionaries;  but  all  the  recent  attempts  made  to 
penetrate  from  the  north  and  north-east  have  failed.  In  imitation  of  I'askievich 
the  "  Transbaikalian,"  and  Muraviov  the  "  Amfirian,"  the  brothers  Schlagintweit 
have  assumed  the  whimsical  title  of  "  Transkuenluniau  "  (in  Russian,  Zakuen- 
luuskiy),  to  perpetuate  the  memory  of  their  passage  over  the  Tibetim  mountains ; 
but  they  only  visited  the  western  extremity  of  the  country.  The  Russian  exphjrer 
Prjevalsky  was  compelled  twice  to  retire  without  being  able  to  penetrate  into  the 
heart  of  the  country,  and  the  Hungarian  Bela  Hzcchenyi  also  found  himself  obliged 
to  retrace  his  steps.     For  all  the  regions  not  yet  visited  by  the  English  and  Hindu 


. ♦^rn, 


lU 


EAST  AHIA. 


surveyors  tho  prosont  iiiiips  of  Tibet  arc  merely  reproductions  of  the  chart  drawn 
up  hy  the  ilhisti-inus  D'AnviUe,  and  based  on  the  surveys  made  under  the  Kniperor 
Kang-hi  by  the  Til)etan  himas  truine<l  by  tho  astronomers  of  the  Society  of  Jesus. 
Nevertheh'ss  a  solid  beginning  for  future  research  has  already  l)een  made,  thanks 
to  the  ge(Mletic  works  uiuh'rtaken  in  the  Ilimala^'as.  In  1877  the  engineer  Kyall 
even  obtained  jn'miission  to  penetrate  into  tho  Upper  Satlaj  valley  in  order  to 
survey  tlie  peaks  from  their  northern  base,  and  all  the  summits  visible  from  this 
valley  have  been  comprised  in  his  triangulation.  Within  the  approximate  limits 
indicated  on  ihe  i)resent  maps,  which  will  have  doubtless  to  be  nKMlifitnl  in  all  their 
details,  tho  area  of  Tibet,  including  the  Kuku-nor  basin,  is  provisionally  estimated 

Fig.    3.— IxiXEKARIEa   OF  TUB  TlBETAN   ExPLOItEIIS. 
Scale  1  :  22,000,000. 


Itnirle,  Tiinipr,  MnnninR,    10,000  to  16,000  Foet.       16,000  aud  upwaidH.  Puuditl. 

I'eiubertun,  lluuker,  Lden. 


— »— • 
jevalskr. 

Schliigintweit. 

Desgodins. 

om. 

oaooeeo 

Jobniton 

_^  000  MUcs. 

■e-o-o 
Hnc  and  Gobct. 

at  (580,000  square  miles,  or  somewhat  more  than  three  times  that  of  France,  But 
if  we  include  several  independent  neighlK)uring  districts,  often  rcganled  a8 
belonging  to  Tibet,  and  all  the  tracts  peo])led  by  men  of  Bod  stock  in  Ka.shmir 
and  the  Chinese  provinee  of  Sechuen,  the  total  area  will  exceed  800,000  square 
miles. 

Excluding  the  western  highlands  l)elonging  iwlitically  to  Kashmir,  Tiljot 
proper  conqjrises  three  natural  divisions — the  northern  lacustrine  plateaux ;  tho 
southern  upland  valleys,  where  the  Satlaj  and  Tsanglx)  flow  in  o])])ositc  directions 
along  the  northern  base  of  the  Himalayas;  and  South-east  Tibet,  cut  uj)  into 
divergent  basins  by  its  flowing  waters. 


THE  KUKN-LUN  KAXOE. 


17 


D  chart  drawn 
'  the  Kiiiporor 
iety  of  Jesus, 
inado,  thanks 
ngiiiecr  llyaW 
y  in  order  to 
ible  from  this 
)xiinute  limits 
wl  in  all  their 
iiUy  estimutod 


30 


abet. 


Franco.     But 

regarded  as 

c  in  Kashmir 

)0,000  square 

ishmir,  Tilx't 
>lateaux ;  the 
■lite  directions 
,  cut  up  into 


TiiK  KtKX-i.rN  Haxok. 

The  northern  region,  the  largest  in  extent,  hut  by  far  the  most  thinly  iieopled, 
consists  of  all  the  eh»sed  basins  limited  southwards  by  the  eastern  prnhingiition  of 
the  Karakorum,  and  resting  northwards  on  the  mighty  Kuen-hin  range.  This 
border  chain  of  the  plateau,  separating  Tibet  from  (he  Tarim  basin,  sluiidd  be 
regarded,  far  more  than  the  Ilinudayas,  us  forming  part  of  the  continental  back- 
IxMie.  It  continues  the  llindu-Kush  east  of  the  Tamir,  while  connecting  itself 
directly  with  the  "diaphragm  "  of  Western  Asia.  It  thus  constitutes  (he  eastern 
half  of  the  main  continental  wuter-purting,  which  runs  west  and  east  irregularly, 
now  skirting  the  plateaux  in  the  form  of  border  chains,  now  breaking  into  parallel 
or  slightly  divergent  ridges,  occasionally  even  devch)ping  into  distinct  mountain 
systems.  The  Kuen-lun  and  its  eastern  continuation  into  China  do  not  apparently 
present  greater  uniformity  us  the  Central  Asiatic  axis  than  do  the  ranges  of  the 
western  "  diaphragm."  IJut  the  orography  of  Tibet  and  China  is  still  too  imper- 
fectly known  to  allow  us  to  sjK'uk  with  certainty  on  this  point. 

Regarding  the  Kuen-lun  with  its  eastern  prolongations  us  forming  one  vost 
system,  its  total  length,  from  its  roots  in  the  I'amir  to  its  extreme  spurs  Ix'tween 
the  Iloang-ho  and  Yung-tzc-kiang,  may  Ik>  estimated  at  about  'J,4()0  miles.  IWit 
this  orographic  system  is  broken  into  a  great  numlwr  of  chains  by  freijuent  gups, 
changes  «)f  direction,  interstnstions,  and  displacements  of  all  sorts.  The  highlands 
to  which  the  term  Kuen-lun  was  applied  in  the  curly  periods  of  Chinese  history 
form  a  group  of  magnificent  mountains  rising  near  the  s«»urces  of  the  Iloang-ho ; 
but  this  muss  can  scarcely  be  regarded  as  the  central  nucleus  of  the  system  to 
which  gw)graphers  have  subsequently  extended  the  name.  AVith  the  progress  of 
geographical  knowledge  westwards,  the  tenn  Kuen-lun  (Kul-kun,  Kur-kun)  also 
advanctnl  in  the  same  direction.  It  is  now  applied  to  the  range  by  the  old  Hindu 
immigrants  from  Kashmir  called  Anoftta,  from  the  Sanskrit  Anuratapta ;  that  is, 
the  "  Unillumined,"  the  mountain  of  cold  and  gloom,  synonymous  with  the  Tatar 
name,  Karangui-tagh,  or  the  "  Dark  Mountain." 

The  Kuen-lun  has  apparently  no  peaks  as  high  as  the  highest  in  the  Himalayas, 
or  even  in  the  Karakorum  range.  Johnson,  Prjevalskj ,  Montgomerie,  and  Ilicht- 
hofen  arc  of  opinion  that  none  of  them  attain  an  elevation  of  2»J,0(H)  feet,  although 
lK\vond  Tibet  a  few  summits  between  Kashmir  and  Yarkund  excee<l  24,000  feet. 
Towards  the  sources  of  the  Cherchen-daria  stands  the  Tuguz-davan,  where  the 
Kuen-lun  proj^er  throws  off  various  spurs  and  terraces,  which  fall  gradually 
towards  the  depression  formerly  filled  by  the  Central  Asiatic  Mediterranean  Sea. 
The  northernmost  ridge  is  the  so-called  Altin-tagh,  or  "  Gold  Mountains,"  whose 
spurs  advance  to  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Lob-nor.  South  of  this  ridge,  which  is 
about  18,000  feet  high,  there  stretch  two  other  parallel  chains,  besides  the  main 
range  which  continues  its  normal  easterly  direction  to  the  Gurbu-naiji,  near  the 
sources  of  the  Yang-tze-kiang.  The  Mongolians  of  the  Chaidam  plains  say  that 
this  system  is  continuous,  and  that  many  of  its  peaks  ris*?  aix)ve  tlic  8iu»w-line. 

Although  inferior  to  the  Himalayas  in  the  elevation  of  its  chief  summits,  the 


^^^^W»ffi^5B? '9r--'\-^r"- 


18 


EAST  ASIA. 


;MI; 


Kuon-liin  surpasses  thorn  in  moan  altitiulo,  and  is  also  of  n  muoli  oldor  date. 
IJoloiif^iufj;  to  a  fj^colofj^ical  opocli  anterior  to  tlie  oxistenee  of  the  Hiniahiyas,  its 
crests  have  naturally  been  p;radually  weathered,  and  the  detritus  spread  by  the 
action  of  wind  and  water  over  the  surroundinf?  plateaux  and  lowlands.  In  his 
journey  aeross  all  the  crests  separating  the  Indus  and  Tarim  basins,  Stoliezka 
found  that  the  oldest  rocks  of  this  region  belong  to  the  Kuen-lun.  Thev  consist 
mainly  of  syenitic  gneiss,  and  the  most  recent  deposits  are  triassie,  whereas  the 
Himalayan  and  Karakorum  systems  comprise  the  whole  series  between  the 
palicoz«)ie  and  eocene  formations.  It  is  generally  admitted  that  the  Kuen-lun  is 
the  original  folding  of  the  plateau,  and  that  the  southern  ranges  are  of  more 
modern  date. 

Recent  observation,  as  well  as  the  climatic  conditions,  show  that  on  the  whole 
the  Kuen-lun  lacks  the  variety  and  sublimity  of  forms  characteristic  of  the  Hima- 
layas. With  less  jagged  crests  and  fewer  fissures,  it  rises  above  the  narrow  oases 
at  its  base  and  the  Gobi  sands  like  a  long  rampart,  here  and  there  speckled  with 
snow.  Notwithstanding  its  greater  mean  elevation,  it  cannot  be  compared  with 
the  Himalayas  for  the  abundance  of  its  ice  and  snow  fields.  Still,  according  to  the 
Chinese  documents,  there  arc  some  real  glaciers  in  its  eastern  section,  as  well  as 
immediately  east  of  the  upland  Kara-kash  valley.  The  hollows  of  the  plateau  are 
also  filled  with  motionless  i(!0,  and  thermal  springs  give  rise  to  frozen  masses 
which  spread  over  a  vast  surface.  The  northern  winds,  to  which  the  range  is 
exposed,  have  already  been  deprived  of  most  of  their  moisture  on  their  way  across 
North  Asia,  while  those  from  the  Indian  Ocean  discharge  nearly  all  their  rains  and 
snows  on  the  Himalayas,  and  the  other  chains  of  Bhutan  and  South  Tibet.  Thus 
the  atmospheric  currents  reaching  the  Kuen-lun  are  very  dry,  and  the  streams 
rising  in  the  upper  vallej's  arc  mostly  of  small  volume,  losing  themselves  in  the 
sands  and  marshes  on  either  side  of  the  range. 

The  western  extremity  of  the  chain  north  of  Kashmir  abounds  far  more  in 
running  waters  than  the  Kuen-lun  proper.  Here  the  crests  and  the  plateau  above 
which  they  rise  are  much  narrower  than  in  Tibet,  and  the  ice  and  snows  are 
extensive  enough  to  form,  on  the  northern  slope  of  the  Karakorum,  considerable 
streams,  which  escape  through  the  fissures  in  the  Kuen-lun  down  to  the  Khotan 
and  Kasligarian  plains.  Thus  the  Yarkand,  already  a  large  river,  crosses 
the  south-eastern  Pamir  at  the  point  where  the  projecting  spurs  of  the  Hindu- 
Kush  and  Kuen-lun  almost  meet.  Farther  east,  a  defile  1,000  feet  deep  in  the 
latter  chain  aifords  an  outlet  to  the  Kara-kash,  the  chief  affluent  of  the  Khotan. 
This  river  itself  rises  well  to  the  south  of  the  Kuen-lun,  through  an  opening  in 
which  it  forces  a  passage  after  a  long  winding  course  in  a  side  valley.  IJut  east  of 
the  Khota)i  the  Cherchen-daria  is  the  only  river  north  of  the  Tibetan  plateaux 
which  has  sufKcient  volume  to  form  with  its  affluents  a  stream  large  enough  to  flow 
to  any  distance  across  the  plains.  However  insignificant  they  may  now  be,  these 
rivers  have  in  the  course  of  ages  acconjplishtHl  vast  works  of  erosion,  by  hollowing 
out  the  approaches  from  the  Tibetan  tablelands  down  to  the  Tarim  depression.  In 
some  places  the  fall  is  so  gradual  along  these  streams  that  the  incline  does  not 


V->  ■ -9*^ -*  I W^  •^^.•*r  ■* 


-^^^•imm^i-^SfSTfit^ 


THE  PROVINCE  OF  KIIAmi-LACUSTRINE  RYSIKM. 


lU 


el)  oMor  (late. 
Iliiiialavus,  it8 
spread  by  tho 
lands.  In  bis 
sins,  Stolii'zka 
Tbcy  consist 
c,  wlierous  the 
1  botwooii  the 
e  Kuon-lun  is 
8  arc  of  more 

;  on  the  whole 
!  of  the  llinta- 
e  narrow  ouses 

speckled  with 
compared  with 
cording  to  the 
ion,  as  well  as 
he  plateau  are 
frozen  masses 

the  range  is 
loir  way  across 
their  rains  and 

Tibet.  Thus 
d  tho  streams 
nselvcs  in  the 

s  far  more  in 
plateau  above 
md  snows  are 
1,  considerable 
to  the  Khotan 
river,  crosses 
)f  the  Ilindu- 
t  deep  in  the 
f  the  Khotun. 
an  opening  in 
.  IJut  east  of 
letan  plateaux 
'nough  to  flow 
now  be,  these 
by  hollowing 
^pression.  In 
iclinc  docs  not 


exceed  that  of  ordinary  routes  in  highland  regions.  According  to  the  natives  of 
Khotan,  it  would  even  be  possible  to  cross  the  Kucn-lnn  in  a  carriage.  ')ii(«  of 
Moiitgonierie's  Hindu  surveyors  easilj'  reached  the  western  Tibetan  plateau  by 
following  tho  Kiria  valley  to  an  altitude  of  over  KJ.OOO  feet.  The  ]>lateau  is 
approached  by  other  passes  from  the  east,  for  the  Zungarians  have  freiiuently 

Fig.  4. — ITiTKK  Kaha-ka8h  Vamey. 


invaded  Tibet  by  crossing  the  steppes  and  deserts  stretching  south  of  the  Lob-nor. 
The  Mongolian  pilgrims  follow  this  route  on  their  way  to  Lassa. 

The  Province  of  Khachi — Lacustrine  System. 

The  North  Tibetan  tableland,  mostly  inhabited  or  visited  only  by  nomad  tribes, 
still  remains  the  least-known  upland  region  in  the  Chinese  Empire.  The  Tibetans 
themselves  are  acquainted  only  with  the  southern  districts  of  this  bleak  and  storm- 
swept  land,  roamed  over  by  Mongolian  and  Tatar  nomads,  who  choose  for  their 
camping  grounds  the  sang,  or  sheltered  pastures  resembling  the  pamirs  of  the 


{■■■■r 


L;l 


'20 


EAST  ASIA. 


])liit('!iii  iM'twccii  tlic  Oxiis  iind  Tariiii  Imsiiis.  The  Tiitiir  tribes,  oollccfivcly  known 
lis  lliir  i>r  Klii>i\  dwell  in  the  western  and  sontliern  districts.  KIsi>wliere  live  the 
Sok,  (»r  M(in;^i)lian  imniads,  wlio  have  named  nearly  all  the  lakes  and  nionntains  in 
N(irth-east  Tihet.  They  mostly  practise  Shamanistie  rites,  altln)U<,'h  the  Tibetan 
eolieelive  name  iti'  all  these  trilxvs  is  Khash-len,  or  "  Mohannnedans,"  whence, 
probably,  the  term  Khachi  apjdied  to  the  whole  rej;:ion.  From  the  two  ]>rincipal 
groups  »»i'  tribes  settled  in  it,  the  country  is  also  known  by  the  name  of  lIor-8ok. 


Fig.  5.-  Lake  Panoha-yim  ami  Taikjot  Mointaixh. 
SciUe  1  :  2,U0U,U0U. 


'5*i 


.  30  Hilen. 


Of  the  numerous  lakes  scattered  over  the  Khachi  platcaxi,  those  of  Nniiiftr,  Tke 
Namur,  and  Hakha  Xamfir  arc  the  largest  traced  on  the  Chinese  maps.  The 
waters  or  ])artly  flooded  tracts  in  this  vast  lacustrine  basin  woidd  seem  to  stretch 
south-west  and  north-east  for  over  1*20  miles,  and  we  now  know  that  the  ;;^  i'  iiu  is 
largely  occupied  by  a  hain  of  lacustrine  basins  running  north-west  and  somli-east, 
])arallel  with  the  depression  watered  by  the  Tsangbo.  In  1<S74  the  pundit  Nain 
Singh  visited  many  of  these  lakes,  several  of  which  are  merely  the  remains  of 
formerly  far  moi-e  extensive  basins.  Some  have  even  been  reduced  to  muddy 
meres,   (overed  with  a  crystalline   incrustation,  which   is  broken   up  by  the  salt 


'*.V«■-----^^-•.- 


THE  1>110VINT'E  OP  KIIACIII— LACUSTRINE  SYSTEM. 


21 


tivcly  kiidwii 
ilu'iv  live  tlu* 
inountiiinH  in 
1  tli(>  Tihcfiin 
IIS,"  wlu'iicc, 
two  ]>riiu-i|>al 
f  Ilor-Sok. 


150 


HXiT 


88- 


P  Nnmftr,  Ike 
maps.  Tlie 
[>m  to  stretch 
tho  ];  'i'  uu  is 
ul  s(mili-(>ast, 
])iiii(1it  Xaiii 
}  remains  of 
'd  to  mudfly 
»  bv  tbc  salt 


traders.  Some  of  tlio  lakes  an>  saline,  olliers  l)rackisli,  while  most  of  l1ios(<  with 
free  outlets  are  ix'rfectly  fresli.  This  lacustrine  n'ffion  lias  a  mean  elevation  of 
from  I-^OOO  to  Ki.OOO  feet,  with  almost  cverywheri'  extremely  gentle  slojies,  over 
which  carriage  and  even  military  roads  might  easily  be  eonstnietcd. 

One  of  the  largest  lakes  is  the  I )angra-yum,  or  "  Mother  Dangra,"  which  is 
contnicfed  towards  tlie  centre,  thus  forming  nearly  two  se])arate  basins.  Although 
no  less  than  ISO  miles  in  circumference,  the  devout  IJu(hlhists  of  the  district,  and 
even  of  Lassa,  often  undertake  to  walk  in  procession  round  this  lake,  taking  from 
eight  to  twelve  days  to  perform  the  task,  according  to  the  season.  A  large  mountain 
rising  south  of  tlie  lake  has  received  tho  nanio  of  Targot-yiij),  or  "  l''ather  Targot," 
and  the  natives  regard  this  mountain  and  Mother  Uungru  us  the  first  parents  of 

Fiff.  6.— Tenori-nor. 
Pcalel  :  ll.OJl.WK), 


18  Miles. 


mankind.  The  groups  of  hills  dotted  round  about  are  their  daughters.  The  kora, 
or  complete  pilgrimage  round  the  mountain  and  lake,  takes  about  one  month, 
and  is  a  most  meritorious  act,  effacing  all  ordinary  sins.  Two  koras  satisfy  for 
one  murder,  and  the  parricide  hin-.self  is  pardoned  if  he  perfonns  tho  act  three  times. 
East  of  the  Dangra-yura  the  lakes  become  more  numerous  than  elsewhere  on 
the  plateau,  and  most  of  them  drain  northwards,  where  occurs  the  (,'hargut-tso, 
said  to  be  the  largest  basin  in  the  south  of  the  tableland,  and  discharging  its 
waters  to  one  of  the  great  affluents  of  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  Tengri-nor,  M-hich 
is  smaller  than  the  Chargut-tso,  and  situated  in  the  south-cast  angle  of  the  Khachi 
country,  lies  already  within  the  limits  of  modern  exploration.  It  is  about  GO  miles 
from  Lassa,  and  runs  48  miles  south-east  and  north-west,  with  a  breadth  of  from 


22 


EAST  ASIA. 


l-'>  to  '24  miles.  The  pundit  wlio  visito*!  it  in  1H7',*  took  fourteen  days  to  trnvorse  its 
norllicrn  slioro.  It  is  of  unknown  de|)tli,  and  an  almost  perennially  cloudless  sky  is 
mirrored  in  its  ehuir  waters,  whence  its  Tatar  name,  Teiijfri-nor,  and  TiU-tan 
Nam-tso,  ixitli  meaninj!^  the  "  Heavenly  Lake."  Thousands  of  piljjrinis  yearly 
face  the  dilKculties  of  the  route  and  the  muruuders  of  the  district  in  order  to  visit 
the  convent  of  Dorkia,  und  the  other  monasteries  on  the  headlands  connnandin^ 
extensive  vistas  of  its  hlue  waters,  and  of  the  snowy  i)eaks  in  the  south  und  south- 
cast.  In  this  "  holy  land  "  everything;  partakes  of  the  marvellous.  Here  a  rocky 
gorpfc  has  heen  the  work  of  a  J?<xl ;  («Isewhere  an  earthen  mound  raised  hy  the  hand 
of  man  has  heen  suddeidy  rent  asunder  to  afford  an  exit  heavenwards  to  u  lama 
who  died  in  u  state  of  ecstasy.  The  very  fossils  of  the  rocks  are  snered  ohjecfs,  and 
ar»>  earrii'd  away  as  relies  of  one  of  the  "  three  hundred  and  sixty  mountains," 
or  divinities  in  the  suite  of  the  principal  deity,  the  snow-dud  Ninjin-tan;;-la. 

It  was  till  recently  supposed  that  the  evaporation  of  the  Ten<;ri-nor  alwiut 
balanced  the  amount  discharjjed  throu<fh  its  influents.  But  this  is  a  mistake.  Tho 
traveller  who  explored  it  in  1872  did  not  perceive  its  outlet,  which,  like  the  lake 
itself,  was  at  tho  time  covered  with  ice.  This  outlet  escaiH?8  from  the  north- 
west corner,  and  flows  to  tho  river  which  drains  tho  Chargut-tso.  In  its  neijjh- 
bourhood  are  somo  hot  spriujj^s,  and  farther  north  the  Bul-tso,  or  *'  IJorax  Lake," 
covers  a  .space  of  some  24  square  miles.  The  pilgrims,  who  here  combine  trade 
with  devotion,  carry  away  loads  of  borax,  whicii  they  sell  in  Lower  Tibet,  or 
forward  over  the  Himalayas.  From  tho  Bul-tso  formerly  came  tho  borux  knowa 
as  Venetian,  because  refined  in  that  city. 

The  Eastern  IIioiii.axds  axd  Riveus. 

Thesp  chemical  efflorescences  bear  witness  to  the  slight  snow  and  rain  full  on 

the  Khuclii  plateau.     Yet  immediately  east  of  it  begins  that  remarkable  region 

where  the  brooks  and  rivulets  arc  collected  from  all  quarters  into  mighty  rivers. 

This  contrast  is  caused  by  the   mountains  skirting   the  plateau,   which    receive 

moisture  only  on  their  slopes  facing  the  south  and  south-east  sea  breezes.     These 

highlands  are  evidently  divided  into  several  groups,  for  the  Chiiu'se  maps  show 

various  streams  flowing  to  tho  tributaries  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  to  the  Yajig- 

tze-kiang,  and   rising  on   the  Khachi  plateau.      Tho  highlands   are  divided  by 

erosive  action   into  several  distinct   chains ;    but   the    tableland    itself   is   nearly 

everywhere  sufficiently  elevated  to  cause  a  great  difference  of  climate  In'tween  tho 

two  slopes.     But  we  do  not  yet  know  whether  the  highlands  belong  to  a  single 

border  chain,  separated  at  intervals  by  the  upland  river  valleys,  or  form  part  of 

distinct  ranges  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  plateau.     Ilichthofcn  accepts  tho 

first  hypothesis,  according  to  which  a  transverse  orographic  system  connects  the 

mountains  of  South  Tibet  with  the  Kuen-lun.     To  this  assmned  chain  he  even 

gives  the  nanu^  of  Tang-la,*  from  a  group  of  peaks  rising  south  of  the  Tengri-nor. 

Yet  from  what  is  known  of  the  upper  river  courses,  the  intermediate  chains  would 

*  Tho  term  (a  usiinlly  monns  "  mountiun  pass,"  but  ia  East  Tibet  it  is  frequently  applied  to  moun- 
tains, and  even  to  whole  ranges. 


■^■•^■^s^aqaBtSlls^*^^,:, 


SOUTH  TIUKT— TIIK  TUANS-IIIMALAVAX  UANOKS. 


2a 


*  (()  traverse  its 
l(»ii(lK'SM  sky  is 
uiul  TilK'tiin 
I^riins  yearly 
<n'(l(>r  ti>  visit 
s  (■Diniiiiindiii)^ 
ith  and  isouth- 
IIc>ro  a  rocky 
'd  by  the  liuiid 
ii'ds  to  a  laiim 
'd  objects,  mid 
y  luoiintains," 
-tan<y-la. 
jj;ri-nor  about 
mistake.  Tho 
,  like  the  lake 
m  tho  north- 
In  its  neigh- 
Borax  Lake," 
combine  trade 
>\ver  Tibet,  or 
borux  known 


id  rain  fall  on 
irkable  rej^ion 
rnij'litv  rivers, 
fthich  receive 
reczes.  These 
se  maps  show 
I  to  the  Yajij^- 
re  divided  by 
^olf  is  nearly 
to  between  the 
»n<;  to  a  single 

form  part  of 
n  accepts  the 

connects  the 
shain  he  even 
le  Tengri-nor. 
;  chains  would 

iippliud  to  inoun- 


nll  seem  to  form  parallel  crests  running  suutli-west  and  north-eiist,  with  broad  and 
deep  int.M'vening  depressions.  Tlicset  icsls  are  successively  crossed  by  tiu'  ciiravans 
proceeding  from  Tibet  to  .Mongolia. 

Of  those  parallel  chains  the  souliu>rnmost  is  the  Tanl-la,  whose  western 
extremity  al)uts  upnn  Uichthofen's  Tang-la.  'i'lu-  Iwuwo''  stem  to  be  merely 
dialectic  varieties  (tf  the  saiue  name.  Hue  speaks  of  tho  Taii>-la  as  p«'rliaps  "  the 
highest  point  on  the  globe,"  but  during  his  third  I'xpeditinn  Prjevalsky  scaled 
these  formidal)h'  heights  and  fixed  their  eh'valion  at  Hi, <)(•(>  I'ecl,  oi  about  ;i.(M)U 
feet  lower  than  some  other  fretpiented  passes.  At  their  southern  base  are  luune- 
rous  theruud  springs,  whidi  unite  in  u  considerable  rivulet  flowing  over  a  ImmI  of 
yeUow  or  gold-coloured  pebbles.  Dense  vapours  rise  continually  above  the  springs, 
und  are  condensed  in  fleecy  ch)uds,  while  in  some  reservoirs  tlu*  pent-up  vapour 
is  ejected,  forcing  upwards  a  vast  column  of  water  like  the  geysers  of  Iceland  or 
tho  Yellow  Stone  National  I'ark  in  the  United  Stutes. 

SoiTii  TtnKT — Tin:  Trans-IIimai.ayan  Rancks. 

South  Tilu't,  comprising  that  {lortion  of  the  j)lafeau  where  towns  have  Wn 
built,  and  where  the  imtion  has  been  gradually  constituted  and  its  culturt*  deve- 
loped, consists  of  the  relatively  sheltered  depression  stretching  south  of  the  Khachi 
tablehmd.  In  ordinary  language  the  term  Tibet  is  ajjplied  tt»  this  section  alone  of 
the  Trans-Ilimalayaii  uplands.  Although  draining  in  opposite  directions  to  tho 
Arabian  Sea  und  Hay  of  lUmgal,  it  is  nevertheless  a  longitudinal  valley,  at  onco 
the  largest,  und,  thanks  to  the  Burrounding  highlands,  the  grandest  on  the  surface 
of  the  globe.  Hut  this  h)ng  depression,  forming  a  semicircle  parallel  with  the 
Himalayas,  is  not  a  regular  plain  or  a  mere  trough  limiting  the  Khachi  plateau  on 
the  south  and  south-west.  It  is  a  highland  region  whose  ranges  run  mostly  in  the 
Hiune  direction  us  the  Himalayas. 

The  chain  skirting  the  north  side  of  the  Tibetan  depression  projierly  so  called, 
and  at  the  same  time  forming  the  southern  escarpment  of  the  Khachi  plateau,  may 
be  regarded  as  a  continuation  of  the  Karukorum.  East  of  Kashmir  and  of  Ladak 
this  range  trends  southwards  parallel  with  the  Himalayas,  und  projects  to  the  left 
several  ridges  which  gradually  merge  with  the  plateau;  while  the  main  chain,  cut 
into  ravines  and  even  intersected  by  tributaries  of  the  Tsangbo,  by  .some  clo.sed 
basins,  and  eastwards  by  the  affluents  of  the  great  eastern  rivers,  unites  with  the 
Tang-la  south  of  tho  Tengri-nor.  Back  of  this  chain  rise  several  lofty  grou])s, 
including  the  Turgot-leh,  which  overlooks  the  Dar.gra-yum,  and  which  Main  Singh 
regards  as  tho  highest  in  the  whole  region  of  plateaux  north  of  the  Himalayas. 
Farther  east  the  Gyakhanna  rises  above  the  great  lake  XyarJng-tso,  and  is  sepa- 
rated from  the  southern  border  chain  by  the  valley  of  the.  Dumplu,  an  affluent  of 
the  Nyaring.  Teaks  from  2JJ,000  to  'J4,000  feet  high  have  been  sighted  on  the 
range  skirting  the  course  of  tho  Tsanglx),  and  which  have  not  yet  been  definitely 
named.  For  this  Tibetan  chain  the  Schlagintweits  have  retained  the  Tatar  term 
Karukoruiu,  which  belongs,  strictly  speaking,  to  the  crest  separating  Kashmir  from 


24 


KAST  ASIA. 


ii 
ijpi 


•'iS' 


fli 


the  T^|ip('f  Viirkanil  vuUoy  IJut  Ilmlj^son  wntiM  jn-cfcT  to  call  it  Niiijiii-tim(j;-lii 
(Nvcnslilicii-liinjj-lii),  after  the  ina<j;iiiHi'('iit  peak  of  (lu»  T('ii)j;ri-nor — u  MU;;p;('sti(>n 
whiili  would  introduce  lurdlt'ss  coiifiision  into  tlu>  nonu'nclatun'  of  this  n';<;it)U. 
Fur  the  sanu'  reason  wo  slioidd  i)erliai)s  reject  tlie  Tibetan  term  (ianji;ri,or  "Snowy 
^fountain,"  alr(<ady  applied  to  several  Numniits  in  West  Til)et.  Klaproth  has  pro- 
pr)S('d  (ianj;-dis-ri,  adopted  Iiy  -Markhain,  while  Peternuinn  and  others  call  tho 
chains  and  <i;roups  smith  of  the  plateau  simply  tho  "  Tsaiifj;  Mountains,"  after  tho 
Tihetan  jjrovinee  of  that  name,  which  they  shelter  from  the  northern  blasts. 

Another  line  of  crests  and  siunmits,  which  mij>;ht  bo  called  tho  Trans-Hima- 
layas, stretches  between  the  Tsan<jf  or  (ian<jf-dis-ri  hiji;hlands  and  tho  flittering 
peaks  of  tho  Himalayas,  and  sends  down  gluciers  on  either  side.  Tho  South 
Tibetan  d(>pression  is  thus  divich'd  east  and  west  into  two  seccmdary  and  parallel 
d(>pressi()ns.  The  mi(hllo  chain,  forming  a  continuation  of  one  of  tho  liadak  ranges, 
lifts  its  snowy  j)eaks  above  tho  southern  edge  of  tho  Sutluj  valley,  and  farther  on 
above  that  of  the  Tsangbo.  Although  less  elevated  than  tho  Himalayas,  it  forms  a 
more  in)portant  water-parting,  and  is  pierced  by  fewer  river  beds.  For  about  480 
miles  tho  Trans-Hinudayas  completely  enclose  the  Tsangbo  basin,  while  tliD  deeper 
gorges  of  the  Himalayas  allow  several  streams  to  escape  towards  tho  plaii^'  of  tho 
(jianges.  Hut  not  all  the  nnining  waters  of  these  upland  regions  find  th'.'i>  way  to 
the  oc(>an,  and  s(nuo  vast  cavities  in  tho  intervening  jdatoaux  uro  tilled  wth  lakes 
without  any  outflow,  such  as  tho  Chomto-dcmg  and  I'algu-tso.  Tho  water  of  tho 
Ciu»mto-dong  is  ])erfectly  sweet  and  limpid,  which  would  scorn  to  imply  that  an 
outlet  existed  till  comparatively  recent  times.  All  those  highlands  arc  crossed  by 
pas.ses  exceeding  Mont  Hlauc  by  1,000  and  oven  3,000  feet  in  altitude.* 

MoixT  Kau.as:   SofucK  of  the  Forii  Sachkd  Rivkus- -Tuk  Upper  Satlaj 

AND  Indis. 

Tho  Tibetan  region,  where  rise  tho  Satlaj  and  tho  Tsangbo,  is  a  holy  land  both 
for  Itrahmins  and  IJuddhists — a  fact  undoubtedly  duo  to  its  geographical  impor- 
tance. Tho  transverse  ridge  connecting  the  Himalayas  with  the  Gang-di.H-ri,  and 
through  it  with  the  whole  Tibetan  plateau,  not  only  forms  tho  necessary  route 
between  tho  two  great  valleys  which  stretch  far  into  regions  of  different  aspect,  but 


•  Chief  altitudes  of  the  Lacustrine  Unsin,  tlio  Oang-dis-ri,  and  tho  Trans- Himalayas : 

Lucualriiie  Basin. 

Feet. 
Thok-Niihina:,  highest  inhabited  place  on 

tlic  globe 1G,000 

Targot-yiip,  highest  peak  of  iho  Targot- 

leh 24,000 


liake  Dimgra-yum 
Oyiikharmii  Peak  . 
Lake  Tengri-nor    . 


Gttiig-dit-ri  Range. 


Miiriain-la 
KhonioRing-Ia 
Kuilas,  or  Tiso 


14,000 
20,800 
15,200 


I4,fl00 
18,1500 
21,700 


Ninjin-tang-la 

Puss  west  of  this  mountain     . 

liaknitk  I'ass,  north  of  Ijassa . 


Traiis-Hiiiialayas. 
Snowy    Peak    (langiti'),    south-west 
Janglarheh      .... 

Tunglung-la 

Lagulung-la 

Khaniba-la,  south-west  of  Lassa     . 

Lake  Palti 

Khoro-la,  west  of  Lake  Palti 


of 


— --^ 

JfeoV. 
24,000 
18,000 
17,600 


23,960 
19,200 
15,900 
17,000 
13,400 
10,500 


'^-ti^.^C-^:*^rr-rr^«5!fSBE^-!  ^m'.«^:^-w^  ^saff.-  ^^.^-/^^rf-.^-Atr^ 


<v! 


MOUNT  KATLAS-TIIK  UPPEU  SATLAJ 


INI' 


28 


\i  II  j  in-tan  j?-lu 
— u  Niij^fycstion 
)t'  this  i-(>;{;iun. 
fi'i.or  "  Snowy 

)n»th  has  prt)- 
tlicrs  call  thu 
ins,"  ai'tcr  tho 
1  blasts. 

Trans-IIinm- 

thc  f^littcrinf? 

.  The  South 
V  and  parallel 

fiadak  ranf^cs, 
ind  further  on 
yas,  it  forms  a 
For  about  480 
lilo  tho  deeper 
'  l)laii '^•  of  tho 
id  tli'.'i-  way  to 
led  w<th  lakes 
e  water  of  tho 
imply  that  an 
arc  crossed  by 
Ic* 

PPER   SaTI.AJ 

holy  land  Iwth 
iiphieal  inijHJr- 
an<5-di,<-ri,  and 
iccessary  route 
rout  aspect,  but 


^•as:— 


i-wost    of 


Feet. 
24,000 
18,600 
17,600 


23,960 
19,200 
15,900 
17,000 
13,400 
10,500 


is  also  the  oonneetinj^  link  between  the  Tilietan  ]ilateaM  iiin-  he  Itfiiiiidn  ■<.  North- 
west of  it  rises  tho  Tiai»  of  the  Tibetans,  the  Kuilas  of  (Ik  udus,  who  pyraniiilnl 
mass  is  isolated  fnun  the  other  mountains  in  the  (ian;;-(li--ri  chain  Wl\i  m 
Hindus  |)crceive  in  the  distance  its  lofty  crest  pn'sentinn;  the  form  of  a  nn  < 
pajjoda,  they  full  prostrate  seven  times,  and  seven  times  raise  their  hands  towi  l« 
tho  heavens.  In  their  eyes  it  is  the  al)ode  of  >rahadet»,  or  the  (ireat  (Jod,  thenvnt 
and  jfranch'st  of  all  those  tJlynipuses  on  whose  siunmits  the  peoples  at  each  succes- 
sive stufje  of  their  westward  mi;;ralioiis  have  seen  in  fan«y  tlie  dazzling;  li^fht  of 
their  (h'ities.  Ft  is  the  ^^ount  Meru  of  the  ancient  Hindus — the  pistil  of  tlu'  sym- 
bolic h)tus  Hower  which  represents  the  world.  Nor  do  the  Tibetan  lamas  yiehl  to 
the  Hindu  yo^his  in  their  veneration  for  the  sacred  moinitain.  The  most  darinfj; 
amon;<;st  them  undertake  a  pilfrrimaj^e  of  Hi>veral  <hiys  round  the  Kailas  across  the 
snows  and  ruj^ged  ground.     In  tho  seccmd  century  of  tho  Christian  era  the  first 

Fig.  7. — Mount  Kailah  and  tiif,  Foiii  8aihbi>  ItivKiiH. 
Scale  I  :  .i.non.noo. 


Z  oFG 


m^^-'-t.  ^^^^^ 


51 
501 


fiS' 


<  ao  MUea. 


Buddhist  monastery  on  tho  plateau  was  built  at  the  foot  of  this  mountain,  with  its 
four  faces,  "one  of  gold,  the  second  of  silver,  tho  third  of  rubies,  the  last  of  lapis- 
lazuli."  Tlio  Hindu  legends  also  hero  seek  tho  mysterious  grottoes  whence  emerge 
tho  four  divino  animals — the  elepliant,  lion,  cow,  and  horse — symlM)ls  of  the  four 
great  rivers — tho  Sutluj,  Indus,  Ganges,  and  Tsanglx).  These  mighty  streams, 
which  flow  in  four  different  directions,  rise  on  the  flanks  of  the  same  mountain 
within  a  space  of  not  more  than  GO  miles  in  extent.  The  Alaknanda,  Karnali, 
and  other  head-streams  of  tho  Ganges  rise  on  the  Indian  side  of  the  Himalayas, 
and  the  Indus  receives  its  first  waters  from  the  northern  snows  of  the  Gang-dis-ri. 
iJut  between  these  two  oxtrcmo  points  occurs  that  deep  depression  where  rise  the 
Satlaj  and  Tsangbo. 

At   a  former   geological   epoch   tho  crescent-shaped  di'pression    skirting   the 
northoni  slope  of  tho  Himalayas  was  probably  flooded  by  a  vast  alpine  lake,  of 
35 


■vl-^"*'«!H^^fi,''.'''-M''t"-?'''  ■'■■■'* 


80  KAST  ASIA. 

wliicli  till'  prcHiMit  liikcn  Mciittfi)  <l  over  tlif  IhinIii  iirr  fli«<  mniiitiN.  Ily  ii  rciiiaik- 
iililr  piinillrliHiii  tliis  |hiih;  liii'iiHtriiir  viillry  riiiiM  in  tlic  wmv  tlinctioii  iih  tlii<  «'liiiiii 
of  lakcH  ill  tli<>H4Mitlii'ni  itiutcimnl'  Kliiiilii.  irmii  the  |liiii)<ni-yiiiii  tn  tiic  Tcii^ri-iior. 
Ill  tliiM  (loprcNHioii  two  riviTN  uIho  tak<<  tluii-  ri.4<>,  and,  liki>  tlir  Sutlaj  and  TNaii^lKi, 

Fig.    R.-TlIK    MANHMIAfn    nAHIN. 
Hnilc  t  :  TlDMrO, 


IS  MUes. 


flow  ill  opposite  directions— the  Tndus  on  tlio  one  hand,  and  on  the  other  the 
mysterious  stream  which  i)robal)ly  forms  the  upjier  course  of  the  8ahven. 

The  least-inclined  section  of  the  Hcmth  Tibetan  depression  is  that  which  is 
traversed  by  the  Satlaj.  Its  first  terrace  is  occujHed  by  Lake  Konj^-kio,  which  has 
no  outlet,  and  which,  like  iicaily  all  dosed  basins,  has  become  suit.  Hound  about 
are  scattered  some  other  saline  tarns;  but  the  JMansaraxV  and  Rakus-tul,  the  two 
great  basins  of  the  valley,  are  fresh- water  lakes  connected  together  by  a  permanent 


k-rsi;-.-   '»-  ''■■■■■!ff-:,-J--.^'TI>»S'K'V''.:r,_.'-.^-j,^^^^ 


MOUNT  KAlr-AS-  TlIK  IH'I'IIU  HATf.AJ  AND  INDUH. 


27 


]\y  II  rcrriiirk- 
i  UN  tlir  «'hiiiii 
lit'  'rcii>;ri-iior. 

uiul  Tmiii}{Imi, 


:  of 


the  other  the 
wen. 

thut  which  is 

kio,  which  has 

Ktiund  ubout 

tus-tul,  the  two 

)y  a  permanent 


rivulot  ciirrvlii^j  to  the  Siitlnj  a  Miicrcd  Mtrciim,  ft»r  tlic  MaiiHamrir-  the  Muiwihh 
Sunivara  ol  ]|iii(hi  Icj^ciid — is  the  "  lake  I'diiiicd  liy  tlic  hiratli  of  llnilima."*  Its 
liluc  waters  lire  l'n'(|iiciitcd  l»y  tliDiisaiids  of  swans,  vcncniti'd  as  hiissl'iil  Itriii^rs. 
The  NuriiMiiuliiiy;  IthilVs  are  dotted  witli  the  little  houses  of  |iil^'t'iiiis,  tnanv  oi'  \\lioiii 
<lo  not  I'i'iir  to  reside  for  months  in  these  frightful  solitudes.  Those  who  die  on 
the  wuy  know  that  their  nHhes  will  he  cant  into  tlnN  water,  "  the  most  hallowed  in 
the  world,"  and  this  is  in  their  ey«'M  a  Hupn'iiie  reward.  The  (ian<,'eH  was  formerly 
said  to  rise  in  Lake  Maiisaraur,  hut  Moorend't  has  shown  that  its  soin'ce  is  on  the 
Houtherii  >lope  of  the  Himalayas.  Mven  at  tlu>se  elevations  battles  have  heeii 
foujjht,  and  in  Deet'mher,  ISH,  the  Cliiiiese  here  (hd'eated  the  Dostum  <tf  ivaslnnir, 
pursuing  them  as  far  as  Leh  in  Little  Tibet. 

On  enierji;inff  from  Lake  Kakus-tal,  the  Lana;^;u-laiika  of  the  Tihef.ms,  the 
Saflaj  (Satradu,  or  Satadru)  oeeasionally  nuiM  dry  towards  the  eiitl  td  Mniimer; 
hut  lower  down  it  is  a  ])ermanent  stream  in  the  valley,  11,(100  ft  "t  iiho  ,e  the  sea, 
which  is  noteil  for  its  thermal  waters.  Here  sulphurous  vapours  i  re  emitted  from 
thejfround;  and  the  same  phenomenon  is  ohserveil  in  many  ttther  parts  td'  Tibet, 
ulthtiugh  tliere  is  nowhere  any  trace  oi  vt)Ieanic  rt)eks. 

The  j^eneral  incline  of  the  Upper  Satlaj  valley  in  Hcareely  j)erceptible  within 
Tibetan  territory.  Near  the  spot  where  the  river  is  alM)ut  to  escapt>  throiiji;h  the 
Himalayan  porfj^es  tt)wards  the  plains  of  Intlia,  the  terraces  tm  either  bank  maintain 
an  elevatiim  of  14,(100  feet  above  the  sea,  as  at  Lake  Mansaraur,  1S>  miles  farther 
up.  Thi>se  terraces,  which  are  of  lacustrine  origin,  have  been  liirrowed  by  the 
stream  to  a  depth  tif  1,.'{()0  and  even  1,()00  feet,  withtmt,  ho^*evor,  reaching  the 
live  rock  ft)rmin^  the  old  bed  of  the  lake.  All  the  tributai  \  torrents  have,  like 
tht!  Satlaj,  to  force  a  passage  throup;h  tho  rocks  and  days;  and  the  wlmle  tlistrict 
has  thus  been  cut  up  into  vast  gorges.  In  these  gorges  the  few  inhabitants  t»f  the 
country  have  form(;d  their  temporary  or  permanent  abodes.  Thus  Daba,  the  chief 
"city"  of  tho  Satlaj  valley  in  Tibet,  ticcuijies  the  sides  of  a  ravine  tiver  >'10()  feet 
deep,  which  has  been  cut  through  the  rock  by  an  atfluent  of  the  main  stream.  A 
few  two-storied  stone  houses,  with  their  white  fa9ades,  ctiutrast  here  and  there  with 
the  red  escarpments  ;  and  towards  the  top  of  the  town  the  tpiarter  occupied  by  tho 
lamas  forms  a  sort  of  citadel,  itself  overlooked  by  inaccessible  rocky  heights.  A 
solitary  gate  in  tho  lower  quarter  gives  ingress  to  the  inhabitants.  In  winter 
Daba  is  completely  abandoned ;  tho  gorge  is  filled  with  snow,  which  covers  all  the 
houses,  and  which  in  spring-time  has  to  be  cleared  away,  with  the  mud,  locks, 
and  other  remains  of  avalanches  that  have  accumulated  during  tho  cold  seastm. 
The  dtibris  which  now  fills  up  tho  old  lake  beltwigs  to  the  tertiary  and  quaternary 
eptjchs,  and  contains  many  fossils  as  well  as  tho  bones  of  some  large  veilebrates. 
Thus  a  special  fauna  had  time  to  be  developed  and  disappear  during  the  ages 
occupit'd  by  the  detritus  in  filling  up  the  inland  sea,  which  has  escaped  through 
the  gap  in  the  Ilinuilayas  now  affording  an  outlet  tt)  the  Satlaj. 

Several  of  the  rivers  rising  north  of  tho  (iang-dis-ri  were  ftirmerly  said  to  be 

*  According  t)  Moorcroft,  Manaodo  SurQur  meaiig  simply  tho  Sacred  Liiko.  It  ia  tho  Thu- Alapung 
of  tho  Tibctuns. 


.mpi-'- 


28 


EAST  .VSIA. 


flic  main  lipad-stroain  of  tlic  Sind  or  Indus,  and  to  all  of  them  was  applied 
tlip  mytliical  name  of  the  Sonj^e  Khahad,  or  river  "  fiowinji;  from  the  lion's  throat." 
Uut  tlie  Anglo-Indian  explorations  have  established  the  fact  that  of  these  rivers  the 
true  Indus  is  that  which  rises  farthest  east,  near  the  nortliern  slope  of  the 
Mariam-la.  This  is  the  longest  and  most  coi)ions  of  all  the  streams  uniting  in 
tho  common  bed  of  the  Indus  above  its  entry  into  Kashmir.      Within  Tibetan 


Fig.  !).~Lakk  I'ano-kono  :  Excampmkxt  op  the  Enoush  Expedition  of  1871. 


territory  the  Indus  is  also  joined,  and  nearly  doubled  in  volume,  by  the  Gartung, 
or  river  of  Gartok. 

Lake  Pang-kong. 

The  continuous  diminution  of  moisture  which  has  reduced  so  many  Tibetan 
lakes  to  mere  salt  marshes  has  also  dried  up  many  rivers,  converting  into  closed 
basins  numerous  valleys  which  formerly  drained  to  the  Indus.  A  striking 
example  occurs  in  the  Radokh  valley,  north  of  this  river.     In  this  district,  at  a 


^*'/.^f»-f^-|ni-^^^«^lv■"^^^v~-L•<*.^vsf««r?^^fi«^^^AA«,^aK^Tv«^-.■^ 


LAKE  PANG-KONO. 


20 


m  was  !ii)plicd 
c  lion's  throat." 
those  rivers  the 
1  slo])e  of  the 
'iiiiis  uniting  in 
Within  Tibetan 

01-  1871. 


by  the  Gartung, 


0  many  Tibetan 
•ting  into  closed 
IS.  A  striking 
bis  district,  at  a 


mean  elevation  of  13,500  feet,  a  valley,  running  parallel  with  the  Indus,  follows 
the  same  general  windings,  turning  tirst  north-west,  then  hcafling  westwards 
through  a  mountain  gorge,  beyond  whieh  it  resumes  its  normal  north-westeily 
course.  A  large  portion  of  this  valley  is  flooded,  but  the  lake  thus  formed,  which 
resend)les  many  inland  Scandinavian  fiords,  alternately  broadens  and  contracts  with 
the  breadth  of  the  bed  and  the  projecting  headlands.  It  has  even  been  divided 
into  three  basins  at  different  levels  by  the  detritus,  or  i)orhaps  by  the  alluvia 
washed  down  with  the  side  streams.  The  upper  lake  takes  the  name  of  Xoh, 
from  a  neighbouring  caravan  station ;  the  central,  40  or  4-"»  feet  higher  than  the 
lower,  is  the  Tso-Mognalari,  or  "  Fresh-water  highland  lake ;  "  and  the  same  name 
is  apjdicd  to  the  lower  lake  itself,  although  the  lack  of  supplies  has  gradually 

Fig.  10.— Lake  Pano-kono. 
Scale  1  : 1,600,000. 


.30  MUes. 


changed  it  to  a  saline  basin  with  13  per  1,000  of  salt,  or  about  the  same  as  in  the 
Black  Sea ;  but  it  also  contains  nearly  as  much  sulphate  of  soda  and  magnesia  as  of 
sea  salt,  so  that  the  absolute  proportion  differs.  The  Anglo-Indian  explorers  have 
called  this  lake  the  Pang-kong,  from  the  Kashmir  province  of  that  name  into  which 
its  northern  extremity  penetrates.  Water  marks  and  banks  of  fresh-water  shells 
show  that  it  formerly  rose  240  feet  above  its  present  mean  level,  which  is  13,460 
feet  above  the  sea.  Hence  it  was  twice  as  deep  as  at  present,  its  extreme  depth 
being  now  140  feet  according  to  Trotter  and  Biddulj)h,  or  105  feet  according  to 
H.  Schlagintweit.  The  total  area  of  both  lakes,  estimated  at  210  square  miles,  was 
also  more  than  double  when  the  emissary  descendtnl  to  the  Shayok  through  a  valley 
some  8  miles  long,  and   through  the  Tankseh   River.      While  gradually  falling 


^ijywi" 


■■,'Ji!iSSt:»*fl 


r^?f**S=Pi*»^ri<ft>B«*-f'(.'T; 


80 


EAST  ASIA. 


with  tlio  1('V(>1  of  tli<>  Like,  lliis  outlet  furrowed  tlie  rock  to  within  l')4  feet  of  its 
present  h'vcl,  sifter  wliich  the  outflow  ceased,  and  tlie  lake  {j;radually  diiiiinishe<l  by 
excess  of  evaporation  over  the  iuHow. 


Hi  I 


Fip.  II.— Lakk  Pai.ti. 

Scale  1  :  765,00a 


111 


Tin:  TsA.N(iii(),  on  DiiAHMArrTiiA  (?). 

The  pre-eniinenfly  Tibetan  river — the  river  which  traverses  the  two  central 
provinces  of  Tsan<?  and  Wei — is  the  Tsani>^bo  (Tsanpu,  Tsjinibo,  Zanj^bo,  Sanipo,  or 
SaiiilMi);  that  is,  "the  Holy  Stream,"  whose  upper  course  is  often  callwl  the  Yaru- 
Tsaii<^lM),  or  "  Ilifjh  Tsan<?bo."  Like  the  Indus  and  Ganges,  it  has  btvn  coinpnred 
to  a  mystic  animal,  several  of  its  names  meaning  the  "  Peacock  "  or  the  "  Horse" 
River,  for  according  to  one  legend  it  flows  from  the  mouth  of  a  war-horse.    It  rises 

in  the  same  low  ridge  as  the 
Satlaj,  and  its  chief  head- 
streams  arc  the  glacial  rivulets 
descending  from  the  cirques 
of  the  Himalayas.  It  receives 
but  slight  contribution  from 
the  Karakorum,  from  which 
it  is  separated  by  the  parallel 
Khomorang  range.  After 
assuming  the  proportions  of 
a  river,  it  flows  through  a 
gently  inclined  plain,  in  which 
its  sluggish  waters  become 
navigable  for  barges  near  the 
convent  of  Tadum,  where  the 
pass  over  the  Mariam-la  de- 
scends to  the  valley.  No  other 
river  in  the  world  is  navigated 
at  this  elevation  of  nearly 
14,000  feet  above  the  sea. 
Lower  down  it  is  also  navigable  at  several  points  by  means  of  rafts  covered  with 
leather,  but  elsewhere  it  is  entirely  obstructed  by  rapids  and  sand-banks.  Its  high 
terraces  and  projecting  bluffs  have  offered  facilities  for  the  construction  of  suspension 
bridges,  though  these  frail  contrivances  are  little  used  by  travellers,  who  prefer  to 
cross  the  stream  in  boats. 

During  its  course  through  TilK't  the  Tsangbo  receives  numerous  tributaries  on 
its  right  bank  from  the  Himalayas  and  Trans-Himalayas,  on  its  left  from  the  Gang- 
dis-ri,  and  through  some  gaps  in  the  border  chain  even  from  the  upland  regions 
beyond  that  range.  The  Xamling,  one  of  these  torrents  from  the  north,  rising  in 
the  Khalamba-la  near  Lake  Tengri-nor,  traverses  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
thermal  districts  in  Tibet.  Here  are  two  geysers,  which  eject  at  intervals  columns 
of  sulphurous  water  to  a  height  of  58  feet,  and  in  winter  the  returning  fluid  fonns 


.  18  Miles. 


5i5WB?-.:7^--v«Pv«iKsr.vv»«^Ba«£S',-«i=aHW/.?«ra 


THE  TSANOBO,  OR  BHAILMAl'UTRA. 


81 


1;)4  foot  of  its 
cliiiiiuished  by 


ic  two  central 
}rho,  SaiiijM*,  or 
lUod  the  Yuru- 
bocn  comp'ired 
'  tho  "Horse" 
horse.  It  rises 
V  ridge  us  the 
I  chief  head- 
glacial  rivulets 
n  the  cirques 
IS.  It  receives 
:ribution  from 
,  from  which 
by  the  parallel 
inge.  After 
proportions  of 
k's  through  a 
plain,  in  which 
raters  become 
irges  near  tho 
am,  where  the 
Mariam-la  de- 
lley.  No  other 
id  is  navigated 
on  of  nearly 
X)ve  the  sea. 
3  covered  with 
iks.  Its  high 
1  of  suspension 
,  who  prefer  to 

i  tributaries  on 
rom  the  Gung- 
iipland  regions 
lorth,  rising  in 
ist  remarkable 
ervals  columns 
ing  fluid  fonns 


round  their  orifices  crystnl  margins  bristling  witli  long  staliigniitos.  Zifost  of 
tho  lakes  in  this  district  1  ivo  oiflior  l)o(>ii  fillod  wifii  alluvia  or  oxluiiistod  tliroiigh 
their  emissaries.  Anioiigst  tln'  largest  that  still  survive  is  tho  Vunidiik,  or  Palti, 
which  is  figured  on  D'Anvillo's  and  subsequent  maps  as  almost  ring-shaped,  or  like 
a  moat  surrounding  a  citadel.  Tho  island,  which  is  somotimos  roprosentod  rather 
as  a  peninsula,  rises  2,'2')0  feet  above  tho  surface  of  tho  lake,  which  is  itself  l;i,;{oO 
feet  above  soa-lovol.  According  to  Manning  it  is  slightly  brackish,  although  the 
pundit  who  visited  its  northern  shore  found  its  water  perfectly  pure  and  sweet.  It 
is  said  to  be  very  d(>op,  but  it  is  uncertain  whether  it  forms  a  completely  closed 
basin  or  drains  through  a  western  outlet  to  the  Tsangbo,  from  which  it  is  separated 
on  the  north  by  the  lofty  Khamba-la  group. 

North-east  of  Lake  I'alti  the  Tsangbo  is  joined  by  the  Kichu,  another  "holy 
stream  "  which  waters  the  Lassa  valley.  Nain  Singh,  who  visited  the  district  in 
187o,  saw  this  valley  stretching  eastwards  some  JJO  miles,  and  thou  disappearing 
towards  the  south-east  between  the  hills.  But  in  1877  another  Hindu  explorer, 
instructed  by  Ilarman,  was  able  to  follow  the  course  of  the  river  for  over  ISO  miles. 
This  explorer  first  followed  the  Tsangbo  Jo  the  extremity  of  the  valley  seen  by 
Nain  Singh  from  a  distance,  but  was  afterwards  obliged  to  make  a  great  detour  in 
order  to  avoid  a  deep  goi-ge  into  which  the  river  plunged.  Nevortholoss  he  came 
upon  it  again  some  20  miles  fi-om  the  i)oint  where  he  had  left  it,  and  then 
ascertained  that  it  made  a  bend  northwards  before  resuming  its  normal  course 
towards  the  east  and  south-east.  At  the  farthest  point  reached  by  him  he  saw  a 
fissure  opening  in  the  mountains  in  the  same  south-easterly  direction,  and  was  told 
by  the  natives  that  the  Tsangbo  escaped  through  this  fissure  to  traverse  a  tract  inha- 
bited by  wild  tribes  and  a  country  beyond  it  belonging  to  the  British  Government. 

At  Chetang  the  Tsangbo  valley  is  about  11, 200  feet  above  sea-level.  Yet  at  this 
elevation  tho  river,  which  already  drains  an  area  of  80,000  square  miles,  has  a 
volume  equal  to  that  of  the  Rhine  or  llhone!  When  seen  by  Nain  Singh  its  waters 
were  comparatively  low,  yet  the  breadth  of  from  1,000  to  1,500  feet  assigned  to  it  by 
him,  combined  with  its  great  depth  and  velocity,  implies  a  volume  at  that  season  of 
rather  more  than  28,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  But  during  the  floods  of  June  and 
July  the  stream  overflows  its  banks  for  several  miles,  and  the  discharge  cannot  then 
be  less,  perhaps,  than  700,000  cubic  feet,  assuming  the  rise  to  be  no  more  than  IG 
feet,  as  the  natives  assert.  Below  Chetang,  in  East  Tibet,  the  Tsangbo  still  receives 
a  large  number  of  copious  streams,  and  flows  through  one  of  the  wettest  regions  on 
the  globe,  so  that  -t  must  carry  an  enormous  quantity  of  water  to  the  Indian  Ocean. 
Yet,  to  judge  from  the  maps,  it  seems  to  lose  itself,  for  its  lower  course  remains  still 
uncertain,  oscillating  between  the  Brahmai)utra  and  Irawady.  Francis  Gurnier 
even  suggested  that  limestone  rocks  full  of  caverns,  like  those  seen  bj'  him  in  many 
parts  of  China  and  Further  India,  occupy  the  south-east  portion  of  Tibet,  and  that 
the  Tsangbo  here  flows  partly  underground  and  ramifies  into  several  basins.  But 
what  little  is  known  of  the  geology  of  East  Tibet  seems  opposed  to  this  theory. 
Limestones  occur  only  on  tho  Yunnan  frontier,  the  rest  of  the  country  being  com- 
posed of  crystalline  rocks  covered  with  glacial  clays. 


'*w«!'f*feaSi^S^S 


I 


'■as 


I 


82  EAST  ASIA. 

But  however  this  l)e,  no  explorer  huviiif!;  yot  followed  the  lower  course  of  the 
Tsini;,'l)()  beyond  the  point  reached  hy  llarniun'H  emissary,  this  important  (juestion 
remains  still  undetermined.  What  becomes  of  the  river  after  eseai)in<^  from  its 
Tibetan  valley  ^  In  17"Jl  the  missionary  Regis,  who  drew  up  u  chart  of  the 
country  by  order  of  the  Kmperor  Kan«»-hi,  slated  that  "  nothing  is  known  for 
certain  as  to  the  place  where  the  river  discharges."  lie  had  merely  learnt  that  it 
flows  into  the  Hay  of  liengal  "  towards  Aracan,  or  the  mouth  of  the  Ganges  in 
Mogul."    B'Anville,  availing  himself  of  the  lamas'  map  and  the  documents  furnished 

Fig.  12. — Course  ok  thk  Tkanobo. 
Acoording  to  the  Chinetie  Documents. 


Atcortilnj  h  DHUiwIlc 


T^ffneii  of  20  to  the  Degree. 

t*  H  t>         **  ^ 


by  missionaries,  traces  the  course  of  the  Tsangbo  as  if  it  were  continued  in  the 
kingdom  of  Ava  by  the  river  Irawady.  Rennell,  on  the  contrary,  identifies  it  with 
the  lirahmaputru,  and  his  view  is  now  most  commonly  accepted.  Yule  even  asks 
whether  the  question  may  not  be  regarded  as  already  settled,  and  advances  an 
argument  which  he  thinks  conclusive.  In  1854  two  Roman  Catholic  missionaries, 
while  attempting  to  reach  Tibet  from  Upijer  Assam,  were  killed  by  one  of  the 
Mishnii  tril)es.  A  bishop  at  that  time  residing  in  a  TilKjtan  province  annexed  to 
China  writes  thut  some  Tibetans  spoke  to  him  of  this  tragedy  as  having  taken 


"'SBas?V---v<.«  ig -x^r^t®:^- (,,Tie.^'i„H-iii^-«iroW!l».J!r!^^ 


THE  TSANOllO,  OR  BRAHMAPUTRA. 


HiJ 


p  course  of  the 
(rtant  (jucstion 
iping  from  its 
,  chart  of  the 
is  known  for 
Y  learnt  that  it 
the  Ganges  in 
lonts  furnished 


1 


3/( 


f 


26 


f5 


itinued  in  the 
entifies  it  with 
""ule  even  asks 
d  advances  an 
c  missionaries, 
by  one  of  the 
ice  annexed  to 
having  taken 


place  on  the  banks  of  the  Gakpo,  or  Kanpu,  "  a  tributary  of  (ho  Tnnvady,"  wliich 
flows  to  tlie  north  of  the  Tsangbo.  Kow  it  is  cortnin  that  the  nmr«K>r  ocruncd  on 
the  Lohit,  (.r  East  lirahmaputra ;  for  a  dotaohnient  of  IJrifisli  troops  wont  lliitluT 
to  avenge  tlicir  death.  Yule  argues  from  this  that  the  Lohit  is  cerfainly  llio 
continuation  of  the  Gaki)o,  and  that  this  river,  describing  a  great  bend  east  of  the 

Fig.    13.— C0UII8E  OF  THE  TSANOBO. 
Aocordinir  to  H.  Scliliwintwelt.    Scale  1  :  12,000,000. 


.  300  MUes 


Tsangbo,  prevents  it  from  reaching  the  Irawady.  But  it  may  be  asked  whether  a 
vague  report,  turning  on  the  doubtful  name  of  a  river,  is  sufficient  to  dispose  of 
such  a  geographical  question. 

The  partisans  of  Rennell's  view  have  long  discussed  the  rival  claims  of  the 
Dihong,  Dibong,  Subansiri,  and  other  streams  in  Assam,  to  be  regarded  as  the 
upper  course  of  the  Brahmaputra.     Most  English  geographers  have  pronounced  in 


Wiljt'#Si^r*S.iSi*»^>'''!!^'iS*8«^- 


34 


KA8T  ASIA. 


favimr  f)f  the  Dihoiifj^,  since  Wilcox  und  Ihirlton  nscertainod  in  IS'io-O  that  it  is 
evidently  the  main  branch  of  the  Urahniajjutra.  Ihit  when  tlu'V  went  on  to 
assert  tiiat  the  IJrahinaputni  itself  is  the  lower  course  of  the  Tsaujyho,  the  still 
unexplored  j^ap  between  tho  two  rivers  was  no  less  than  'MO  miles  hinj;  as  the  bird 
flies,  and  the  inlervenin}^  hijjfhlands  were  entirely  unknown.  The  information 
brouf^ht  back  by  Wilcox  re^'ardinji^  tho  river  ascended  by  him  was  also  far  from 
sulHcient  to  justify  his  opinion  on  the  identity  of  the  two  streams.  He  should 
have  first  of  all  proved  that  the  Dihong  has  u  larger  volume  than  the  Tsungbo. 


Fig.    14.— COUKBE   OF   TUB   ThA  .OBU. 
Accordint  to  MarLham.     Soale  1  :  10,000,000. 


•  300  Miles. 


But  he  merely  observed,  that  at  the  point  reached  by  him  the  Dihong  was  100 
yards  broad,  with  a  slow  current,  and,  as  he  8iippo8e(f,  an  immense  depth. 

The  problem  is  now  confined  to  the  narrowest  limits.  According  to  Walker's 
explorations,  the  entirely  unexplored  space  separating  the  extreme  point  reached  by 
the  already  mentioned  Hindu  pundit  on  the  Tsanglx>,  and  the  farthest  point  to 
which  the  Dihong  has  been  ascended,  is  exactly  93  miles,  and  the  difference  of  level 
would  appear  to  be  about  7,500  feet.  Were  the  two  streams  connected,  the  total 
fall  in  an  approximate  course  of  180  miles  would  consequently  be  rather  over 
1  in  100  yards — a  fall  uuapproached  by  any  other  river  in  its  middle  course,  and 
equalled  only  by  the  valleys  of  torrents  in  the  heart  of  the  mountains.     Vag^o 


•-''^:!  ''^0'-l's^:f^-''-i^ »fS<^^'AX^Vv-i^y-:f>^ 


-'''«-'mmii)^ms»ism^i!ismm^Sgmm^^gmi^^^ 


THE  TSAXGIU).  Ott  nRAIIMAI'UTRA. 


8R 


m^>-(>  that  it  is 
«'y  wi'iit  on  to 
nifj;l)o,  till'  still 
iiif^  us  the  bird 
be  iiiforniiition 
)  also  fur  from 
IS.  He  should 
1  the  Tsuiigbo. 


M' 


B4?n6 


ihong  was  100 
epth. 

InfT  to  "Walker's 
K)int  reached  by 
irthest  point  to 
fference  of  level 
iccted,  the  total 
be  rather  over 
Idle  course,  and 
utaius.     Vag^e 


reports,  no  doubt,  speak  of  rapids  and  cataracts  throuf^h  wliich  the  Tibetan  waters 
reach  the  lowlands;  but  it  is  uncertain  what  streams  these  re})()rts  refer  to.  llesidcs, 
the  exact  measurements  rec(>ntly  taken  of  the  disdiarfje  i>f  the  Ilrahmaputra  and 
its  alllucnts  do  not  seem  favourable  to  Reunell's  hypothesis.  The  How  of  the 
tSubuusiri,  Dibong,  und  Upper  Bruhmuputru  shows  that  these  rivers  are  all  far 

Fig.  15. — Cdirse  of  the  Tkanoho. 

According  to  Gordon.     Scale  1  :  11,000,000. 


.  300  MaeR. 


inferior  in  volume  to  the  Tsangbo  at  Chetang,  and  consequently  still  smaller  than 
the  same  stream  180  miles  lower  down.  The  volume  of  the  Dihong,  as  measured 
by  Woodthorpe,  is  54,000  cubic  feet  per  second  in  the  snowy  season,  when  the 
water  logins  to  rise ;  and  judging  from  the  extent  of  land  coveretl  during  the 
floods,  the  discharge  would  then  seem  to  vary  from  350,000  to  420,000  cubic  feet. 
But  this  is  precisely  the  amount  we  might  expect  to  be  sent  down  by  the  river 


mm^m-'m^mm^ 


-^^fr-J-i^D^'ii^^ 


»0 


KAST  ASIA. 


fl 


basin  limited  by  tlio  Traiis-Hinmluynn  ranpr;  fur  lu-ir  tho  avrrii^c  rainfall  ih  at 
least  \''i  I'eet,  and  the  natural  discharge  may  Im'  taken  at  from  4(K)  to  •<()(>  ^mlltins 
p<^r  s(|uare  mile.  A  basin  from  S,()()()  to  1*^,000  square  miles  in  extent  would  sutficu 
to  supply  such  a  (|uantity,  and  the  une.\ph)red  traet  separating  the  Tsiui^rlMt  and 
Lower  |)ilion^  valleys  is  lar^e  enou^;h  to  contain  a  basin  of  this  sixe  by  including 
in  it  that  (d'  th(>  Lopra-ko-chu,  which  Hows  to  the  west  W-tween  the  Himalaya  and 
Trans- Himalaya,  and  whose  lower  course  is  still  unexplorwl. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  comparative  Huvial  discharge,  as  approximately  indicated 
for  the  Tsanji;lM)  and  accurately  for  the  Irawady,  would  seem  to  justify  the  Chineso 
map  reproduced  by  D'Anville,  which  represents  the  Jlurman  river  as  the  continuu* 
tion  of  the  Tsanj;lM).  At  lihamo  the  Irawady  dischurjjfcs  during  the  H<hkIs  «»ver 
1,000,000  cubic  feet,  and  its  average  volume  at  this  place  is  ulMtut  two-thirds  of  the 
river  in  the  delta ;  that  is,  .scarcely  less  than  JJlo,000  wiuare  feet.  No  doubt,  during 
the  dry  season  from  November  to  June,  the  discharge  of  the  Lower  Irawady  may 
full  to  7(>,(K)0  and  even  47,000  cubic  feet  per  second  ;  but  during  that  iH>ri<Nl  the 
river  receives  no  rain-water,  and  diminishes  by  evaporation  us  it  approaches  the 
sea.  The  excessive  discharge  at  Hhamo,  where  the  annual  rainfall  is  far  less  than 
in  tlic  lirulnnaputru  basin,  can  Ik^  explained  only  by  usHuming  a  large  urea  of 
drainage.  Yet  on  niost  nuips  the  Irawady  basin  is  strictly  limited  by  an  amphi- 
theatre of  hills  on  the  northern  frontier  of  Iturmah.  Wilcox  and  llurlton  nuiy 
doubtless  liave  seen  a  torrent  near  its  source  in  llurmese  territory;  but  it  d(K's  n«>t 
follow  that  this  was  the  true  Irawady,  although  m  named  by  them.  These 
explorers  themstdves  heard  rejiorts  of  u  great  eastern  stream  belonging  to  the  same 
basin,  but  they  made  no  attempt  to  reach  it. 

In  any  ctise,  before  coming  to  a  di^finito  conclusion,  it  will  be  wise  at  least  first 
to  see  whether  the  blocks  of  wo<m1  or  stems  of  trees  nund)er(Hl  by  order  of  the 
Indian  Topographic  Department  and  thrown  into  the  Tsimglx)  in  Tibet  will  reach 
the  jdains  of  Uengal  or  of  Hurmuh.  Meanwhile  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  route 
from  Assam  to  Tibet  may  soon  bo  rcoj)ene<l,  and  that  explorers  may  have  free 
access  from  the  plains  to  the  uplands  through  the  intervening  forests,  swamps,  and 
hills. 


IIead-wateus  ok  thk  Gkkat  Ixno-OiiiXESE  Rivers. 

North  of  the  TsanglK)  depression  the  Tibetan  tableland  lias  l)ecii  cut  into  innu- 
merable side  valleys  by  the  running  waters.  The  southern  trade  winds  from  the 
IJay  of  liengal  easily  reach  the  Khachi  plateaux  thn)ugli  wide  oix?nings  in  the 
Himalayas.  Hence  the  eastern  slopes  of  these  uplands  receive  a  copious  rainfall 
from  the  Indian  <  )c(;an.  Whilst  the  arid  soil,  the  rarefied  atmosphere,  sultry  heats 
in  sunnner,  and  intense  winter  cold  render  the  plateaux  almost  inaeces.sible,  the 
ravine  lands  are  equally  difficult  to  traverse,  owing  to  their  rugged  character,  their 
steep  es(!arpments,  tierce  torrents,  dense  forests,  and  the  wild  tribes  inhabiting  the 
clearings.  Most  of  this  region  deiKMids  officially  on  Tibet,  and  administrative 
centres  are  here  established  as  in  the  other  provinces.  Nevertheless  several  groups 
of  tribes  are  practically  independent.     No  organized  army  has  hitherto  IxH^n  able 


n^-'VKfi'^rrr^^ 


»..*»-" '."v-«.-jiBr  ^xsmsi^mivS!^" 


i^(>  rainfall  i'h  at 
I)  to  '>()()  ^mlloiiM 
eiit  would  KiilHco 
ho  Tsjiii^'lMt  and 
ii/(>  Ity  including 
11!  lliiiinlaya  and 

inatoly  indicat(>d 
*tify  the  Chi  11080 
UH  tho  continuu- 
'  tho  fltHHia  ovor 
iwo-thii-ds  of  tho 
^'o  doubt,  durin}^ 
or  Irawady  may 
that  {H'ritNl  tho 
approaclu-s  tho 
1  \H  far  loM8  than 
a  lar^o  aroji  of 
I'd  hy  an  aniphi- 
iid  Hurlton  may 
;  but  it  d<K>s  not 
ly  thorn.  Tliost) 
l!;iug  to  the  same 

vis(!  at  least  first 
by  onlor  of  tho 
Tibet  will  roach 
d  that  tho  route 
1  may  have  free 
sta,  Hwumps,  and 

us. 

m  cut  into  iiinu- 
winds  from  tho 
ojwnings  in  the 
.  copious  rainfall 
ere,  sultry  heats 
inaccessible,  tho 
character,  their 
!s  inhubiting  tho 
1  administnitivc 
is  several  groups 
itherto  been  able 


S^ffiiSS^^^^^^J 


-"'^jilMi' 


!   *  'S-r  -, 


!;i 


ii«« 


TU£  LAKTZAN-KIANU-HOOQS  OORUK. 


%^^.«;-&BaRr.'T«vr-7"^^ts*g^»«ni,'?;rasK-^^3*5g?9it»i3w^«^^ 


UEAD-WATEUS  OP  TIIK  OIIKAT  INDOCIIINKHK  IMVKUS. 


87 


to  occupy  tho  country,  and  itn  Hnvnjfo  or  luilf-i-ivilist><l  iiilial>it!iiitN  have  (iccnNiniially 
rccojyiiisrd  the  Muprciiiucy  of  Tibet  or  China  only  for  the  purpoM*'  ol'  tindin^  a 
ready  market  for  their  priKluco. 

Their  huids  have  Ikh'H  triiverHcd  hy  traveUers,  and  cs|M'eially  hy  niissionaricM, 
but  few  of  tlieni  huvo  iK'en  able  to  trace  a  continuous  itinerary  of  tlu>ir  routew,  no 
that  these  hi^rhhind  regions,  fifteen  times  more  extensive  than  the  Alps,  must  hmp^ 
renuiin  unknown.  Hitherto  littU>  has  In'en  (h>ne  lH>yond  determining  the  general 
run  (d"  the  nuiin  ranges.  I'araUel  with  the  Tant-hi  oth»'r  ridj^es  stiitch  to  llie 
Kuku-nor,  and  all  of  them  run  mainly  north  and  south  far  into  the  Trans-'ian^etic 
IM'uinsula.  These  hif^hl.  nds  form  the  Indo-(  'hinesi'  system  spoken  of  by  Hiehthofen. 
The  two  HysteniH  intersc'ct  each  otlier,  leaving  several  breaks  in  the  conver^injjf 
lines,  through  which  tho  rivers  escujM)  from  their  upper  basins.  Ah  far  as  can  Ik? 
judged  from  the  rouf^hly  sketched  charts  of  e.xplorers,  supplemented  by  the  Chineso 
documents,  the  streams  of  the  province  of  Kham  indicate  by  the  direction  of  their 
valleys  the  fj;cneral  run  of  the  mountain  ranffcs.  All  tlu'se  streams  How  first  north- 
cast  parallel  witli  tho  Tant-la,  then  finding  an  issue  westwards,  they  gradually 
trend  towai-ds  the  south  through  the  narrow  and  deep  valleyH  of  the  Indo-Chinese 
system.  Thus  tlu;  Tsangbo  itself  is  deflected  to  the  north-east  l)eforo  bending 
round  to  the  southern  plains  cither  through  the  Dihong  or  the  Trawady.  Similar 
curves,  but  on  u  much  larger  scale,  are  descrilK^d  by  the  Mekhong  and  tSalwen, 
and  tho  Yang-tze-kiang  itself  runs  parallel  with  tlio  Mekhong  several  hundred 
miles  southwards  to  an  opening  in  tlu'  hills,  through  which  it  pass<'s  suddenly  cast- 
wards  into  China  proper.  Nowhere  else  do  wo  meet  with  so  many  independent 
streaiiis  flowing  so  near  each  other  in  parallel  valleys,  yet  ultinuitely  discharging 
into  different  seas. 

Tho  emissary  which  escapes  from  Lake  Chargut,  and  wliich  also  drains  tho 
Tcngri-nor  as  well  as  most  of  the  lacustrine  district  in  the  south-east  corner  of  tho 
Khachi  plateau,  is  a  considerable  stream  named  the  Nap-chu,  or  Nak-chu,  by  Hue 
and  Nain  Singh.  But  after  leaving  tho  plateau  it  frequently  changes  its  name 
according  to  tho  districts  and  languages  of  the  populations  through  which  it  passes. 
As  remaiked  by  Francis  Gamier,  tho  river  nomenclature  is  ])urely  local  through- 
out China,  and  especially  in  this  part  of  Tibet,  tlo  same  name  for  the  same  stream 
being  nowhero  current  for  more  than  60  miles  o!  its  course.  Thus  the  Nap-chu 
becomes  successively  the  Khara-ussu,  Om-chu,  Ngen-kio,  Nu-kiang,  Lu-kiung,  and 
Lutzc-kiang.  This  divereUy  of  names,  combincc'i  with  the  difficulties  of  explora- 
tion, has  enabled  geographers  to  send  this  river  somewhat  wildly  up  and  down  tho 
country.  While  Potennann  with  tho  Schlagintweits  bus  identified  it  with  tho 
Dibong,  which  joins  the  Dihong  a  little  above  the  I^rahnutputra  junction,  Desgodins, 
who  has  followed  the  middle  course  of  tho  "  river  of  the  Lutze  people  "  for  about 
240  miles,  has  ascertained  that  it  flows  far  to  the  east  of  tho  Brahnuiputra,  and 
accordingly  identifies  it  >vith  the  Salwen.  lie  also  feels  confident  that  the  I^antzan- 
kiang,  or  Kinlong-kiang — that  is,  tho  "  Great  Dragon  River  "—is  the  Meklumg  of 
Camboja,  and  this  opinion  has  been  confirmed  by  tho  French  exixvlition  up  tho 
Mekhong.     Yet  Schlagintweit,  Kiopert,  and  Prterraann  make  the  Lantzan  alsf)  o 


f«l«»,»«'i' 


8H 


MAST  ASIA. 


trilMitiirv  of  tlic  lii'a)iiiiii|Mitrii,  nMii^rnisin^  in  il  tin*  lioliil,  or  UimI  Mnihiiiiipiitni, 
wliiisr  iinw  <'\|i|iin'(|  Inisiii  Uvs  iiliiKist  nitirrly  1)11  llir  smith  hUIv  of  the  t'listmi  nm- 
liiiiiiitiitii  iif  tlic  iliiiiiiltiyns.  Viil<>  iipilii  ic^fiinls  it  as  idnitinil  with  the  (iukpn, 
the  siniill  TilM'tan  river  Huwiii^  tiortli  of,  aiitl  paralitl  with,  thi<  Tsany;lM). 

Of  all  th(>s<>  rivers  flowing;  from  the  'i'ilirtaii  platrniix  throii^rh  profoiiiid  ttssiirPH 
to  the  plains,  the  Ijaiit/aii  proliahly  passes  throii^'h  tlit>  most  savage  ^or^es.  At 
Yerkajd,  \vher«'  it  is  still  r,"»(M(  fe<'t  alM(v«>  the  sea,  its  rocky  hanks  rise  sevt'nil 
linntlred  yards,  in  many  places  almost  |H'rpendicnlarly,  ahove  the  river  hed.  Sntth 
of  Aleii-tzo  it  iH  not  uUvuvh  possible  to  follow  its  course,  and  the  traveller  is  h<>ro 
and  there  ohli^ed  to  mount  !,'>(»()  and  even  '2,(M)  feet  alnive  the  stream,  which 
fri»m  IIh'sc  elevations  rn'onm  like  a  mere  rivulet.  The  ^orge  which  ("tioper  hun 
named  Iloj,'p;'s  |)cfile,  from  one  of  his  friends,  is  a  fissure  scarcely  more  than  (iO 
feet  wide,  which  seems  completely  shut  in  wherever  the  view  is  interrupted  hy 
overhaii^iiij'  rocks.  At  its  luirrowest  point  a  sort  of  platform  supported  hy  propH 
Hprin^fin^'  ohlitpiely  from  the  rock  lias  had  to  he  c(»nstructed  in  its  vertical  side. 
iJeiu)^  kept  in  u  ha<l  state  of  repair,  this  worm-eaten  staj^e  ulTords  vistas  throujfh 
the  planks  of  the  seethinfj;  waters  hclow.  In  several  other  placeH  the  hlulfs  have 
ulTorde*!  facilities  for  the  construction  of  rope  l)ridjj;eH  reNend)lin^  the  fnnihiffin  of 
Columbia  and  the  Duero.  A  simple  ImndMX)  rope  is  stretched  from  side  to  side 
with  a  Hh»pe  sutlicient  to  allow  an  object  attached  by  a  movable  rin>?  to  be  carriwl 
across  by  its  own  gravity.  Solid  copper  frames  receive  travellers  and  uninuds,  who 
are  shot  over  the  yawning  ubyss  in  a  flash.  The  return  journey  is  nuide  at  some 
point  where  the  rojH^  is  inclined  in  the  oj)po»ito  direction.  Hut  the  system  varies 
considerably  in  dilVerent  places. 

Whatever  be  the  ori^^in  of  these  deep  fissures,  tlu>re  are  several  indications  of 
j^reat  ehaiifj^es  in  the  climate  of  this  re;?ion.  Jleds  of  reddish  clay,  like  the  glacial 
marls  of  Kurope,  luij;;e  boulders  strewn  over  the  valleys,  nnd  similar  appearances 
seom  to  show  that  the  f^laeiers  formerly  descended  much  further  than  at  present 
down  the  watercourses  of  Kust  Tibet. 

Cmmatk. 

But  althoupfh  the  glaciers  have  retreated  from  the  lower  valleys,  the  present 
climate  of  the  country  is  sufticiently  indicated  by  the  title  of  "  Snowy  Kingdom," 
connuonly  given  to  it  by  all  its  neighbours.  According  to  Turner  the  people  of 
Bhutan  simply  (^all  it  the  "  North  Snow,"  while  the  people  of  the  plains,  con- 
tinually cr)ntem])lating  the  snowy  crests  of  the  Ilinmluyus,  naturally  suppose  that 
the  land  beyond  them  is  covered  by  perennial  snow-fields.  But  the  effects  of  alti- 
tude are  largely  balanced  by  the  extreme  dryness  of  the  air  on  the  plateaux,  where 
at  times  not  a  single  fluke  will  fall  for  months  together.  The  little  that  does  fall 
is  also  soon  swept  by  the  winds  into  the  ravines,  or  in  summer  rapidly  melted  by 
the  sun.  In  the  south-east  corner  of  Tibet  the  zone  of  perpetual  snow  begins  at 
alM)ut  18,0()t)  feet — that  is  to  say,  some  ;{,()()()  feet  al)ovo  the  sunnnit  of  ]l[ont  Blanc; 
and  even  on  the  Caylcy  Pass,  19,900  feet  high,  Forsyth  found  the  ground  free  of 


r.  .'-^f7-.v^^^ 


T'F■«eB;g">^■V^,K3*,^■-J»tJJ,.^?vK■'.^sSl^'WV>:.3f-•,i5=-'^i 


'''^■/!^^*iim&inm.<i:ii;&xmmim>'!^',^^^^^4 


n.IMATK. 


80 


il  nni)iiiiii|)iiti-ii, 
llic  t'H^^tcrii  ciiii- 
witli  the  (iuk|)<t, 

moIoiiikI  HssiirrM 
ijrc  H*<rni'H.  At 
iikN  rinr  Mcvcnil 
vcr  1m'(1.  Siiilli 
tnivcllcr  i^  Iuto 
ic  strt'imi,  wliich 
lich  ('(lopcr  liiiN 
ly  nioro  tliiiii  (iO 
I  intcrniptcd  l)y 
ijM»rt('»l  liy  piopH 
itM  vcrtiral  side. 
Ih  vi.xtiiN  throng;!! 
t  flu"  hi  nil's  liuvo 
f  tli(>  fiirnliitiiH  of 
rom  side  to  Hi(li> 
iiifj;  to  Ik'  carried 
iiid  uiiinuilH,  who 
is  inad(>  at  koiiiu 
he  Hysteni  varieH 

id  iiidicatioMH  of 

,  like  the  j^laeial 

ilar  appearanees 

than  at  preMeiit 


leys,  tlio  present 
)\vy  Kingdom," 
er  the  j)eople  of 
the  plains,  eon- 
lly  suppose  that 
e  elfeets  of  alti- 
platoaux,  where 
le  that  does  fall 
ijjidly  melted  bj' 
[  snow  begins  at 
of  ^lont  Blanc ; 
ground  free  of 


miow.  On  the  soiith(>rn  stopi's  of  the  Himalayas  tht>  snows  drilling  lu'lore  thu 
winds  descend  mmh  lower  than  on  the  Tilu'tan  sid«',  and  the  pusses  over  theso 
mountains  are  closed  earlier  in  the  season  than  tin*  more  elevated  routes  across  tho 
various  plateau  ranges  farther  north.  Kven  in  the  depth  of  winter  the  roa<l  im 
practicable  In'tween  Kashmir  and  Varkand,  thanks  to  the  slight  snowfall.  Ho 
great  is  the  dryness  of  the  air  in  sonu"  parts  of  Tibet  that  the  doors  and  wooden 
pillars  of  the  houses  have  to  Ih>  wrapp(<d  in  cloths  to  prevent  them  from  warping, 
and  to  keep  the  skin  from  chapping  many  travellers  are  accustomed  to  smi>ar  their 
faces  with  a  black  grease.  The  aninuds  dying  on  the  routes  across  the  plateaux 
Hoon  shrivel  up,  and  some  of  the  more  diHicult  roads  are  lined  with  the  nuunmili(>d 
yaks,  horses,  and  sheep.  U'hen  a  beast  of  burden  falls  the  caravan  people  gene- 
rally cut  away  the  choicre  parts,  and  .spit  them  on  the  thorny  scrub  for  the  benefit 
of  passing  wayfarers. 

Hut  if  the  snow  is  relatively  slight,  the  <-limate  of  Tibet  is  none  the  less  sovero. 
Hero  I'rjevalsky,  Drew,  and  others  s]H>ak  of  tho  terrible  eohl,  eond)ine(l  with  a  defi- 
ciency <»f  oxygen,  which  they  had  to  endur»>.  On  the  higher  passes  and  crests  the 
rarefaction  of  the  air  renders  all  exertion  very  distressing,  and  men  and  animals 
alike  suffer  from  the  so-called  "  mountain  sickness,"  often  causing  the  camels  to  fall  as 
if  struck  with  lightning,  or,  as  the  Chinese  writers  say,  "  poisoned  by  the  deadly 
exhalations  from  the  ground."  In  1870  a  caravan  of  three  hundred  hunuin  beings, 
which  left  liassu  in  February,  lost  all  its  thousand  camels  and  fifty  men  In't'oro 
reaching  tho  end  of  its  journey.  In  winter  all  tho  streunis  and  lakes  ore  every- 
where frozen  down  to  within  8,000  or  even  7,000  feet  of  sea-level.  Kven  in 
July  and  August  the  caravans  often  find  the  water  ice-bound  on  the  passes.  Tho 
long-haired  yaks  are  at  times  burdened  with  a  heavy  coating  of  icicles,  and  Hue 
tells  us  that  when  crossing  the  frozen  surface  of  tho  liower  ^luru-ussu  he  perceived 
some  fifty  dark  and  shapeless  objects,  which,  on  a  nearer  view,  proved  to  bo  a  long 
line  of  these  animals  suddenly  frozen  to  death  while  attempting  to  cross  tho  stream. 
Tho  attitude  of  tho  bodies  in  tho  act  of  swimming  was  perfectly  visible  through  tho 
clear  ico,  above  which  protruded  their  fine  horned  heads,  from  which  the  eaprles 
and  ravens  had  plucked  the  eyes, 

Tho  radiation  of  heat  into  tho  clear,  cloudless  upper  legions  contributes  greatly 
to  reduce  the  temperature  of  tho  plateaux,  and  here  travellers  suffer  all  the  more 
that  there  is  almost  a  complete  dearth  of  fuel.  Little  can  bo  found  beyond  some 
scanty  brushwood,  except  on  the  more  favoured  camping  grounds.  Fortunately 
tho  nights  are  nearly  always  calm  ;  but  during  the  day,  when  the  tablelands  are 
exposed  to  tho  solar  rays,  while  the  depressions  remain  buried  in  a  chilly  gloom, 
the  surface  is  swept  by  fierce  sand-storms,  the  terror  of  all  travellers.  In  some  of 
the  low-lying  tracts  the  tillers  of  the  land  usually  flood  their  fields  at  the  begin- 
ning of  winter  in  order  to  protect  the  vegetable  soil  from  the  erosive  action  of  the 
winds,  and  this  method  appears  also  to  increase  its  fertility. 

Altogether  the  Tibetan  plateau,  enclosed  as  it  is  by  lofty  border  ranges,  is 
characterizeJi  by  great  dryness  and  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold.  But  little 
moisture  reaches  it  from  the  Indian  Ocean  ;  the  force  of  the  southern  monsoons  is 


.:im^imm?-i^ 


40 


EAST  ASIA. 


spent  in  the  Ilimalnyan  valleys,  and  the  upper  counter-currents  alone  arc  revealed 
'.:.  ♦lie  avalanches  of  snow  that  arc  precipitated  from  the  Kincrliinjinf^a  and  other 
giants  of  Iho  great  range.  Nevertheless,  the  eastern  region  of  Tibet,  towards 
which  the  Hay  of  liengal  projects  inland,  already  partakes  of  the  Indian  climate. 
The  marine  winds  ])enetrate  into  these  lands  through  tho  breaks  in  the  mountains, 
hero  much  lower  than  in  tho  west,  and  discharge  abundant  rains,  especially  during 
the  i/i'rr/i,  or  rainy  season,  from  August  to  October  inclusive.  All  the  rivers  rising 
in  this  part  of  Tibet  are  fed  far  more  by  these  rains  than  by  the  melting  snows. 


:!!5S 


Fauna  and  Flora. 

The  elevation  of  the  tablelands  west  of  tho  province  of  Kham  is  too  great  for 
the  development  of  arborescent  vegetation,  except  in  the  shelteri'd  depressions,  and 
even  here  nothing  is  met  beyond  the  willow,  poplar,  and  some  fruit  trees.  Else- 
where little  is  seen  except  stunted  or  rampant  shrubs  scarcely  exceeding  0  feet  in 
height.  Yet  the  lamas  have  succeeded  in  growing  some  fine  poplars  about  the 
monastery  of  Mangnang,  in  the  province  of  Nari,  l'},970  feet  above  the  sea.  On 
most  of  the  exposed  plateaux  over  13,000  feet  the  vegetation  is  limited  to  thin  and 
hard  grasses  sharp  as  needles,  which  pierce  the  camel's  hoof  and  cover  its  feet  with 
blood.  Nevertheless,  the  ijnharjcrc,  a  hardy  and  woody  plant,  creeps  up  to  an 
altitude  of  15,000  feet,  and  in  some  places  is  met  even  whei-e  the  dry  atmosphere 
and  saline  properties  of  the  soil  arc  fatal  to  the  grasses.  Godwin  Austen  found  it 
growing  abundantly  on  the  Chang-chegmu  plateau,  18,300  feet  above  sea-level. 
Nain  Singh  met  with  fields  of  barley  at  an  elevation  of  over  15,400  feet,  or  about  tho 
altitude  of  Monte  Rosa.  All  the  Ombo  basin,  watered  by  Lake  Dangra-yum,  is 
like  a  green  sward ;  but  in  the  colder  uplands  still  iidiabited  by  the  Tibetans 
cereals  seldom  ripen,  and  the  people  here  live  entirely  on  the  milk  and  flesh  of 
their  herds.  On  the  other  hand,  the  less  elevated  and  well-watered  south-eastern 
valleys  are  covered  with  vast  forests.  Amongst  the  larger  trees  is  the  prickly 
holm,  which,  though  not  so  high,  is  comparable  in  the  size  of  its  stem  to  the  pine, 
Avhile  far  exceeding  it  in  its  rich  and  abundant  foliage. 

Although  poor  in  vegetation,  the  Tibetan  uplands  have  a  much  more  varied 
fauna  than  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Himalayas.  Tibet,  which  is  regarded  by 
zoologists  as  a  princij)al  centre  of  evolution  as  regards  animal  life,  possesses  a 
special  fauna,  exceptionally  rich  in  varieties  of  the  ass,  yak,  sheep,  antelope,  gazelle, 
and  wild  goat.  Nain  Singh  met  with  herds  of  as  many  as  two  thousand  antelopes, 
which  in  the  distance  look  like  regiments  of  soldiers,  with  their  sharp  horns 
glittering  like  bayonets  in  the  sun.  The  Schlagintweits  found  yaks  at  an  eleva- 
tion of  19,800  feet,  and  the  tarbagan  marmots  (^Arcfomt/s  hobac)  are  still  found 
burrowing  in  the  argillaceous  soil  up  to  17,900  feet.  The  game  is  preyed  on  by 
foxes,  jackals,  wild  dogs,  and  the  woolly-haired  white  wolf ;  while  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  Tengri-nor,  white  bears,  resembling  those  of  the  polar  regions,  commit  great 
ravages  on  the  flocks.  In  I'^ast  Tibet  the  fauna  is  still  more  varied,  including  the 
panther,  bufl'alo,  monkey,  squirrel,  bear,  and  a  small  si)ecies  of  wild  boar.     But 


^Niii 


;.■■•'•■«?  "^r^fs.^m^i^msmiy^^m'^wmiWma-.r 


nlono  arc  ^c^■cule(l 
iiijiiif^ii  and  other 
of  Tibot,  towards 
10  Indian  diinalc. 
in  the  mountains, 
especially  during 
1  the  rivers  rising 
nelting  snows. 


m  is  too  groat  for 
[I  depressions,  and 
fruit  trees.  Else- 
scooding  (5  foot  in 
poplars  about  the 
bove  the  sea.  On 
mited  to  thin  and 
^over  its  feet  with 

creeps  up  to  an 
10  dry  atmosjjhero 
n  Austen  found  it 
t  above  sea-level. 
I  feet,  or  about  the 
D  l)angra-yum,  is 

by  the  Tibetans 
[nilk  and  flesh  of 
3rcd  south-eastern 
ics  is  the  prickly 

stem  to  the  pine, 

iiuch  more  varied 
ch  is  regarded  by 
1  life,  possesses  a 
antelope,  gazelle, 
lousand  antelopes, 
heir  sharp  horns 
j'aks  at  an  eleva- 
')  are  still  found 
e  is  preyed  on  by 
he  neighbourhood 
)ns,  connnit  great 
od,  including  the 
wild  boar.     But 


iiiiaiiiT'      I  I  iiinninirrdWfcyMiw^ 


^    I 

ft"' 


li8 


iiai 


iiiii 


1     ■'■r 


'^'**S'''S««&^S^35555IS«^^r«5s^^ 


INHABITANTS— TllE  TIBETANS. 


41 


bird?  are  comparatively  rare,  though  some  of  them  rise  to  astonishiurr  heights,  one 
spo(ies  of  hirk  being  met  ut  lo,000,  and  otliers  at  over  IS,U00  fei't.  In  Tibet 
proper  no  .songsters  arc  heard  except  birds  of  passage  ;  but  the  eagk%  \ullure,  and 
raven  abound,  while  the  pheasant  frequents  the  woodlands.  ^\  few  li/ards  and 
snaki's  reach  an  altitude  of  15,400  feet,  and  some  of  the  lakes  on  the  plateau  are 
stocked  with  fish,  ^The  extreme  limit  of  fish  in  the  Alps  is  7,100  feet,  whereas 
Schlagintweit  met  in  Lake  Mognalari  (14,000  feet)  varieties  of  salmon,  which,  like 
those  of  the  sea,  ascend  every  year  to  the  higher  fresh-water  lake  in  the  spawning 
season.  In  the  basins  that  have  become  saline  the  species  have  adapted  them- 
selves to  the  altered  conditions. 

Several  of  the  indigenous  animals  have  been  domesticated.  The  yak  has  been 
crossed  with  the  Indian  Zebu  cow,  the  result  being  the  dzo,  whose  varieties  have 
hair  of  different  colours,  while  the  wild  yak  is  always  black.  But  in  the  fourth 
generation  these  animals  revert  to  the  primitive  typo.  Although  always  somewhat 
obstinate,  the  yak  is  the  most  general  beast  of  burden  in  Tibet ;  but  slieep,  being 
more  hardy,  are  employed  on  the  higher  passes.  Each  sheep  carries  a  load  t)f  from 
20  to  30  lbs.,  and  thrives  on  the  scanty  pasture  along  the  route.  The  horses  and 
nmles  make  excellent  mounts ;  but  the  most  valuable  domestic  animal  is  the  goat, 
whoHcpas/iiti,  or  short,  soft,  downy  hair  under  the  outer  coat,  commands  such  high 
prices  for  the  manufacture  of  the  Cashmere  shawls.  The  dogs,  a  powerful  and 
i'.i  "idable  breed,  are  not  employed  in  the  chase,  but  only  as  house-dogs  and 
t  They  degenerate  in  India,  though  some  specimens  have  been  perfectly 

a.  •'  :..utized  in  England. 

IXHAIUTANTS — TlIE   TlHETANS. 

The  great  bulk  of  the  inhabitants,  apart  from  the  Mongolo-Tatar  Ilorsoks  of 
Khachi  and  the  various  independent  tribes  of  the  province  of  Kham,  belong  to  a 
distinct  branch  of  the  Mongolian  family.  They  arc  of  low  size,  with  broad 
shoulders  and  chests,  and  present  a  striking  contrast  to  the  Hindus  in  the  size  of 
their  arms  and  calves,  while  resembling  them  in  their  small  and  delicate  hands  and 
feet.  The  cheek  bones  are  generally  prominent,  the  eyes  black  and  slightly 
oblique,  the  mouth  largo,  with  thin  lips,  the  hair  brown  and  bushy.  The  com- 
plexion varies,  as  in  Europe,  from  the  most  delicate  white  amongst  the  rich  to  the 
copper  yellow  of  the  shepherds  exposed  to  ihe  inclemency  of  the  weather. 
C'rctinism  is  general  in  the  upland  valleys,  leprosy  and  hydrophobia  on  the 
plateaux. 

The  Tibetans  arc  one  of  the  most  highly  endowed  people  in  tlie  world.  Nearly 
all  travellers  are  uiumimous  in  praise  of  their  gentleness,  frank  and  kindly  bearing, 
unaffected  dignity.  Strong,  courageous,  naturally  cheerful,  fond  of  music,  the 
dance  and  song,  they  would  be  a  model  race  but  for  their  lack  of  enterprise. 
Tluy  are  as  easily  governed  as  a  flock  of  sheep,  and  for  them  the  word  of  a  lama 
has  force  of  law.  Even  the  mandates  of  the  Chinese  authorities  are  scrupulously 
obeyed,  and  thus  it  happens  that  against  their  own  friendly  feelings  they  jealously 
guard  the  frontiers  against  all  strangers. 
80 


rlS'SKsS^^i^i;  i«>a«ii'< 


"ii;;-y  ■-' 


42 


KAST  ASIA. 


ii  pi 


Tho  more  or  loss  niixod  races  nf  East  Tibet  on  (lie  riiincso  irontior,  on  the  route 
of  the  troops  thiit  |)hiii(h>r  tliciu  iiiul  of  the  iiiaiuliirins  wh(»  oppress  them,  seem  to 
bo  less  I'avoiniibiy  eonstituted,  and  are  described  as  tliievish  and  treacherous. 
Amnn<rsl  the  peoples  of  the  plateau  the  Khampas  and  Khanibas  are  to  be  carefully 
distin<;iiislied.  The  Khampas  of  the  Upper  Indus  valley  resemble  the  Tibetans  of 
La(hik.  They  aiv  always  cheerful,  even  under  what  to  others  would  seem  to  be 
unspeakable  misery.  Hut  tho  religious  sentiment  is  little  devehtjied  amongst  them, 
and  none  of  their  children  ever  enter  the  monastic  orders.  Tiie  Khandias  are 
innnigrauts  from  the  jirovinee  of  Kham,  east  of  Lassa,  who  visit  all  the  cami)ing 
grounds  as  far  as  Kaslnnir  as  professional  beggars.  15ut  a  few  groups  have  here 
and  there  abandoned  the  nonuid  life  and  taken  to  agriculture. 

The  Tilwtans  have  long  been  a  civilised  people.  Stone  implements  have  no 
doubt  been  retained  for  certain  religious  ceremonies,  and  the  stone  age  itself  still 
partly  continues  on  the  upland  plateaux,  when;  many  shepherd  communities  use  stone 
cooking  vessels.  IJut  even  these  are  accpiainted  with  copper  and  iron,  while  the 
rest  of  the  nation  is  one  of  the  most  highly  cultured  in  Asia.  In  sonu)  respects 
they  are  even  more  civilised  than  those  of  many  Kuro2)eau  countries,  for  reading 
and  writing  arc  general  accomplishments  in  many  places,  and  books  arc  here  so 
cheap  that  they  are  found  in  the  humblest  dwellings,  though  several  of  these  works 
are  kept  simply  on  account  of  their  magical  j)roperties.  In  the  free  evolution  of 
their  s])eech,  which  has  been  studied  chiefly  by  Foucaux,  Csoma  de  Kiiros, 
Schiefner,  and  .Iiischk(>,  the  Tibetans  have  outlive<l  the  period  in  which  the  Chinese 
are  still  found.  The  monosyllabic  character  of  the  language,  which  differs  from  all 
other  Asiatic  tongues,  has  nearly  been  etfaced.  The  official  style,  fixed  by  the  priests 
twi'lve  hundred  years  ago,  is  still  maintained  in  lit^  rature,  but  the  current  spe(<eh  has 
gradually  become  polysyllabic,  and  the  practice  of  distinguishing  tl;e  sense  of  mono- 
syllal)Ies  by  their  varied  intonation  is  beginning  to  disappear.  Old  words,  whose 
meaning  has  been  lost,  have  been  agglutinated  to  the  roots  to  form  nominal  and  verbal 
inflections,  and  the  article;  is  emph)yed  to  distinguish  homophones.  The  various 
alphabetical  systems  are  derived  from  the  Devanagari  introduced  from  India  by  the 
first  Uuddhist  missionaries.  The  present  pronunciation  of  few  other  languages 
differs  more  from  the  written  form  than  docs  the  Tibetan,  whose  ancient  ortho- 
graphy has  been  scru])ul(msly  maintained  for  centuries.  Many  of  the  written  letters 
ar(!  either  silent  or  sounded  ditferenlly,  just  as  (j/i  in  the  Knglish  words  ciioiiy/i, 
vniiijh,  is  pnmounced  f,  while  it  is  mute  in  plonijli,  botirjh.  Sj  in  Tibetan  dbjun 
becomes  simply  ii ;  hkra  sfiis  llntn  po  ■=.  Tni^hilunpo,  &v. 

The  Tilx'tan  dialects  arc  both  numerous  and  highly  differentiated  from  each 
othei-.  iVlthough  the  j>eoples  of  Bod  stock  stretch  be\'ond  the  present  frontiers 
into  Kashmir,  Hhutan,  and  Sechuen,  west,  south,  and  east,  nevertheless  several  of 
the  wild  or  barbarous  tribes  in  the  east  and  north  belong  to  different  races  more  or 
less  mixed  together.  In  the  south  the  Mishmis,  Alwrs,  and  others  are  allied  to  the 
hillmen  of  Assam ;  while  the  Arru,  Pu-i  or  Ghion,  Telu,  and  Remepang  all  sjieak 
varieties  of  the  Melam,  an  archaic  and  polysyllabic  Tibetan  language  mix(;d  with 
many  foreign  elements.    The  Amdoans  of  the  north-east,  near  the  Kansu  frontier,  are 


-*i»*: 


'^^««»«^Bsewi^aa?;i^?gs^— -  • 


IXUABITANTS— TIIK  T1I5ETANS. 


48 


ior,  on  tho  route 

<  tlu'iii,  sei'in  to 

1(1   trciichorous. 

to  1)0  carefully 

the  Tibetans  of 

uld   seem   to  bo 

atnoufjfst  tlioni, 

c   Khanibas  are 

111  tho  caniijiuf^ 

roups  have  bore 

L'monts  have  no 

0  a<^e  itself  still 
unities  use  stone 

1  iron,  while  tho 
n  some  resjK'cts 

I'ies,  for  reading 
oks  arc  here  so 
il  of  these  works 
roe  evolution  of 
ioinii  de  Koros, 
hieh  the  Chinese 
Il  differs  from  all 
;ed  by  the  priests 
irrent  speech  has 
e  sense  of  mono- 
>ld  words,  whose 
minal  and  verbal 
!8.  The  various 
rom  India  by  the 
other  languages 
io  ancient  ortho- 
lie  written  letters 
h  words  cnoiKjIi, 
in  Tibetan  dbjuH 

iatod  from  each 
present  frontiers 
heless  several  of 
lit  races  more  or 
are  allied  to  the 
nepang  all  speak 
uage  mixed  with 
iiiisu  frontier,  are 


nearly  all  bilingual,  speaking  both  their  mother  tongue  and  TilM-fiin.  A  nomadic 
and  migrating  peojile,  they  are  distinguished  by  their  (iiiick  wit  and  aptitude  for 
all  kinds  of  work.  Nearly  all  the  lamas  and  teachers  of  tiie  high  sclmols  as  well  as 
the  higher  oiHcials  tliroughout  Tibet  are  of  Amdoan  stock.  West  of  the  province 
of  Khaiu  the  half-savage  Lolo,  Mantz',  Lissu,  and  others,  (uUcctively  known  to  the 
Chinese  as  Si-fan,  or  "  Western  Strangers,"  and  to  the  Tibetans  as  (ii,tin(iii/l/o,  from 
the  chief  tribe  (jtyarung,  dwell  on  both  sides  of  the  Sechuen  frontier,  where  they 
form  distinct  ethnical  groups,  some  speaking  Tibetan  dialects,  others  languages  of 
dilferent  origin.  Most  of  the  names  applied  by  the  Chinese  and  Tibetans  to  tho 
jiooplos  of  this  region  can  only  be  accepted  provisiomilly.  They  are  either  vague 
designations,  or  injurious  epithets  indignantly  rejected  by  the  tribes  themselves. 
Chinese  influence  is  making  itself  felt  more  and  more  in  tho  neighbourhood  of 

Fig.    16— TlllETAN    HlIINOGKArilV. 
Rfliln  t  :  22,(XX).O0O. 


■r-UVVVA'    S} 


^^^*^^^^;^^     \VSNNV\V  V\'    y       ^  .    »  ,  \ 


•■^^::, 


'■v:;'..*, 


Sd>A 


/AeA,. 


^(••t«n$ 


'*^.  .... .  ,.... ■^i^^i^-'^^V^^^'K     \1 


35- 


E.  OiG.     80' 


100* 


^M 


lU  to  10,000  Fppt. 


1(1,00.1  Feet    nd  iipwii  iIr. 
_^i_^_^_  em  Miles. 


Sechuen  and  in  the  large  Tibetan  towns.  Access  to  the  country  being  completely 
interdicted  to  the  Chinese  women,  all  the  mandarins,  soldiers,  oHicials,  and  traders 
take  Tibetan  wives  temporarily,  and  the  frontier  population  already  consi.sts  largely 
of  cro.ss-brceds,  who  are  grouped  according  to  circumstances  as  Tibetans  or  Chinese. 
Tho  Chinese  immigrants  are  not  the  only  strangers  in  the  Tibetan  towns. 
Tlie  NoiKilese  and  IJhutaneso  from  beyond  the  Himalayas  are  very  numerous  in 
T.assa,  whore  they  are  chiefly  occupied  with  metal  work  and  jewellery.  They 
occupy  a  separate  quarter,  and  are  distinguished  by  their  superstitious  jiractices. 
Here  are  also  some  ilohammedans  originally  from  Kashmir,  the  so-called  Khaclii,  a 
fine  race  with  long  beard  and  grave  demeanour,  who  keep  entirely  aloof  from  the 
rest  of  the  population,  and  live  under  a  special  governor  recognised  by  the  Tibetan 
authorities. 


m-^^^imm 


44 


EAST  A8IA. 


If"^'i. 


niDDIIISM. 

Tilxt  is  the  t'ontro  of  IJuddliism,  a  ii'li;^ioii  rivulliiijj;  ('hristinnily  in  tlio  niiinhor 
of  its  followers.  IJut  !ilfliony;h  tlic  most  zouloiis  of  IJiirldhists,  the  Tilutiiiis  liave 
inodiHcd  their  cult  under  the  iiitluenee  of  previous  rites,  eliinate,  social  liahits,  and 
relations  with  th(>  surroundin;;  nations  to  such  an  extent  that  it  only  bears  an  out- 
ward reseinl)lanee  to  the  jjriinitive  reli<,'ion  of  Shakya-inuni.  After  three  centuries 
of  preliiuinaiy  eU'orts  the  Hindu  missionaries  l)e<>;an  the  serious  work  of  conversion 
in  the  fifth  century.  Previous  to  that  time  the  'I'ihetan  riles,  analogous  to  those  of 
the  Chinese  Taoism,  eonsiste<l  in  makin<j;  offerin;,'s  accompanii'd  with  jmiycrs  to  the 
lakes,  mountains,  and  trees,  represent in;^;  the  forces  of  nature.  Two  hundred  years 
passed  before  tliis  \Um-  or  I'on-bo  religion  yielded  to  the  new  worshij),  tho  first 
temple  of  which  was  erected  in  ()!)S.  Within  the  next  century  the  cctimtry  was 
covered  witli  mo!iasterivs,  and  the  reli<j;ion  of  IJuddha  was  diffused  "  like  the  lijjfht  of 
the  sun  "  throu};hout  Tibet.  This  was  the  <i;olflen  ajifc  of  theocracy,  for  accordiii<j[ 
to  the  Monj^olian  historian  Sananj' Setzen  "the  boundless  veneration  for  their 
priests  jrave  to  the  people  a  bliss  like  that  of  the  happy  spirits."  Still  the  older 
rites  do  not  siu^m  to  have  entirely  vanished,  us,  uecordin^i;  to  the  same  M'riter,  "tho 
love  of  fj;o(id  thon<;hfs  and  of  meritorious  deeds  was  afterwards  forj^otten  like  a 
dream."  The  doctiine  was  not  fully  enforced  fill  the  ch)se  of  the  f(>nth  century, 
when  it  soon  be^^an  to  split  into  various  sects.  Four  centuries  afterwards  came  the 
preat  r(>vival.  The  monk  Tsonkha|)a  undertook  the  revision  of  the  sacred  writing;s, 
formulated  now  precepts,  and  modified  the  ritual.  His  disciples  are  tho  "Yellow 
Caps,"  or  (leluk-pa,  who  prevail  in  Tibet,  while  tho  older  sect  of  the  "  lied  Caps  " 
(Duk-pa,  or  Shammar)  has  held  its  ^rnmnd  in  Nepal  and  lihutan.  Hut  for  both,  as 
well  as  for  tlu'  other  seven  sects  of  Tibet,  red  has  remained  one  of  the  sacred  colours 
of  the  cloister  and  tiMuples.  Accordiuf^  to  the  ordinances,  the  religious  edifices, 
usually  of  pyramidal  form,  should  have  the  north  front  painted  green,  the  east  red, 
the  south  yellow,  the  west  I'emaining  while. 

By  his  followers  Tsonkhapa  was  regarded  as  the  incarnation  of  the  deity,  as  a 
living  lluddha,  who  had  put  on  the  appearance  of  human  nature.  He  never  dies, 
but  ])asses  from  body  to  body  under  the  form  of  a  K/iiihi/(/<in,  or  "  New-born 
Huddha,"  and  is  in  this  way  jHrpetuated  as  the  Tashi-lama  in  the  holy  monastery  of 
Taslii-lumpo,  near  Shigat/*'.  Another  living  Buddha  has  sprung  up  by  his  side, 
and  accpiired  even  greater  political  power,  thanks  to  his  residence  in  the  capital 
and  to  his  direct  relations  with  the  Chinese  officials.  This  is  tho  Dalai-lama,  or 
"Ocean  lama,"  whose  instalment  on  the  throne  of  Buddha  is  variously  related. 
But  whether  due  t»/  a  Mongolian  invasion,  or  to  the  action  of  the  Chinese  emjjcror 
in  the  sixteenth  or  seventeenth  century,  the  ecclesiastical  prince  of  Lassa  has  taken 
rank  amongst  the  innnortal  gods,  who  by  a  new  birth  ever  renew  themselves  from 
generation  to  generation.  A  third  living  Buddha  in  this  hierarchy  is  the  chief 
lama  of  Urgii  in  Mongolia.  But  there  are  several  others,  and  even  in  Tibet  itself 
the  head  of  a  nunnery  on  the  south  side  of  Lake  Palti  is  also  regarded  as  a  divine 
femah'  IWuhlha. 


'V^PSk 


■-.%-if:. 


;:*r:rvaiSV-*S'^S?a(^vA:S?*% 


m^" 


BUDDHISM. 


45 


in  iho  mimluT 
TilM'tiuis  have 
ial  habits,  and 
,•  lH>ars  an  out- 
llircH-  ('t'nturic8 
i  of  conversion 
ons  lo  those  of 

])rayoi's  to  the 
hundred  years 
•ship,  the  first 
ic  country  was 
ke  the  lijfht  of 
,  for  aceordin<» 
ition  for  their 
Still  the  (tlder 
ic  writer,  "  tho 
)r<>:otten  like  a 
tenth  century, 
iards  came  the 
iicnd  writings, 
o  tho  "  Yellow 

"l{ed  Caps" 
lut  for  l)oth,  as 
•  sacred  colours 
igious  edifices, 
1,  the  east  red, 

the  deit}',  as  a 
lie  never  dies, 
ir  "  New-horn 
y  nionastery  of 
ip  hy  his  side, 

in  the  ca))ital 
Dalai-lama,  or 
iously  related, 
linesi'  emperor 
iassa  has  taken 
lemselvcs  from 
ly  is  the  chief 

in  Til)et  itself 
led  as  a  divine 


Amongst  the  Tihetan  iWiddhisIs  some  few  mystics,  altracte<l  hy  tlu-  suhlimo 
speculations  of  the  Hindus,  have  n-maiucd  faithful  to  the  (Inctrine  of  the  early 
mi-isiniiaries,  aiming  at  redemption  fiom  all  future  melempsyilidsis,  or  at  ideal 
pel-fed  ion,  by  the  destrtiction  of  all  that  is  still  material  in  them,  and  by  a  new  birth 
in  the  Ixisom  of  the  imnuitai)le  Divinity.  Kven  the  doctors  of  riu(l(llii>m  class  tho 
faitliful  ill  tlii'ee  groups — the  enlightened,  those  of  niodeinte  intelligeiUT,  and 
the  vulgar.  Ibit  for  the  mass  botli  of  hnnas  and  people  religion  is  reduced  to 
a  system  of  magic,  in  which  worship  has  no  object  exctpt  to  conjure  the  evil 
spirits. 

The  life  of  m(»st  Tibetans  is  passed  in  ejaculations  and  adjurations  unch-r  the 
form  of  j)rayers.     The  »ix  mugic  syllables,  Oiii  main  jxtdmv  /nun,  usually  translated, 

Fig.   17. — Praybu  inmcuuiki)  os  a  Mihk. 


"  O  gom  of  the  lotus,  amen  I  "  but  whi<'h  some  commentat<  rs  declare  to  be  untrans- 
latable, are  the  form  of  prayer  most  frequently  rei)eated.  These  sacred  words, 
each  of  which  has  a  .special  virtue,  are  tho  first  taught  to  the  ^longolian  and  Tibetan 
child.  They  will  form  his  only  prayer,  but  thi.she  will  go  on  repeating  ince.ssiintly, 
ignorant  alike  of  its  origin  or  sense.  Tho  importance  attached  to  it  may  be  judged 
fn»ni  tho  fact  that  for  100  million  copies  printed  in  8t.  l*eter.sburg  Schilling  of 
('annstadt  received  from  the  IJuriat  lamas  of  Siberia  a  complete  copy  of  their 
inestimable  sacred  book.  The  invocation  is  met  everywhere — on  the  walls  of  tho 
houses  and  temj)les,  by  the  wayside,  under  colossal  statues  rudely  carved  in  the  live 
rock.  Certain  iiiaiwh,  or  retaining  walls,  ahnig  the  roads  are  built  of  stones,  each 
of  whi<'h    bears  the   magic  formula.      Jirotlierhoods  have   been    formed  for  the 


46 


KAST  ASIA. 


mm 


Fipr.    18— TlMETAN   Ami'let. 


solo  purpose  (if  liiiviiiy:  it  iiiMcn'lMMl  in  Inrpfo  cliiinictors  on  tlio  hillside,  so  that  the 
traveili  r  ;,Mlli>piiij,'  hy  on  lioisdiiick  nmy  reml  the  words  oi'  salvation. 

l']veryl)iidy  wears  on  his  elotlnvs,  arms,  or  iieek  p>id,  silver,  or  otlier  metal 
anuilels,  eonlainin^f,  Itesides  the  all-poweri'ul  prayer,  little  idols  or  relies,  the  teeth, 
hair,  or  nails  of  eanonised  lamas.  The  korio,  klioi-fin,  or  prayer-mills,  omployod  in 
all  Uuddhist  lands  except  .lapan,  are  most  universal  in  Tihet.  The  very  forces  of 
nature,  wind  and  water,  are  utilised  to  turn  these  cylinders,  each  revolution  of  wliich 
shows  to  the  all-seeing'  heavens  the  maj^ic  words  re^jidatiny  human  destinies.  Like 
the  Kirijfhi/,  the  Huriats,  Tunj^uses,  and  other  Central  Asiatic  peoples,  the  Tihetans 
arc  uccustomed  to  Bct  up  on  tho  hill-tops  poles  with  banners  containing  the  same 

formula,  which  is  thus,  .so  to  wiy, 
repeated  with  every  pulf  of  air. 
One  of  those  IkiwIhis,  as  they  arc 
caUed,  has  Ix'en  phmted  on  Mount 
Uunshakar,  over  20,0t)0  feet  hif>;h. 
The  liuddhi.st  pilf^rims  also  take 
ummonites  to  the  hipfhcst  peaks  of 
the  runfj;es,  and,  to  conjure  the  evil 
apirit.s,  near  these  f().ssils  they  place 
as  offerings  the  bones  and  skulls  of 
the  great  wild  sheep,  or  Oiin 
(initiioii. 

Most  of  the  gilded  images  in  the 
temples  are  simple  reproductions, 
copied  for  some  thou.sand  years,  of 
the  idols  seen  in  India ;  hence  in 
their  expression  they  bear  no  re- 
semblance to  the  Tibetan  type. 
Every  trait  or  special  form  having 
a  symbolic  meaning,  nothing  can  be 
changed.  The  other  images  of 
native  type  represent  the  gods 
only  of  an  inferior  order,  and  are 
reproduced  especially  in  the  coloured 
butter  statuettes,  in  making  which  the  lamas  excel.  But  while  the  greater 
deities  are  Hindus,  one  might  almost  fancy  that  the  general  ritual  is  of  Roman 
Catholic  origin.  The  extreme  analogy  has  long  been  remarked  between  the 
Buddhist  and  Catholic  rites,  and  most  of  the  missionaries  have  explained  this 
identity  of  outward  worship  as  an  artifice  of  the  devil  trying  to  ai)e  the  (Jod  of  the 
Christians.  Others  have  endeavoured  to  show  that  the  Buddhist  priests,  after 
abandoning  their  old  practices,  simidy  adopted  the  ceremonial  of  the  Christians  in 
India,  with  whom  they  had  established  relations.  AVe  now  know  what  a  large 
share  both  of  these  relatively  modern  religicms  have  had  in  the  inheritance  of  the 
primitive  Asiatic  cults,  and  how  the  .same  ceremonies  have  been  transmitted  from 


S 


Ki-.»'V-_.  --  -v: --tifjM"  ■%■:'--'■■'■■  ^;'^iliffj£A"'i-'ite»:\"^' 


Tr.  "^^'^»-^m-^mmmff:^m^mmh'-7,-^^^^^^^^P^^y^ 


BUDDHISM. 


47 


^ido,  Ko  that  tho 

I. 

or  other  motul 

vlicH,  tl>o  tci'th, 

1m,  oinployiul  in 

0  very  forces  of 
)hitioni)f  wliich 
lestinies.  Like 
es,  tho  Tihetans 
iiiiin<>;  the  same 
hiis,  so  to  suy, 
•  pulf  of  uir. 
s,  as  they  are 
ited  on  Mount 
,000  feet  hi^rh. 
rims  also  take 
ifjliest  peaks  of 
on  jure  the  evil 
)ssils  they  l)laco 
's  and  skulls  of 
leep,     or    Orin 

(1  images  in  the 

1  reproductions, 
usand  years,  of 
ndia ;  hence  in 
y  bear  no  re- 
Tibetan    type. 

al  form  having 
nothing  can  be 
her  images  of 
sent  the  gods 
order,  and  are 
V  in  the  coloured 
ile  the  greater 
u\  is  of  Roman 
d  between  the 
explained  this 
I  the  (jod  of  the 
St  priests,  after 
jc  Christians  in 
iv  what  a  large 
lieritance  of  the 
■ansmitted  from 


nj,'e  to  age  in  honour  of  new  divinities.  None  the  iexs  surprising  is  it  that,  in 
virtue  ol'  a  paraMcl  evolu'ion  in  two  disiinct  ('(litres,  the  (uilwaid  lorms  of 
iJiuhlliiMii  and  Catliolieism  should  have  niaiiitaiiicd  their  resi'mhlaiice,  not  only  in 
their  main  features,  l)ut  even  in  their  details.  The  Ihuhlhist  priests  are  tonsured 
liKe  tliose  of  Jionie;  like  them,  they  wear  flowing  robes  covered  with  gold  brocade; 
they  fast,  hohl  spiritual  retreats,  mortil'y  the  flesh,  confess  the  faithful,  ask  for  the 
intercession  of  the  saints,  and  make  long  pilgrimages  to  llu;  holy  shrines,  f'elibacv 
also,  (triginally  u  meritorious  act,  has  become  the  rule  for  the  lamas,  and  by  tho 
Bide  of  the  temples  there  have  sprung  up  communities  of  men  and  women  whoso 
only  aim  in  life  is  to  work  out  their  spiritual  welfare.  K  very  thing  is  alike  even  in 
the  internal  arrangement  of  the  sacred  edifices — the  same  altars,  (uuKhliibra,  bells, 
reli(piari(<s,  holy-water  fonts.  The  lamas  ofheiate  with  mitre  aii'1  crosier,  and 
robed  in  dalmali(3a  and  cope.  They  Im)w  to  the  altar  and  kneel  belmc  the  relics, 
intone  the  service,  recite  the  litanies,  utter  words  in  a  language  unknown  to  the 
congregation,  solicit  olV'<rings  for  the  repose  of  the  faithful  departed,  lead  the 
processions,  pronounce  blessings  and  exorcisms.  Around  them  the  youths  of  the 
choir  sway  the  censers  susjjciuled  with  five  chains,  while  the  congregation  tell  their 
beads  and  rosaries. 

In  other  respects  also  the  Tibetan  clergy,  recruited  principally  from  the  first- 
l)orn  of  every  family,  resemble  the  priests  of  mediieval  timt>s.  l<'rom  them  flows 
all  knowledge  ;  the  printing  establishment?  arc  in  their  cloisters;  and  besides  the 
sacn^l  writings,  the  "Kanjur  and  Tanjur,"  printed  for  the  first  time  about  1750 
in  '>y<i7  volumes,  they  take  ciu-c  that  nothing  is  publishrd  except  works  in  harmony 
with  the  faith,  dictionaries,  encyclopaedias,  or  scientific  serials,  besides  numerous 
books  of  magic.  It  is  also  the  lamas — that  is,  the  "  unsurpassed  " — Mho  administer 
justice,  and  who  through  the  tithes  and  traffic,  have  got  possession  of  the  national 
wealth.  Although  Buddhism  was  at  first  the  religion  of  equality,  and  attracted 
tho  poor  by  the  abolition  of  caste,  it  reinstated  caste  by  the  supremacy  of  the  i)riest- 
hood.  They  command,  and  all  obey;  the  unity  of  faith  is  absolute  around  each 
monastic  centre.  The  conversion  of  the  Tibetan  prelates  would  involve  that  of  tho 
whole  nation,  and  of  millions  of  Buddhists  bevond  the  frontiers.  In  striking  at 
Lassa,  the  Roman  missionary  strikes  at"  the  idol  on  its  throne,"  and  "  to  triumph 
here  means  to  grasp  the  sceptre  of  High  Asia."  Everything  would  be  prepared 
beforehand  for  the  acceptance  of  the  religion  of  the  West.  To  form  a  native  clergy 
the  church  would  have  at  hand  legions  of  lamas  already  accustomed  to  the  laws  of 
celibacy  and  the  hierarchy.  To  receive  her  monastic  orders  she  would  have 
numerous  Buddhist  convents  already  devoted  to  abstinence,  to  prayer  and  study. 
To  display  the  pomp  of  her  nuignificent  ritiial  she  would  have  temples  where  "have 
long  been  celebrated  imposing  rites.  Nowhere  has  ('atholicism  taken  such  a  hold 
on  the  people  as  on  the  South  American  uplands  inhabited  by  the  (iuichuas.  But, 
as  Markham  renuirks,  the  Ecuador  and  l*eruvian  Andes  are  the  Tibet  of  the  New- 
World  in  all  that  regards  their  iui  stries,  food,  manners,  and  customs.  Quichuas 
and  Tibetans  cross  the  mountain  passes  in  the  same  spirit  of  awe,  and  before  the 
cairns  of  sacred  stones  recite  their  prayers  with  the  same  devotion. 


48 


KAST  ASIA. 


}r-¥,. 


l)uriii^  the  prcHciil  ct'iifiirv  tho  n'jMiifcd  cIVintH  of  the  iiiissinimrics  to  jjrt  n 
fiiutiii;;;  in  'I'ilH't  liavc  all  I'ailrd.  Iliif  and  (iaiict  ruuld  only  rcinaiii  i'or  two 
luoiiflis  at  hassa  in  I  SKI,  and  later  on  othcis  p(>iisli('d  in  the  attempt  to  pcnctrato 
into  tlic  couiitrv.  In  the  Moiitli-i-ast  a  lew  priests  wi'i'i'  more  fortunate.  In  IH.'ti 
they  eontrive<l  to  fonnd  a  Miiall  a^;riewltural  colony  amid  the  IJonj^a  forests,  n»'ar 
the  left  I)ai>k  of  the  I'pper  Salwen.  With  tlie  aid  of  Chinese  immi;;rantH  and  of 
mnnerous  slaves,  they  eK  .ncd  tiie  ffround  and  estahlished  a  Hoiirisliin^  villat,'e.  A 
lamu  convent  liecanie  a  preshytery,  a  pa^roila  was  transformed  loa  cjiureli,  in  which 
converted  lamas  ])erforined  the  functions  of  sacristans.  Hut  this  prosjK'rity  did 
not  last  lonj,'.  After  many  vicissitudes  tho  missionaries  were  ol>''';ed  to  (juit 
Tihetan  soil,  and  then  the  huildinjjs  were  j^iveji  to  the  tlaTnes.  The  mission  was 
re-estahlished  in  Sechuen,  doso  to  Tih(<t,  hut  tho  fathers  no  longer  dare  to  cross 
the  frontier. 

Nearly  all  the  lamas,  at  least  in  tlio  central  region,  belong  to  the  sect  of  the 
"  YeUow  (^aps,"  by  whom  the  few  remaining  "  Iletl  ( 'aps  "  are  (Uspised,  hecause 
they  have  not  taken  tho  vow  of  celibacy.  Hut  the  primitive  I'iin-bo  or  I(on-pu 
religion  has  not  yet  quite  disappeared.  Its  pri»>sts  have  several  monasteries, 
especially  in  the  south-east,  and  in  tho  petty  state  of  I'omi,  west  of  the  Salwen. 
They  believe  in  two  groat  gods,  a  nuile  and  a  female,  j)ar<nts  of  all  th(>  other  gods, 
spirits,  and  mortals.  Hut  in  other  rospect.s  they  have  gradually  conformed  to 
Ituchlhism,  of  which  they  arc  now  merely  u  distinct  sect.  Tho  higldandi-rs  of 
Ond)o  and  tho  Dangra-yum,  wh<i  jmictiso  dilVerent  rites  from  the  other  IWahlhists, 
also  8ccm  to  belong  to  tho  old  religion.  Their  mystic  formula  is  not  tho  (Jiii  iiKOii 
pndmo  /nun,  and  they  count  their  rosary  l)eads  and  walk  in  procession  backwards ; 
that  is,  in  tho  opiw)sitc  direction  to  tho  ortluKh)x  practice. 

Lastly,  some  of  tho  half-savage  tribes  on  tlie  Yunnan,  iVssam,  and  lUirmesc 
frontiers  still  observe  fetish  rites.  Amongst  thi-m  aro  tho  liU-t/',  who  have  given 
thoir  name  to  the  Lu-tzo-kiang,  or  Upper  Salwen,  ami  who  worshij)  the  trees  and 
rocks  iidiabitcd  by  the  ovil  spirits.  They  also  employ  tho  mioiios  (>w»r/«/»),  or 
sorcorers,  to  conjure  the  bad  genii  by  beating  drums,  wielding  swords,  and  burning 
incense. 


Diet — Socui,  Ci^-stoms — Population. 


'fif 


ill  '* 


^lilk,  butter,  and  barley-meal  form  the  chief  diet  of  the  people  of  the  plateau. 
But  in  spite  of  the  first  commandment  of  IJuddha  forbidding  tho  slaughter  of 
animals,  most  Til)etans,  and  even  tho  lamas,  add  the  flesh  of  their  domestic  animals 
to  their  modest  fare.  However,  they  make  amends  by  despising  tho  hereditary 
caste  of  butchers,  whom  they  confine  to  remote  suburbs  of  the  towns.  The  nmtton 
of  Tibet,  "  tho  best  in  the  world"  (Turner),  is  universally  consumed,  and  in  winter 
whole  bodies  of  those  animals  are  preserved  in  a  frozen  state.  Game  is  taken  with 
the  dart,  arrow,  and  gim,  while  the  musk  deer  is  usually  trapiK'd.  The  only 
animal  spared  in  East  Tibet  is  the  .stag,  "  Buddha's  horse."  On  tho  plateaux 
skirting  the  north  bank  of  the  Tsanglx)  liquid  bloiKl  forms  a  part  of  the  diet,  and 
Nain  Singh  often  .saw  the  shepherds  falling  prostrate  on  the  ground  to  lap  up  the 


DIKT— HOriAL  Cl.'HTOMS— I'OITI.ATION. 


40 


laricM  to  ^v\  a 
•tiiaiii  lor  two 
jil  to  pellet  rati' 
mte.  Ill  IS.*)4 
',n  forests,  near 
iij,'raiits  and  of 
n;;  villajfo.  A 
urcli,  ill  wlik-h 
l»rosjH>rity  <li<l 
''••'red  to  (Hiit 
le  iiiissioii  wuM 
•  dare  to  <'ro88 

the  sect  of  the 
'spised,  hecaiiso 
ii-l)o  or  Itoii-pu 
111  inoiiasterieH, 
of  the  Salweii. 
the  other  pids, 
'  con  formed  to 
hijiliiaiiders  of 
lh«>r  ISiiddhistH, 
it  tlio  (Jill  iiKini 
on  backwards ; 

1,  and  BurmoRO 
vlio  liavo  p;iven 
)  the  trees  and 
■jK  (^i)ii(ntiix),  or 
b,  and  burning 


of  the  plateau, 
le  slaughter  of 
)inc8tic  animals 
the  hereditary 
I.  The  mutton 
,  and  in  winter 
le  is  taken  with 
M'd.  The  only 
II  the  plateaux 
of  the  diet,  and 
d  to  lap  up  the 


blood  (lowing  from  the  HJaughteit'd  animal^,  'riiistiii^le  is  aetpiired  by  the  ehildieii 
as  soon  as  weaned.  Idin^r  iiiialile  to  procure  them  pap  frmii  the  (huith  of  <  urn 
on  the  uplands,  llieir  iiiothers  make  them  a  iiios  of  cheese,  butter,  and  blond. 
Prjevalsky  tells  us  that  in  these  regions  the  horses  are  also  bd  on  Hesli  and 
curdled  milk. 

The  Tibetans  are  distinguished  from  (heir  co-religionists  of  other  countries  by 
their  national  haliifs,  which  have  Im-ch  scarcely  nioditicd  by  Ibiddhisin.  Thus 
those  td'  the  south,  like  their  neighbouring  kiiisiiieii  of  llhiitaii,  practise  polyandria, 
in  <irder  to  avoid  dividing  the  family  inheritance,  and  to  reside  all  under  one  loid'. 
The  eldest  son  ju'cseiits  himself  iH'biie  the  bride's  parents  on  hi-  own  and  all  his 
brothers'  behalf,  and  as  soon  as  a  bit  of  butter  has  been  placed  on  tlie  bnehead  of 
the  couple  the  ceremony  is  valid  for  (he  whole  family.  The  priests,  iHnnid  by 
their  vows  to  keep  aloof  from  women,  d(»  not  assist  at  this  purely  ci\il  ceremony, 
which  is  witnessed  by  all  present  on  the  occasion.  The  issue  of  these  collect ivo 
unions  give  the  name  of  father  to  the  eldest  brother,  and  regard  the  others  as 
unch's,  unless  the  mother,  when  consulted,  determines  the  paternity.  Travellers 
tell  us  that  matrimonial  sipiabbles  are  unknown  in  these  polyandrous  familes,  in 
which  the  men  vie  with  each  other  in  their  eagerness  to  procure  the  coral,  amber, 
and  otlwr  ornaments  alfected  by  the  common  wife.  Uespecte<l  by  all,  she  is 
generally  a  thrifty  housekeejM-r,  besides  h>iidin<;  a  hand  in  the  (ield  and  ti  ndiiig 
the  herds.      Ilut  her  work,  like  that  of  the  brothers,  beloni^s  to  the  whole  bimilv. 

lly  the  side  of  these  polyandrous  households  some  wealthy  Tibetans,  in  imitation 
of  the  Chinese  and  Mussulmans,  keep  several  wives,  who  reside  either  under  tho 
same  nnif  or  in  .separate  dwellings.  IJut  Intth  ])olyandria  and  jiolygamy  alike  have 
the  same  result  of  keeping  down  the  population,  ilarriage  is  regulated  by  no 
rules  in  a  country  where  celibacy  is  so  rigorously  enforced  on  a  large  section  of  (ho 
peojde,  and  where  tho  jKilyandrous  wife  has  still  the  right,  reeogni.se(l  by  custom, 
to  choo.se  another  hu.sband  beyond  the  family  circle. 

As  in  China,  courtesy  is  held  in  high  honour  in  Tibet  When  two  persons 
meet  they  salute  each  other  several  times  by  showing  (he  tongue  and  scratching 
the  right  car,  or  oven  by  exchanging  white  or  pink  embroidered  silk  scarfs,  some- 
times accompanied  with  letters  or  other  missives.  In  Lassa  and  other  towns  ladies 
of  rank  wear  coronets  of  true  or  false  pearls  or  tunpioise,  shells,  or  silver,  liut 
Hue's  statement  that  they  are  obliged  to  disfigure  themselves  by  daubing  the  face 
with  a  sort  of  black  varnish  is  denied  by  the  English  travellers. 

All  ceremonies  are  regulated  beforehand,  and  the  form  and  colour  of  the  clothes 
suitable  for  the  various  social  occasions  arc  prescribed  by  rigid  custom.  During 
the  year  of  mourning  the  men  lay  aside  their  silk  garments,  the  women  their 
jewellery.  Immediately  after  death  the  h,.ir  is  torn  fi-om  the  crown  of  the  head, 
in  order  to  insure  a  happy  transmigration,  and  the  body  is  preserved  for  some 
days,  and  in  wealthy  families  even  weeks,  when  the  priests  decide  whether  it  is  to 
be  buried,  burned,  ca.st  to  the  running  waters,  or  exposed  to  the  beasts  of  prey. 
In  the  latter  case  the  bones  are  first  broken  and  the  Iwdy  cut  in  pieces,  in  order  to 
hasten  the  return  to  the  first  elements^  and  what  is  left  by  tho  animals  is  collected 


gSi.v'.B./^'.-!  r • 


M 


50 


i:,\ST  ASIA. 


rtt 


and  tlirnwii  info  tin- nlvnnn  Tlu"  fiiifjcr  joliifs  uri'  hIsd  offrn  pn'wrvi  .1  iiiid  strung 
ill  cliaiilils,  while  tlir  Ixim-s  nl'  nniis  hihI  Ii'm;s  mi'  coiivcrtiMl  into  trmii|>i'ts  tor 
HUiniiiniiiii;;  tiic  liiiiiji'i  til  ]ii'iiyri-.      I'lir   Ijuiiiii   tliriiiHrivi's  iii'i'  iilwiiyH   Kiirii'il   in  u 

Hitting  attitii<l<<,  mill  till*  practii f  <lf>liv«<i'in^  tlic  liixliis  to  wilil  U'liNtH  wotnM  to 

liavc  iliMiip|»riin'i|  IVoin  West  Tihct.  Itiit  it  still  HoiiriHiirH  at  l\iaii;;ka,  in  tli(< 
provinrr  III'  Kliam,  wliiTf  a  Inilclicr  ('Ills  up  llic  lioily,  and  tlic  \  ultiiri-s  ali^'lit  in 
till'  iiiiiUt  of  tlic  ri'dwd  to  j^iir;,'!'  mi  lln'  lli-sh,  arcoiiip:inyinj;  tin'  inoiioliinons  tones 
ol'  the  laiiiH  witli  th  ■  tiappin^if  of  tlnir  \viiij;s  and  the  sinippinj,'  of  their  hills.  Yet 
tlirrc  are  few  coimtriiM  when'  the  deail  arc  held  in  ;;reater  respect  than  in  Tilict. 
(irand  feast«  nrc  <'('lebrated  in  their  inciiHirv,  and  all  passers-hy  ar«'  invited  to  iho 
fniii'ial  liiinipi'ts.  At  ni^ht  the  hoiiHes  aro  illiiniineilaiid  lioniireH  lila/e  on  the  hill- 
tops, while  tlie  temples,  a^flow  with  li;,'lit,  eeho  to  till)  Mouiid  of  eynihals  and 
hymns  in  honour  of  the  departed. 

Aeeordinj;  to  th  '  missionary  Ovu/.'u)  della  I'enna,  an  odieial  census  made  hy  the 
"  royal  ministers"  in  the  last  eeiitiiry  f,'ave  the  population  of  Tiliel  as  .'l.'{,(HM»,(H((), 
of  whom  (1!)0,0()0  were  under  arms.  Itnt  while  (piotiii;j;  this  statement  Klaproth  adds 
that  ;'5,()()(),()()()  would  he,  pi'i-liaps,  nearer  the  truth.  Mi'lim  and  Waj^mT  stop  with 
the  otiieers  of  the  Ilussiaii  stall'  at  (i,(MI(),()()(>,  hut  otdy  hocauso  tliis  fonii.s  the  mean 
lu'tween  the  two  extremes,  ;{,.")()((,(M(i(  and  11,000,000,  recently  Jiroposed  l»y  various 
geographers.  The  ])oi)ulatiiiii  would  thus  amount  to  ahout  H  persons  to  the  scpiarc 
mile,  hut  it  is  known  to  he  very  une(|ually  distributed.  The  Khaclii  plateau  is 
almost  uninhaiuted,  and  in  the  south-west  province  of  Hundes,  or  Nari  (Xfj^ari, 
(Jnari  Khorsnm),  there  are  only  a  few  scattcicd  groups.  Owinjj  to  its  forests, 
mountains,  and  inaceessihle  raviiu's,  the  eastern  province  of  Khain  is  very 
uni'ipially  inlialiited,  so  that  the  ])o|>ulation  is  concentrated  cliieHy  in  the  two 
Houthern  provinces  of  Tsuii}^  and  Wei  (LT,  Wi)  aloufj  the  Middle  Tsangbo,  and  in 
its  lateral  river  valleys. 

Tol'OORArilY. 

Ddba  and  most  of  the  so-called  towns  and  villages  in  the  Upper  Satlaj  valley 
aro  abandoned  dnrinpf  the  winter  season.  PnliiKj,  the  liif^hest  permanently 
inhabited  villa;;e  in  this  part  of  Tibet,  stands  at  an  elevation  of  1.'{,H00  feet  above 
the  sea.  Tsti/>niii(f,  lik(>  Daba  capital  of  a  district,  and  situated  to  the  north-west 
of  this  place  at  a  height  of  10,400  feet,  and  far  above  the  head- waters  of  the  Satlaj, 
is  also  unoccui)ied  for  a  part  of  the  year,  and  in  summer  contains  no  more  than 
some  fifteen  dwellings.  The  fortress  of  Takla-klirn;  another  district  capital,  lies 
on  tlie  southern  shipe  of  the  Jlimalayas,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Map-chu,  or 
"(Jreat  Kiver,"  the  main  branch  of  the  Karnali  of  the  Nepalcse.  The  fort  consists 
of  e.\cavatiiins  and  gaUeries  hollowed  out  of  a  rock  HJJO  feet  high.  It  contains 
large  stores  of  supi)lies,  and  the  corn  deposited  here  for  half  a  century  is  said  to  be 
in  perfect  condition,  thanks  to  the  dryness  of  the  air.  West  of  Takla-khar  stands 
Sitling-gonpa,  the  largest  monastery  in  lluudes,  and  iu)ti'd  throughout  Tibet  and 
Nepal  for  its  immense  wealth. 

The   ITpper   Indus  basin,  like  tliat  of  the  Satlaj,  is  almost  uninhabited.     Yet 


'^■sM' 


'ii^^-?^i^-»'W^mmm^^!wmmi^x^m^?:!g!^gm^smim^S:,  ■ 


:1  1111(1  stniiiy; 

lniin|H'tH   lor 

s   l)iii'i('<l   ill  a 

I'llstH  MH'flH    to 

iin^kii,  ill  tli(< 
iircs  iili^'lit   ill 

lltolKHIS    tolK'H 

•ir  hills.  Y(«t 
than  ill  Tilx't. 
invited  to  tho 
zc  on  tho  hill- 
cvmhals  and 


If 

1 


s  math"  hy  tht* 
as  M:t,l)()ll.(ll»(l, 
Klapriith  adds 
jjiuT  stop  with 
)rnis  the  nu'un 
srd  hy  various 
•t  to  tho  sipiaro 
aclii  plateau  is 
Nuri  (Nj^ari, 
to  its  forests, 
[ham  is  very 
ly  in  the  two 
sangho,  und  in 


r  Satlaj  valley 
permanently 
SOO  feet  above 
the  north-west 
H  of  the  Satlaj, 
no  more  than 
let  eapital,  lies 
e  Map-chu,  or 
lie  fort  eonsists 
li.  It  contains 
ry  is  said  to  bo 
da-khar  stands 
liout  Tibet  and 

ahabited.     Yet 


„ 


imr  Ml,! '  \rmr,i.m.Mmiiiiiua,Mimam 


»l 


I  if  }> 


MONASTIiKY  AT  SlilOATZ*. 


"~'mw^rmmm!^''smmismssmm^^mmm^-'" 


h 


TOrOGRAPUY. 


51 


bore  is  the  temporary  capital  of  the  south-wcstorn  province  of  Tibet,  (Itnrtoh,  on  ibe 
CJartung.  The  name  means  "  Ilijjb  Market,"  and  tbe  place  probably  contains  tbo 
most  elevated  hay  market  in  the  world.  In  Au<?ust  and  September  tbe  bttle  clay 
or  adobe  houses  become  the  centre  of  a  town  consisting  of  tents,  each  by  its  shape 
betraying  the  origin  of  the  trader  occupying  it.  The  dwellings  of  the  Tibetans, 
covered  with  h)ng  black-haired  yak  hides,  contrast  with  tbe  white  pavilions  of  tbo 
Hindus,  while  the  Yurts  of  the  Kashgarian  and  other  Tatars  are  distinguished  by 
the  bright  colours  of  their  felt  awnings.  But  in  winter  Gartok  is  left  to  the  winds 
and  snow-sleighs,  the  traders  returning  to  their  distant  homes,  and  the  few  residents 
retiring  to  Garf/iiiizn,  a  more  sheltered  village  on  tbe  Gartung,  above  the  junction 
of  this  river  with  the  Indus.  Radukh,  near  Lake  Mogiudari,  is  a  mere  heap  of 
hovels  grouped  round  a  fort  and  monastery. 

The  plateau  lying  east  of  the  Upper  Indus  valley  has  from  the  remotest  times 
been  known  by  the  name  of  Sartbol,  or  "  Land  of  Gold,"  and  here  are  still  grouped 
a  few  communities  of  gold-seekers.  The  workings  bad  long  been  abandoned,  owing 
to  the  severity  of  tbe  climate,  but  were  reopened  at  the  beginning  of  this  century 
by  the  Tibetan  Government.  Here  Tok-yalung  is  probably  the  highest  place  on 
the  globe  inhabited  throughout  tbe  year,  standing  as  it  does  some  lG,i>00  feet  above 
the  sea,  or  nearly  650  feet  above  Mont  Blanc,  in  an  atmosphere  scarcely  half  as 
dense  as  that  on  the  surface  of  the  ocean.  Yet  it  is  chiefly  frequented  in  winter, 
when  as  many  as  six  hundred  tents  of  miners  are  hidden  away  in  deep  hollows, 
above  which  nothing  is  visible  except  their  cones  of  black  hair.  In  summer  their 
number  is  reduced  by  one-half,  because  the  neighbouring  springs  then  become  so 
sidino  that  the  water  is  unpotable  until  purified  by  the  freezing  process.  In  this 
part  of  the  plateau  salt  and  borax  are  everywhere  found  by  merely  digging  up  the 
surface.  The  other  gold-workings  are  less  productive  than  those  of  Tok-j-alung, 
and  according  to  Nain  Singh  none  of  them,  except  Tok-daurakpa,  lying  much 
farther  east,  possess  any  economic  importance.  The  annual  yield  of  all  the  mines 
in  West  Tibet  is  only  about  £8,000,  which  is  forwarded  to  India  through  Gartok. 

In  the  Tsangbo  valley  the  highest  inhabited  points  are  either  the  convents  or 
the  postal  stations.  Here  the  cold  is  too  intense  to  allow  any  permanently 
occupied  villages  to  be  formed.  Yet  real  towns  begin  to  appear  in  the  valley  at 
more  than  double  the  elevation  of  the  Simplon  and  Gothard.  Tadiim,  capital  of 
the  Dogthol  district,  is  14,000,  and  Jauglachvh,  at  the  junction  of  the  two  Nepal 
routes  from  Kirong  and  Nilam,  13,850  feet  above  the  sea.  Shigaize,  or  Digarchi, 
capital  of  the  province  of  Tsang,  lies  at  a  relatively  lower  altitude  in  the  side 
valley  of  the  Penang-chu,  11,730  feet  high.  Above  it  are  the  houses  and  temples 
of  Tasbi-lumpo,  or  "  Exalted  Glory,"  residence  of  the  Tashi-lama,  Teshu-lama,  or 
Panchen-rimbocheh  ;  that  is,  the  "  Jewel  of  Intelligence."  The  walls  of  the  holy 
city  have  a  circuit  of  nearly  a  mile  and  a  quarter,  and  enclose  over  three  hundred 
edifices  grouped  round  the  palace  and  sacred  monuments.  From  3,000  to  4,000 
lamas  occupy  the  monastery,  whose  gilded  belfries  and  red  walls  tower  above  the 
mean  houses  of  the  lower  town. 

Most  of  the  other  towns  in  this  region  also  consist  of  low  dwellings  commanded 


I't'.i 


63 


EAST  ASIA. 


mi 


liy  inii«ijiiilic<>iit  huildiiififs,  which  tiro  palaces,  fortresses,  tenipU's,  and  moiiasterios 
all  ill  oil*?.  Such  are,  on  the  nortli  side  of  tlie  Tsaiijj;  valley,  liie  towns  of  Xnnilinii, 
or  "  Heavenly  Garden,"  and  Sli(ikiit-J(nuj,  south-west  of  Shij^ratze,  near  the  Sikkini 
frontier,  (ri/rinyh,  south-east,  of  Shif^atze,  is  an  iiiiiKn'tnnt  town,  as  the  centre  of 
trade  with  Nepal  and  a  nianufacturiii<j^  place,  producing  cloth  goods,  very  warm, 
pliant,  and  soft  to  the  touch.  Like  Tingri,  it  is  hehl  hy  a  strong  Cliinese  garrison. 
Siiigatze  is  the  future  terminus  of  the  carriage  road  whicli  is  being  constructed 
by  the  Indian  (jovernmeiit,  and  which  starts  from  Darjiling,  in  Sikkim. 

Lftxm*  is  at  onco  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Wei  and  of  Tibet,  as  well  as  the 
religious  metropolis  of  the  Jimhlhist  world  in  the  Chinese  Empire.  The  name 
means  "Throne  of  God,"  and  for  the  Mongolians  it  is  the  Morke-jot,  or  "  Eternal 
Sanctuary."     The  number  of  priests,  estimated  at  some  20,000  in  Lassa  aud  ueigh- 

Fig.  19.— Lassa. 
Scale  1 :  1,425,000. 


^1  ^X^  ^ 


_0fG.      90°  30 


I  30  Miles. 


II 


bourhood,  probably  exceeds  that  of  the  civil  population,  which,  however,  is 
constantly  swollen  by  crowds  of  pilgrims  from  all  parts  of  Tibet,  and  even  from 
beyond  the  frontiers.  Along  the  two  great  a\  uues  lined  with  trees,  which  lead 
from  the  city  to  the  palace  of  the  Dalai-lama,  the  courtly  prelates,  clothed  in 
sumptuous  robes  and  moui.ied  on  richly  caparisoned  hoivses,  are  met  haughtily 
riding  through  tlie  multitude  of  devotees.  The  jialace  of  I'otala,  residence  of  the 
sovereign,  forms  a  group  of  fortifications,  temjiles,  and  monasteries,  surmounted  by 
a  dome  entirely  covered  with  gilded  plates  and  surrounded  by  a  peristyle  of  gilded 
columns.  The  present  edifice,  reconstructed  by  Kang-hi  and  filled  with  treasures 
from  every  part  of  Tibet,  :Mongolia,  and  China,  has  replaced  the  palace  destroyed 
by  the  Zungarians  in  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century.     This  "  Mountain  of 

•  Tlio  I'uriunt  fdiius  Uliissa,  liriissii,  L'h»88u,  LhuBsu,  do  uot  ruja'oduue  tho  local  pronuiiuiation  of 
this  word,  which  is  simply  Lassii  (Jiischke). 


■  *,J 


"  -%*im^mK*^'immm!pm^i^mmm^mw^' 


1(1  inoiiiistories 

MS  nl'  Xditl/lhtJ, 
iir  the  Sikkini 
s  the  centre  of 
Is,  very  warm, 
iiu'so  {riinisoii. 
ifj;  const  ructod 
ini. 

I  as  well  a«  the 
e.  The  numu 
)t,  or  "  Kternal 
issu  aud  ueigh- 


]£icr 


1,  however,  is 
md  even  from 
ees,  which  lead 
tcs,  clothed  in 
met  haughtily 
:'si(lencc  of  the 
surmounted  by 
style  of  gilded 

with  treasures 
[dace  destroj^ed 

"  Mountain  of 

il  pi'ouuiiuiatiun  of 


121'fi 


■■i«5Sfef<''^3'?i^^^«^»a^^^ 


TOl'OOKArilY. 


58 


Buddliii  "  liiis  tor  llio  lust  twolvo  hundred  years  lu'on  llie  most  liidlowcd  spot  in  Kiist 
Asia.  When  its  sliadow  is  projected  hy  the  setliii<j:  •**""  <•"  •!"'  azure  sky  all  work 
erases  in  the  city.  The  iiduihltants  j^'ather  in  j^'roups  on  the  terraees,  in  the  streets 
and  puhlie  jjlaees,  eastinj;-  thomselvos  prostrate  on  the  p;round,  and  raising  a  nmllled 
evonin<;:  song  of  praise  towards  the  sacnnl  shrine. 

Tlu'  city  stretches  south  ol'  the  holy  mount  along  the  right  bank  of  the  Kichu, 
a  large  allluent  of  the  Tsangho.  Although  I  l,o<S()  feet  high,  or  4S()  feet  above  the 
highest  ])eak  in  the  i'yrenees,  the  surrounding  district  is  covered  with  vegetation, 
thanks  to  its  more  southern  latitude  and  sheltered  position.  The  streets  are  broad 
and  regular,  and  flanked  by  whitewashed  houses  of  stone,  brick,  and  earth.  One 
of  the  (piarters  is  entirely  built  of  the  interlaced  horns  of  sheep  and  cuttle  in 
alternating  hiyers  of  various  forms  and  colours.  These  horns,  the  interstices  of 
which  are  filled  in  with  mortar,  lend  themselves  to  an  endless  variety  of  design, 
imparting  to  the  houses  the  most  fantastic  appeai'ance. 

The  towns  and  villages  of  the  neighbourhood  derive,  like  Lassa  itself,  more 
importances  from  their  {/oiipn,  or  monasteries,  than  from  their  trade  and  industries. 
During  the  feasts  of  the  new  year,  when  the  monks  enter  the  town  on  foot  or 
mounted  on  horses,  a.sses,  or  oxen  loaded  with  prayer-books  and  cooking  utensils, 
the  streets,  squares,  avenues,  and  courts  are  covered  with  tents.  The  whole  civil 
populati(»n  seems  now  to  have  disappeared,  or  to  have  given  place  to  the  lamas. 
The  Government  officials  themselves  have  no  longer  any  authority,  and  the  religious 
element  takes  possession  of  the  city  for  six  days.  After  visiting  the  convent  of 
Mum,  whore  they  purchase  their  supplies  of  devotional  works  in  the  ])rinting 
establirthmeuts,  the  priests  withdraw  to  their  resijcctive  monasteries,  and  the  city 
resumes  its  normal  aspect. 

Most  of  the  gonpa  are  simj)ly  groups  of  little  houses  witli  narrow,  crooked 
streets  radiating  from  a  central  edifice  containing  the  shrines  and  library.  But 
some  of  the  thirty  convents  around  Lassa  have  become  veritable  palaces,  enriched 
by  the  offerings  of  generations  of  pilgrims.  That  of  DehaiKj,  some  4  miles  west  of 
the  city,  is  said  to  have  from  seven  thousand  to  eight  thousand  lamas.  The 
monastery  of  Prcbuiu/,  or  the  "  Ten  Thousand  Fruits,"  receives  the  ^longolian 
priests  yearly  visiting  the  Dalai-lama.  No  less  celebrated  are  Sera  with  its  five 
thousand  five  hundred  inmates,  and  Gdldaii,  30  miles  north-cast  of  Lassa,  ren- 
dered illustrious  as  the  residence  of  Tsonkhapa,  reformer  of  Tibetan  Buddhism. 
But  the  most  famous  is  SamcycJi,  said  to  have  been  built  by  Shakja-muni,  and  one 
of  the  largest  and  wealthiest  in  Tibet.  It  is  enclosed  by  a  lofty  circular  wall  nearly 
2  miles  in  extent,  and  its  temple,  whose  walls  are  covered  with  beautiful  Sanskrit 
inscriptions,  contains  numerous  statues  of  pure  gold  covered  with  precious  stones 
and  costly  robes.  The  head  of  this  convent  is  pojjularly  supposed  to  stretch  his 
power  beyond  the  grave,  rewarding  and  punishing  the  souls  of  the  dead.  In  his 
charge  is  the  Government  treasury. 

Samayeh  lies  some  24  miles  to  the  west  of  the  important  towni  of  Chetaitg,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Tsangbo,  and  the  starting-point  for  traders  proceeding  to 
Bhutan  and  Assam.     The  frontier  entrepot  in  this  direction  is  Choim-joixj,  where 


isaoH 


54 


EAST  ASIA. 


wilf,  wool,  jiiid   l)onix   art'  (wdiaii^fd  lor  (-oiirso  wovoii   poods,  rico,  fruits,  spices, 
and  dyt's.     Naiu  Siii;,'li  rcj^ards  tliis  town  as  the  chief  ti.idin^-placo  in  Tibet. 

In  tlie  eastern  districts,  wliere  tlie  pojnilation  is  scattered  about  the  narrow 
mountain  fj;or};es,  tlierc  are  but  few  towns.  The  most  iiiii)ortant,  as  adniinistrativo 
capital  of  the  province  of  Khani,  is  C/iamf>o,  T'oniiiho,  or  C/idiiiutn  ;  that  is,  "  Two 
lloutes,"  a  nanu'  indicatinji;  its  position  at  the  junction  of  the  two  head-streams  of 
the  Lantzan-kian<r,  or  rp])er  Mekhonj^.  It  is  a  large  place,  with  a  monastery  of 
ov(  r  one  thousand  lamas  in  the  vicinity.  Farther  south  is  Kiaiiha,  or  Merkam.  on 
a  tributary  of  the  Kinsha-kian«j[,  south  uf  which  urc  sumo  rich  saline  sprinjj^s  on  the 
bunks  of  the  Lunt/un-kian<^. 


Tkadk  ano  Tradk  Rottes. 

rultivatin<>'   little  land,  and  possessin<?  nothinj>'   beyond   its  flocks  and  a  few. 
unimpurtunt  industries,  Tibet  could  scarcely  enjoy  much  intercourse  with  foreign 


Fiff.  20.— Trade  Rovtes  of  Tiiiet. 

Scale  1  :  'Ji.OiJd.OOO. 


Trade  Routes. 


10,000  to  lO.cWO  Feet. 


16,6(10  imd  iipwiuds, 
— ^_  600  MilcH. 


Riiilways. 


lands,  even  were  it  not  enclosed  bj'  a  barrier  of  political  and  commercial  obstacles. 
]\Iuch  of  the  abundant  raw  material  is  required  for  the  local  looms,  which  produce 
cloth  of  every  kind  from  the  coarsest  to  the  very  softest  quality.  The  red  chrti,  or 
■piilii,  intended  for  prelates,  is  a  fine,  stout  fabric,  which  commands  high  prices  in 
China  and  Mongolia.  Most  of  the  natives  of  both  sexes  are  skilful  knitters,  and  in 
this  way  prepare  all  the  clothing  they  require.  Next  to  these  domestic  industries 
they  occupy  themselves  chiefly  with  those  connected  with  the  service  of  the  temples 
and  monasteries.     Their  artists  display  great  skill  in  modelling  the  statuettes,  arti- 


-^,:"  V  i'^^^?;cR<  .:=j^^|g5iiii«S^Sr^Sl^S^gi^ 


^2^m 


TRADE  AND  TRADE  ROUTES. 


05 


\  fruits,  spices, 

in  Tibet. 

tut  the  narrow 

administrative 

that  is,  "  Two 

licad-stri-auis  of 

a  uiouasti'ry  of 

or  Merkau).  on 

sprinj^s  on  the 


»cks  and  a  few. 
•8c  with  foreign 


ilwnys. 


ercial  obstacles, 
which  produce 
riie  red  vhni,  or 
i  high  prices  in 
knitters,  and  in 
lestic  industries 
3  of  the  temples 
statuettes,  arti- 


ficial flowers,  ornaiuents  in  hiittcr  placed  before  th»>  idols,  wliile  numerous  hand^ 
are  employed  in  preparing  the  incense  sticks  burnt  in  lionourof  tlu'  gods  and  genii. 
Notwithstanding  their  simple  tastes  and  frugal  lives,  the  Tilietans  still  need 
some  foreign  wares,  of  which  the  most  indispensable  is  tea,  the  ti-ade  in  wliiih  was 
till  recently  monopolized  by  China.  Tea,  even  more  than  aims,  has  been  the 
instrument  by  wliich  the  Chinese  have  contpiered  the  c(mntry,  and  "  to  invite  the 
lamas  to  a  cup  of  tea"  has  become  a  proverbial  expression,  indicating  the  nu'ans 
emph>yed  by  the  Mandarins  to  bribe  the  Tilietan  rulers.  Jleuce  the  care  taken  by 
the  Imperial  Government  to  prevent  tlie  introduction  of  the  Assam  tea,  which,  in 
any  case,  is  less  csteenu>d  than  that  of  China.  Still  the  natives  of  the  independent 
state  of  Pomi  have  preserved  their  right  to  free  trade  with  India,  whence  they 
import  the  ])roliibited  article  in  yearly  increasing  (piantities.  The  annual  ini])orta- 
tion  from  Chimi  is  estimated  by  Haber  at  about  10,000,000  lbs.,  representing  from 

£;300,ooo  to  i;;}.jO,ooo. 

The  exchanges  with  India  are  at  present  quite  insignificant,  and  the  little 
received  from  that  country  comes  mainly  through  Nei)al  and  Kashmir.  The 
ex])orts  to  India  arc  ten  tinu\s  in  excess  of  the  imports,  the  chief  item  being  the 
costly  wools,  which  ultimately  rea(;h  the  manufacturing  towns  of  Yorkshire. 
There  is  thus  a  constant  flow  of  rui)ees  into  Tibet,  where  this  coin  is  gradually 
replacing  the  "bricks  of  tea"  hitherto  used  as  currency.  Needles  also  are  much 
used  in  i)etty  dealings,  and  ingots  of  silver  in  wholesale  transactions. 

The  Tibetans  are  born  traders,  dealing  indifferently  in  anything  that  may  oiler 
a  chance  of  turning  "an  honest  penny."  Every  house  is  a  shop,  every  lamassary 
a  warehouse.  The  monasteries  have  all  their  (jarpM,  or  chief  agent,  under  whom 
are  a  host  of  employes  and  pack  animals.  Caravans  of  yaks  and  sheep  heavily 
laden  cross  the  country  in  all  directions,  although  the  great  highway  is  the  route 
leading  from  Lassa  through  Tatsienlu  and  Sechuen  to  the  heart  of  China.  Another 
route  to  China  runs  from  Lassa  north-eastwards  across  Mongolia,  wliile  several 
roads  lead  southwards  to  Assam  and  Bhutan,  south-westwards  to  Nepal,  westwards 
to  Leh  and  Kashmir.  This  last,  probably  the  most  important  for  the  European 
trade,  is  traversed  by  caravans  of  silks,  shawls,  saffron,  and  other  wares,  leaving 
Leh  in  April  and  reaching  Lassa  the  following  January.  At  Gartok,  Lake 
Mansaraur,  Shigatz^,  and  other  stations  along  the  route,  fairs  are  held,  often 
lasting  several  weeks.  After  an  absence  of  about  eighteen  months  the  caravan 
re-enters  Leh  with  tea,  wool,  turquoises  from  the  Kuen-lun,  borax,  &c.  The 
disti-icts  through  which  it  passes  arc  bound  to  supply  it  gratuitously  with  two 
hmidred  yaks  as  beasts  of  burden,  besides  provisions  for  the  travellers.  Along  the 
southern  frontier  the  Himalayan  passes  are  every  year  formally  opened  for  traflfic 
by  proclamation  of  the  nearest  local  Tibetan  dzoiif/poii,  or  governor.  In  case  of 
war,  disturbances,  or  cholera  in  India,  they  are  kept  closed  pending  instructions 
from  the  central  Government  at  Lassa.  Nearly  all  the  profit  of  this  foreign  trade 
goes  to  the  monasteries,  which,  by  monopolies  and  usury,  swallow  up  all  the  savings 
of  the  country.  Thus,  notwithstanding  its  natural  poverty,  Tibet  supports  in 
wealth  and  luxury  a  whole  nation  of  monks. 


50 


KAST  ASIA. 


Ai)MixisTnATi(i\ — Pkxai.  Com: — Posiai,  Skiivick. 

Till'  TilK'tiiM  (lovcniiucnf  is  in  tlicnrv  ii  [mic  flicocnitv.  The  Diilai-lainn, 
ciilltil  nlso  the  ( iyiill)ii-n«ml)t»cli(',  "  Jnwcl  of  Maji'sty,"  or  "  Sovoroi^u  TiTasuiv," 
is  at  oiicc  <,ro(l  and  kiiiy:,  iiiaslcr  of  the  life  and  I'drtuiics  dl'  his  snhjccts,  with  no 
limit  t  )  Ills  |Mi\\rr  (-xccpt  liis  »»\vn  ph'asnrc.  Nevi'rthi>U«ss  ho  consents  to  he  );iii(h'(l 
in  onlinarv  niattcis  l»y  tho  ohl  usages,  wliili-  his  very  jfroatncss  jji-cvcnts  him  liom 
directly  upprcssinj^  his  pcoph*.  His  splicrc  oi'  action  hi'in<|;  rest  lifted  to  spii-itnal 
matters,  he  is  represented  in  the  a(hninistration  hy  a  viceroy,  chosen  by  the 
I'lmjHMor  in  a  supreme  conncil  (tf  three  liif;;h  priests.  This  is  the  Noniakhan,  or 
(lyalhd,  wlio  acts  either  directly,  or  throu<;h  I'oiir  ministers  (Kastaksor  Kalons), 
and  sixteen  inferior  mandarins.  Tho  other  functionaries  are  selected  hy  the 
ministers  almost  e.xeliisively  from  the  lamas. 

Hut  hehindtliis  machinery  Jire  on(>  or  more  Kirichai,  or  Amban,  fhincso  agents, 
wlio  control  the  liij^h  oHicials,  and  onwiMfjfhty  occasions  convey  to  them  the  phnisnre 
<d'  his  Imperial  Majesty.  According  to  the  practice  of  Kang-hi,  followed  hy  all  his 
successors,  everything  connected  with  general  politics  and  war  must  he  referred  to 
Peking,  while  local  nuitters  arc  left  to  the  Tibetan  authorities.  AH  the  civil 
functionaries  arc  initives  of  Tibet.  The  most  serious  crises  occur  at  the  death,  or, 
we  should  say,  the  reincarnation  of  tho  Dalai-lama  in  a  new-lxjrn  infant.  Then 
the  Khutuktu,  or  chief  prelates,  assemble  in  conclave,  passing  u  week  in  ]»raycr 
and  fasting,  after  which  the  future  Pope  is  chosen  by  lot.  Hut  tho  election  is  still 
controlled  by  tho  Chinese  ondxissy,  which  in  17!Jl2  presented  to  the  conclave  tho 
magniticent  gold  vase,  whence  is  drawn  the  name  of  the  now  master  of  tho  land, 
who  is  invested  by  a  diploma  bearing  the  Kmpcror's  signature.  I'ope,  viceroy, 
ministers,  all  rec(>ivo  a  yeaily  subvention  from  Peking,  and  all  the  Tibetan 
mandarins  wear  on  their  hats  tho  button,  or  distinctive  sign  of  the  dignities 
conferred  by  the  empire.  Kv(>ry  third  or  fifth  year  a  solonni  end)assy  is  sent  to 
Peking  witli  rich  presents,  receiving  others  in  exchange  from  the  "  Son  of  Heaven." 
The  (irand  liama's  treasury  is  yearly  increased  by  a  siun  of  £10,000,  which  can  be 
touched  only  in  case  of  war. 

The  rate  of  taxation  depends  rather  on  custom  and  tlie  mandarins  than  on  any 
tixed  laws.  The  whole  land  belongs  to  the  Dalai-lama,  the  people  being  merely 
temporary  occupants,  tolerated  by  the  real  owner.  The  very  houses  and  furniture 
and  all  movable  ])roi)erty  are  held  in  tiust  for  the  supreme  master,  whose  subjects 
must  be  grateful  if  he  takes  a  portion  only  for  the  requirements  of  the  administra- 
ticm.  One  of  tho  most  ordinary  sentences,  in  fact,  is  wholesale  confiscation,  when 
the  condemned  must  leave  house  and  lands,  betaking  themselves  to  a  camp  life,  and 
living  by  begging  in  tho  districts  assigned  to  them.  So  numerous  are  these  chony- 
loiKj,  or  official  mendicants,  that  they  form  a  distinct  class  in  tho  State.  In  the 
courts  oven  tho  inferior  mandarins  may  have  recourse  to  torture,  and  sentence  to 
the  rod,  fines,  or  imprisonment.  The  higher  authorities  condemn  to  exile,  amputa- 
tion of  hands  and  feet,  gouging  out  of  the  eyes,  and  death.  But,  as  faithful 
discipl(!s  of  Puddha,  the  lamas  refrain  from  "  killing  "  their  subjects,  only  leaving 


mmmmmm^^mm^^^i^mmm^mmsm:'' 


-.-•*. 


ADMIXISTRATION— I'ENAL  CODE— POSTAL  SERVICE. 


67 


[>    Daliii-lainn, 

'11  ft 

<;n    I  iTiisurc, 

ijccts,  witli  no 

s  t(»  lie  <7\ii(U'(l 

•uts  liiiii  i'loin 

I'd  to  spirituul 

liosi'ii    by   tlu' 

Xdiiiiikliiiii,  or 

ks  or  Kiiloiis), 

iectt'd   by  the 

hinoso  ngpnts, 
11  tbo  plciisiiro 
wod  by  till  bis 
bo  referred  to 

All  the  civil 

tbe  denlb,  or, 
iul'iint.  Tben 
I'ok  in  ])niyer 
'lection  is  still 
D  conclave  the 
Dr  of  the  land, 
I'ope,  viceroy, 
the  Tibetun 

the  dignities 
issy  is  sent  to 
n  of  Heaven." 

which  can  be 

IS  than  on  any 
being  merely 
and  furniture 
ivhose  subjects 
lie  adininistra- 
iscation,  when 
camp  life,  and 
'o  these  chong- 
>tate.  In  the 
id  sentence  to 
exile,  amputa- 
it,  as  faithful 
s,  only  leaving 


them  to  perish  of  himger.  With  every  new  year  the  office  of  ju<lge  is  sold  to  the 
highest  bidder  in  the  monastery  of  Dcbang  at  Lassa.  Wlien  the  lama,  wealthy 
enough  to  purchase  the  dignity,  presents  himself  with  his  silver  hkI  to  the  pul)lic, 
there  is  a  general  stampede  amongst  the  well-to-do  artisans,  who  k«'ep  out  of  the 
way  for  the  twenty-thrci'  days  during  which  he  is  authorised  to  indemnify  himself 
by  the  imposition  of  arbitrary  fines. 

Since  tbe  cession  of  Ladak  to  Kashmir,  and  the  annexation  of  Hatang,  I.itang, 
Aten-tze,  and  other  districts  to  tSechuen  and  Yunnan,  Si-isang,  or  Tibet  ])roper, 
comprises  only  the  four  provinces  of  Nari,  Tsaiig,  AVei,  or  U,  and  Khani.  Certain 
principalities  enclosed  in  these  provinces  are  completely  indeiu'iident  of  Lassa,  and 
either  enjoy  Helf-governmei;t  or  are  directly  administered  fi'om  Peking.  Such 
especially  is  the  "  kingdom  "  of  I'omi,  whose  inhabitants,  with  all  their  devotion 
for  the  Dalai-lama,  jealously  guard  their  local  liberties  and  right  of  free  trade. 
Even  in  the  four  provinces  the  Chinese  authorities  interfere  in  many  ways,  and 
their  power  is  especially  felt  in  that  of  Nari,  where,  owing  to  its  dangerous 
proximity  to  Kashmir  and  India,  the  old  spirit  of  independence  might  1m'  awakened. 
Nor  is  any  money  allowed  to  be  coined  in  Tibet,  which  in  the  eyes  of  the  Iin])erial 
Government  is  merely  a  dependency  of  Sechuen,  whence  all  orders  arc  received  in 
Lassa. 

All  the  able-bodied  male  population  is  supposed  to  constitute  a  sort  of  national 
guard  for  the  defence  of  the  country.  Ihit  the  only  regular  troo[)s  are  Manchus, 
Mongols,  or  Tatars,  whom  the  Chinese  authorities  prefer  for  this  service,  ostensibly 
on  account  of  their  hardy  and  frugal  habits — in  reality,  because  they  would  never 
hesitate  to  butcher  the  natives  when  called  upon  by  their  officers.  About  four 
thou.sand  are  found  sufficient  to  hold  the  countrv,  of  whom  half  are  stationwl  in 
Lassa,  the  rest  distributed  in  small  bodies  over  the  garrison  towns  of  Tingri, 
Shigatze,  Gyantze,  and  the  frontier  stations. 

The  postal  service  is  conducted  with  remarkable  speed  and  regularity.  The 
carriers  traverse  in  twenty  to  thirty  days,  according  to  the  season,  the  route  between 
Lassa  and  Gartok,  a  distance  of  780  miles.  They  keep  the  saddle  night  and  Any, 
never  stopping  except  to  change  horses  or  for  refreshment.  To  provide  for 
accidents,  two  riders,  each  leading  two  horses  by  the  bridle,  accompany  them  along 
the  route,  Avhich  is  thus  traversed  at  full  speed  nearly  the  whole  way.  To  prevent 
the  messenger  from  undressing  at  night,  his  clothes  are  sealed  by  a  mandarin  at 
starting,  and  the  seal  can  be  broken  only  by  the  recipient  of  the  dispatch.  In  the 
desert  tracts  the  villages  are  replaced  by  the  tarsun,  or  postal  tents,  erected  at 
certain  points  along  the  route. 

37 


i«!?'?K 


m 


niATTKK   ITT. 

ClIINKHE  TURKESTAN. 
TiiK  Tauim  IUhin. 


1 

NoMKXCI.ATtnE. 

IFK  coiitrjil  Asiatic  dopii'ssinn.  rcim-scntiiifj:  llio  nncioiil  inliiiul  soa 
that  riowcd  lu'twcni  tlii'  'riaii-slum  and  Kiitii-luii,  hoars  a  <jfr»'af 
variety  of  iiainos.  Tlio  hurrouiulinji;  Turki,  (lalcliu,  Monjjol,  and 
Tilu'taii  i)"()j)lcs  have  ull  their  special  appellations,  which,  with  the 
vicissitudes  of  conipiest  aiul  iiii<j;rution,  htivc  enjoyed  each  in  its 
turn  tt  passiii^r  celebrity.  The  natives  themselves  recently  spoke  of  their  country 
as  the  A/fi-s/i<i/ir,  or  "Six  Cities,"  an  expression  now  replaced  by  Jiti-.shahr,  or 
"  Seven  Cities;  "  but  even  this  is  restricted  to  the  inhabited  portion  sweepin<|f  in  a 
vast  seuiicirclo  round  the  foot  of  the  mountains.  The  Chinese  tenn  Tian-shan 
Nan-lu,  or  Southern  Tian-shan  route,  in  opposition  to  Tian-shan  Pe-lu,  or 
the  Xorth(>rn  Tian-shan  route  of  Zunj^aria,  has  at  least  the  advantage  of 
precision,  whereas  "  Kash<;aria,"  the  nanu!  lately  current  in  Europe,  has  no  ritinon 
Wvh'r  since  the  collapse  of  the  independent  state  founded  by  Ya>'vub  of  Kashfj;ar. 
In  the  same  way  the  expression  "  Kinjj^dom  of  Khotan  "  fell  into  disuse  alter  the 
city  of  Khotun  had  ceased  to  be  the  cajntal.  The  term  "liittle  Bokhara,"  still  in 
use  some  thirty  years  ago,  pointed  at  the  former  religious  ascendancy  of  Bolchara, 
but  is  now  all  the  less  appropriate  that  Bokhara  itself  has  yielded  the  supremacy 
to  Tashkent,  Lastly,  the  exj)ressions  Eastern  Turkestan  and  Chinese  Turkestan 
are  still  applicable,  because  the  inhabitants  are  of  Turki  speech,  while  the  Chinese 
have  again  brought  the  country  under  subjection. 

PkOOIIKSS    ()!•'    DiSCOVKRV. 

Although  till  about  the  middle  of  this  century  it  had  fallen  into  almost  total 
oblivion,  Chinese  Turkestan  at  all  times  possessed  great  importance  as  a  high- 
way of  migration  or  trade  between  Eastern  Asia  and  the  Aralo-Caspian  basin. 
Greek  and  Chinese  traders  met  on  the  great  "  Silk  lloutc,"  which  passed,  this  way, 


^M^^mm^'''s^^^ms'm^mm^^^m^^:  -■mr 


lent  inlaiul  sea 
bears  a  great 
I,  Arongol,  and 
vliich,  with  the 
ed  eacli  in  its 
t'  their  eountry 
:  Jiti-shahr,  or 
I  sweeping  in  a 
enn  Tian-shan 
han  Pe-lu,  or 
advantage  of 
?,  ha.s  no  rtiitton 
ih  of  Kashgar. 
lisuse  after  the 
khara,"  still  in 
py  of  Bolvhara, 
the  supremacy 
iiesc  Turkestan 
lilc  the  Chinese 


ito  almost  total 
nee  as  a  high- 
■Caspian  basin, 
iissed  this  way. 


iii 


i-rf!r--.Ti«e>B 


9(«'M|r    I    In  iM  Ml  otto 


ii."  >-  '•  I,..  „it.i  I 


mi 


%■■'■ 


ms 


..A.. 


.■Ml 
Mil 


u 

;^ 

o 
u 

p 

a. 

i 

E- 


E-< 

U 

EC 

m 


^s:^~^  '■•^V^mumW'ttMimnt-U 


MirtaMMMMtw 


... 


0!i^ 


inn 


I'iadiii 


Ill 


PROGRESS  OF  DISCOVERY. 


60 


while  Biulflliist  missionaries,  Arab  dealers,  the  great  Venetian,  ^larco  Polo,  fol- 
lowed by  other  European  travellers  in  inediieval  times,  hud  all  to  tarry  in  the  oases 
of  Chinese  Turkestan  on  their  long  journeys  across  the  continent.  IJut  so  for- 
gotten were  the  old  accounts,  that  the  depression  watered  by  the  Tarim  was  sup- 
posed, eighty  years  ago,  to  form  part  of  the  vast  "  plateau  of  Tatary,"  which  was 
thought  to  occupy  all  the  interior  of  the  continent.  The  general  form  of  this 
great  cavit}'  remained  unknown  till  again  revealed  to  Europe  by  the  study  of  the 
Chinese  documents  relating  to  the  Tian-shan  Nan-lu. 

Adol])h  Schlagintweit  was  the  first  European  that  reached  the  Tarim  basin 
from  India  in  the  present  century.  In  1857  he  crossed  the  Karakorum,  thence 
descending  to  the  plains  and  pushing  on  to  Kashgar,  only  to  be  assassinated  by 

EMg.  21. — Itinehauies  of  the  Tian-shan  Na.n-lu. 
Scale  1  :  16,360,000. 


tcPr, 


s^J^> 


^ 


6,600  to  13,000  Feet. 


H'wen  Tsnig. 
Mbtco  Pdlo. 
SdilnBiiitweit. 
Valikhanov. 
Johnaon. 


l;i,000  and  upwanls. 
(iKteu  Sacken. 
ForByth.  —i 
Venyukov.  ... 
Gordon.  — 
Regel.  — 
800  MilcB. 


Kuropatkin. 
Scveitzov. 
FrjevalBky. 
Kttulbars. 
P'lstul  Route. 


order  of  the  ruling  prince,  Vali  Khan.  Thus  were  lost  to  science  all  his  labours, 
notes,  and  collections.  Eight  years  afterwards  Johnson  visited  Khotan  and  the 
surrounding  deserts,  and  this  was  the  first  of  the  English  expeditions  inspired  by 
the  commercial  and  political  rivalries  of  England  and  Russia.  In  1868  Shaw 
undertook  the  exploration  of  the  trade  routes  down  to  the  plains,  while  Ilayward 
received  from  the  London  Geographical  Society  the  mission  to  survey  the  plateau 
regions.  Ilayward  shared  the  fate  of  Schlagintweit,  but  Shaw  succeeded  in  col- 
lecting nmch  information  on  the  trade  of  the  country,  and  soon  after  accompanied 
the  famous  embassy  to  Yakub,  sovereign  of  Kashgaria.  Forsyth,  the  head  of  the 
mission,  got  no  farther  than  Yarkand,  but  he  returned  three  years  afterwards  with 
a  more  numerous  staff  of  explorers,  amongst  whom  were  Gordon,  Biddulph,  Trotter, 


,„^  ^trtfrt"****™*.-*-* 


-^ .-..liirtWR*' 


.■^— '■-  ■4i^l'*'^".^* 


I'-' 


60 


EAST  ASIA. 


fi>"ik  51  ( 


l)« 


'Si( 


Chnpinan,  Bellow,  StoHczka.  The  fortilo  rof»ion  of  the  plains  was  now  visited  in 
every  direction,  while  farther  west  the  "  Roof  of  the  World  "  was  reached  from 
the  Upper  ( )xus  valleys. 

Nor  were  the  Russians  on  their  ])art  idle.  Valikhanov  in  1858,  and  Osten 
Sackon  in  18(57,  had  crossed  the  Tiiin-sluin,  thence  descending;  from  the  north 
down  to  the  Kash<?arian  plains.  In  1876  Kuropatkin  penetrated  hy  the  Terek- 
davan  route  into  the  Tarim  basin,  skirting  the  southern  foot  of  the  Tian-shan  as 
far  as  Lake  Karashar.  Following  in  his  footsteps,  Regel  has  recently  pushed 
farther  eastwards  along  the  "  imperial  highway  "  always  taken  by  the  Chinese  on 
their  military  and  commercial  expeditions  towards  the  Tian-shan.  The  itineraries 
of  Mushketov  and  others  have  now  connected  this  route  with  those  of  Kuija  on  the 
opposite  side,  while  Prjevalsky,  plunging  into  the  desert,  has  surveyed  all  the 
eastern  section  of  the  Tarim  basin  between  the  Tian-shan  and  the  Altin-tagh. 
But  the  regions  stretching  along  the  foot  of  the  Kuen-lun,  formerly  traversed  by 
Marco  l*olo  and  Benedict  de  Goes,  still  remain  unexplored. 

EXTKXT — POPTILATIOX — WaTER    SvSTEM The    KaRA-KASH. 

From  the  results  of  the  English  and  Russian  surveys  Chinese  Turkestan  would 
appear  to  have  an  area  of  480,000  square  miles,  with  a  population  estimated  by 
Forsyth  at  no  more  than  580,000,  and  which  cannot  in  any  case  exceed  a  million. 
But  here  water  is  scarce,  and  desert  begins  wherever  the  flowing  stream  runs  dry. 
The  lofty  crests  of  the  encircling  ranges  often  tower  far  above  the  snow-line,  but 
the  streams  discharged  by  them  do  not  always  reach  the  open  plains.  They  are 
nevertheless  gathered  together  in  sufficient  number  to  develop  a  large  river  basin. 

East  of  Khotan  none  of  the  Kuen-lun  and  Altin-tagh  torrents  reach  the  central 
reservoir  of  this  basin  except  the  Cherchen-daria,  one  of  the  most  copious  of  all 
the  streams  joining  the  Tarim  above  Lake  Lob.  The  afflueni  of  the  Khotan-daria, 
one  of  the  main  branches  of  the  Tarim,  were  *  ;  .erly  renowned  throughout  Asia 
as  the  "  rivers  of  Jade."  All  the  Chinese  recc.-ds  describe  the  Khotan  as  formed 
of  three  head-streams,  each  of  which  sends  down  jade  pv.bbles  of  a  special  colour. 
To  the  east  flows  the  "river  of  green  Jade,"  to  the  west  that  of  "black  Jade," 
between  the  two  that  of  "  white  Jade."  Two  at  least  of  these  rivers  have  preserved 
their  name  under  the  Turki  forms  of  Urung-kash  ("  White  Jade")  and  Kara- 
kash  ("  Black  Jade").  The  latter,  by  far  the  largest,  rises  in  Kashmir,  far  to  the 
south  of  the  Kuen-lun,  at  an  altitude  of  over  16,000  feet,  and  flows  from  the  Kara- 
korum  through  a  succession  of  gorges  down  to  the  northern  base  of  the  Kuen-lun, 
finally  escaping  through  the  Shah-i-dulah  ravine  to  the  plain  of  Khotan. 

East  of  the  Upper  Kara-kash  valley  the  plain  crossed  by  travellers  proceeding 
from  the  Indus  to  the  Tarim  basin  is  largely  covered  with  saline  and  other  efflo- 
rescences. The  lake  by  which  it  was  formerly  flooded  has  disappear  d,  and  even 
the  streams  which  succeeded  it  have  been  swallowed  up  in  the  shifting  sands. 
Deep  crevasses  are  here  and  there  filled  with  sulphate  of  magnesia  as  white  and 
fine  as  the  driven  snow.     The  deeper  cavities  are  occupied  by  muddy  salt  marshes, 


'W^ 


-!_.. 


QW  visited  in 
cuchod  from 

<,  and  Osten 
m  the  north 
)y  the  Terek- 
Tian-shan  as 
ently  pushed 
3  Chinese  on 
he  itineraries 
Kulja  on  the 
eyed  all  the 
Q  Altin-tagh. 
traversed  by 


ill. 

•kcstan  would 
estimated  by 
2cd  a  million. 
3am  runs  dry. 
mow-line,  but 
is.  They  arc 
river  basin, 
ch  the  central 
copious  of  all 
Khotan-daria, 
'oughout  Asia 
tan  as  formed 
special  colour. 
'  black  Jade," 
ave  preserved 
")  and  Kara- 
nir,  far  to  the 
•om  the  Kara- 
the  Kuen-lun, 
;an. 

srs  proceeding 
id  other  elflo- 
ir  d,  and  even 
hifting  sands. 
I  as  white  and 
'  salt  marshes, 


< 
> 

B 
< 

i 


ii^ 


Ill 


THE  YARKAND  AND  KASIIOAB. 


Gl 


conp^oaled  on  the  surfiioo,  and  to  a  height  of  17,000  feet  hot  springs  are  found 
encircled  hy  de])osits  of  lime  and  an  outer  rim  of  frozen  water.  For  spaces  several 
squiire  miles  in  extent  the  ground  is  pierced  by  little  funnel-shaped  fissures 
4  feet  dee])  and  8  in  diameter,  and  nearly  all  quite  regular.  After  the  rains 
some  of  these  funnels  throw  up  masses  of  mud  and  even  boiling  water.  Lower 
down  the  banks  of  the  Kara-kash  are  broken  by  similar  fissures,  but  with  a  saline 
(Tust  round  the  upper  edge.  These  connnunicate  with  the  river,  whieli  ills  during 
the  frosty  nights  and  rises  during  the  diiy  from  the  melting  of  the  snows  and  ice. 
The  funnels  are  thus  alternately  filled  and  emptied  every  twenty-four  hours,  the 
salt  water  of  the  Kara-kash  leaving  a  saline  deposit  each  time  on  the  surface. 

West  of  the  Lower  Kara-kash  follow  several  streams  which  are  lost  in  the 
sauds  or  in  the  Yashil-kul  swamp,!,  separated  by  a  ridgo  of  dunes  from  the  Kara- 
Fig.  22. — The  Tian-8]UN  Nan-lu,  fhom  a  Chinese  Map. 


iS'  ff  '  '  Toupfaif -V  ♦Hami 


l.eh  nof 


/^ara  Aou/ 


J^^^^*'^^^<.;^Acrn^  M0«a-f|^ 


'^^'1^?^^'^^^  ■  '-^-^^v^s^^^? 


kash.  These  streams  rise  on  the  outer  spurs  of  the  Kuen-lun,  which  are  covered 
to  a  height  of  11,000  feet  with  an  argillaceous  soil,  probably  of  glacial  origin.  The 
main  route  from  India  to  Chinese  Turkestan  leads  through  the  Sanju  Pass  (16,800 
feet)  over  these  mountains,  thereby  avoiding  the  great  bend  described  by  the  Kara- 
kash  towards  the  north-east  after  emerging  on  the  plaina. 

The  Yarkand  and  Kasiigar. 

In  the  south-west  comer  of  Chinese  Turkestan  rises  the  Yarkand-daria,  also  often 
called  the  Zarafshan,  or  "  Auriferous,"  the  longest,  and  probably  the  most  copious, 
of  all  the  Tarim  affluents.     Over  one-fourth  of  the  whole  population  are  concen- 


m 


02 


EAST  ASIA. 


Ill'*' 


trntod  alonj?  tlio  banks  of  this  fcrtilisinfi;  stroimi,  whoso  alhiviiil  deposits  nrc  fur 
more  precious  tliun  its  j^ohh'ii  sniuls.  Its  furthest  souree  is  on  the  Kurukonun 
Pass  (17, ')()<)  feet),  wliere  u  ridge  a  few  yards  wide  separates  the  Tariin  and  Indus 
basins.  Flowin<?  first  north-west,  parallel  with  all  the  ranp;es  of  this  oro<,'raphic 
Rj'stein,  it  is  soon  swollen  hy  the  numerous  feeders  sent  down  from  the  snows  and 
glaciers  of  the  Da psang  and  other  peaks,  rivalling  those  of  the  Ilimahiyas  them- 
selves in  height  and  grandeur.  Hence  the  Yarkand  is  already  a  large  stream  when 
it  reaches  the  plains  ;  but  hero  its  volume  is  rapidly  diminished  by  evaporation  and 
the  extensive  irrigation  works  developed  along  its  banks.  Nevertheless,  during 
the  floods,  the  main  branch  is  still  400  or  500  feet  broad,  and  nowhere  fordable  at 
the  city  of  Yarkand. 

None  of  the  streams  flowing  to  the  Tarim  from  the  Pamir  are  of  any  size.  The 
mountains  where  they  have  their  source  rise  immediately  west  of  the  plain,  leaving 
little  space  for  the  development  of  large  rivers.  These  mountains,  the  Tsung-ling, 
or  "  Onion  Mountains  "  of  the  Chinese,  are  the  advanced  projections  of  the"  Central 
Asiatic  nucleus,  here  dominated  by  the  imposing  peak  of  Tagharma.  They  skirt 
the  eastern  edge  of  the  Pamir,  which  is  far  more  abrupt  than  the  opposite  side 
facing  the  Oxus  basin.  Of  all  the  streams  flowing  from  these  highlands  eastwards 
the  Kashgar-daria  alone  reaches  the  Yarkand-daria.  Its  chief  head-stream  is  one 
of  the  two  Kizil-su  ("  Red  Waters"),  flowing  one  to  the  Aral,  the  other  to  the 
Tarim  basin.  The  mountains  of  the  Eastern  Pamir  arc  themselves  often  called 
Kizil-art,  Kizil-tagh,  or  "  Red  Mountains." 


,Si 


m 


The  Tarim. 

The  Khotan  and  Yarkand,  swollen  by  the  Kashgar,  unite  with  the  Ak-su,  which 
is  itself  joined  by  the  Taushkan-daria  from  the  Tian-shan,  and  by  the  junction  of 
all  these  streams  is  formed  the  Tarim  (Tarim-gol),  the  Oechardes  of  the  Greek 
geographers.  Rut  the  terra  Tarim  is  little  used  by  the  natives,  who,  according  to 
Prjevalsky,  still  call  the  united  stream  the  Yarkand-daria.  Rivalling  the 
Danube  in  length,  the  Tarim,  unlike  that  river,  diminishes  in  size  as  it  approaches 
its  mouth,  although  still  fed  by  other  tributaries  from  the  north.  East  of  the 
Kok-su,  which  flows  to  Lake  Baba,  the  Khaidu-gol,*  descending  from  the  Yulduz 
steppes,  has  sufficient  volume  to  reach  the  Tarim,  traversing  on  the  way  the  large 
and  deep  lacustrine  basin  variously  known  as  the  Bogla-nor,  Bostan-nor,  Bagarash- 
kul,  Karashar-kul,  or  simply  the  Denghiz,  or  "  Sea."  The  Khaidin-kua,  orKonche- 
daria,  as  the  outlet  of  this  lake  is  called,  flows  through  a  narrow  gorge  in  the 
Kuruk-tagh  range,  which  was  formerly  defended  by  strong  fortifications,  and  is 
still  guarded  by  mud  forts. 


m 

m 


LOB-NOR. 

After  receiving  the  Konche-daria,  the  velocity  of  the  Tarim  is  gradually  dimi- 
nished as  it  approaches  the  deepest  portion  of  the  Tian-shan  Nan-lu  depression.    Near 

*  On  most  maps  t/iU  and  i/iil  aro  wrongly  "sod  Bynonymoualy.    (rol  is  tho  Mongolian  word  for  "  river," 
whereas  gnl  is  a  Turki  word  meaning  lake;  hence  equivalent  to  kul. 


-„  A 


LOB-NOK. 


68 


losits  nro  far 
Kurukoruin 
I  atul  Indus 
s  ()ruj,'nn)luc 
0  snows  and 
Liyus  thcni- 
Htream  when 
[)()ratiou  and 
[?loss,  during 
!  fordablc  at 

;y  size.  The 
lain,  leaving 
Tsung-ling, 
:  the'  Central 
They  skirt 
opposite  side 
ds  eastwards 
ream  is  one 
Dther  to  the 
often  called 


\.k-su,  which 
junction  of 
if  the  Greek 
according  to 
ivalling  the 
fc  approaches 
East  of  the 
1  the  Yulduz 
ay  the  large 
)r,  Bagarash- 
1,  or  Konche- 
gorge  in  the 
itions,  and  is 


idually  dimi- 
'ession.  Near 
•ord  for  "river," 


the  village  of  Abdalli,  close  to  its  mouth  in  Lob-nor,  it  is  little  more  than  2  feet 
per  second,  and  the  diseharge  may  hero  bo  estimated  at  nhoiit  '^',700  cubic  IVct.  At 
Abdalli  the  Tariiii  emerges  from  the  reedy  swamps  of  Lake  Kani-buran,  or"  Mhick 
Stonn,"  which  behmgs  to  the  Ijob-nor  system,  Mut  here  it  is  again  divided  into  a 
number  of  natural  and  artificial  canals,  beyond  which  it  disappears  in  a  btrcst  of 
reeds  even  more  dense  and  taller  thaji  those  of  the  Kara-buran,  rising  to  a  height 
of  over  '20  feet  above  the  surface,  and  partly  concealing  from  view  tiie  Chok-kul 
(Great  Lake),  or  Kara-kurchin,  which  jointly  with  the  Kara-buran  forms  the  great 
reservoir  commonly  known  as  the  Lob-nor.  The  eastern  section  covers  an  area  of 
perhaps  800  square  miles ;  but  it  is  mostly  little  more  than  a  lagoon  or  Hooded 
morass,  with  a  mean  depth  of  scarcely  more  than  7  feet  ahmg  its  southern  or  more 
elevated  bank.     Even  in  the  centre  a  few  fishing  villages  lie  hidden  amid  the 

Fig.  23. — Lake  Kakashar. 

Ronle  1  :  1,230,000. 


SOMUes. 


dense  reeds  overgrowing  a  strip  of  land  which  here  rises  above  the  surface.  These 
villages  are  thus  protected  from  the  fierce  gales  from  the  east  and  north-east, 
which  sweep  the  lake  and  open  plains,  especially  in  spring,  and  which  cause  the 
water  to  flood  the  flat  shores  of  the  Kara-buran  for  a  82iace  of  10  or  12  miles ; 
hence  its  expressive  name,  the  "  Black  Storm." 

Lake  Lob  is  evidently  a  mere  remnant  of  the  ancient  "  Mediterranean  "  men- 
tioned in  legend  and  historic  records,  and  traces  of  which  are  clearly  detected 
throughout  the  whole  Tarim  depression  eastwards  to  the  Mongolian  plateaux.  The 
researches  of  Richthofcn  enable  us  accurately  to  define  the  contours  of  what  was 
once  the  Si-hai,  or  "  Western  Sea,"  and  what  is  now  the  "  Ilan-hai,"  or  "  Dried-up 
Sea,"  of  the  Chinese.  This  ancient  sea,  running  parallel  with  the  Tian-shan  and 
Kuen-lun,  is  now  known  to  have  covered  an  area  of  over  800,000  square  miles, 
with  a  depth  of  at  least  3,000  feet  in  its  lowest  depression ;  that  is,  v  here  the 


giiiB>>£«K  W'.i**"  '«^'-  - 


.,iS 


64 


KAflT  ASIA. 


Loh-nor  is  now  fdtmd.  Kvcn  at  tln>  dawn  of  liistory  real  inlurul  scmh  M\\l  Murvivrd 
in  this  rofjion,  and  the  Tian-shan  Naii-lu  and  Tian-shan  I'c-lu  on  fiil.cr  sidt-  of  thu 
oastom  oxtromity  of  i\w  Tian-wlian  ranpo  had  both  of  thorn  their  vast  hioustrino 
basin,  now  roprosontod  by  tho  Hinall  lakes  scattered  over  thophiiiis.  The  unanimous 
tradition  of  tho  natives,  lM)th  in  lOastern  Turkestan  and  West  (^hina,  speaks  of  tho 
grathial  exhatistion  of  tlu^so  lakes,  and  tho  disap])earancc  of  the  waters  may  have 
possibly  suggcstwl  the  idea  of  an  underj^'round  channel,  ]M)j)ularly  sup])osed  to 
convey  tho  outflow  of  Loh-nor  to  the  sources  of  tho  Jloang-ho,  !0,U(JO  feet 
higher  up. 

It  is  very  remarkable  that  tho  gradual  desiccation  of  I^ob-nor  has  not  rendered 
it  completely  saline,  like  most  of  tho  other  lakes  scattered  over  the  old  marine 
basin.     Its  water  is  at  present  fresh  and  sweet,  und  according  to  tho  local  accounts 


Fig.  24. — Loii-NOB. 
ArmrdinR  to  Prjevnlfky.    Boale  1 :  2,fl80,000. 


to.. 


40° 


*sjjr'i  *  Ka  ra' k  o  uft  0  h  i  n 


•j^i^t 


r 


/foym-tm^ 


■^r~--^  — 


'^       R>,;^iYToh«rkhal?k 


flofG 


.  60  Milea. 


it  gradually  diminished  in  volume  towards  the  middle  of  the  present  century,  again 
increasing  about  the  year  1870.  Like  the  Tarim,  it  abounds  in  fish  of  two  species, 
which  the  iiatives  take  by  moans  of  artificial  canals  and  reservoirs.  During  the 
floods  tho  fish  penetrate  into  these  reservoirs,  whore  they  are  easily  captured  after 
the  subsidence  of  the  waters. 


The  Takla-makax  Desert. 

Although  the  extent  of  the  desert  and  waste  tracts  in  Chinese  Turkestan  has 
not  yet  been  accurately  determined,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  they  are  vastly  in 
excess  of  the  cultivated  and  inhabited  lands.  These  are  nearly  everywhere  limited 
to  a  narrow  strip  of  a  few  thousand  j'ards  at  most  along  the  river  banks,  bej'ond 
which  the  still  unexplored  wilderness  stretches  uninterruptedly  beyond  the  horizon. 
Here  we  already  enter  the  Gobi,  although  it  is  unknown  by  this  name  in  Eastern 


THE  TAKLA-MAKAN  DESERT. 


05 


II  Hurvivwl 
nidi-  of  the 

lucuHtrino 
uiitiniinoUH 
■iikn  of  tlio 

limy  liuvo 
upposod  to 
0,000  feet 

it  rendered 
old  marine 
ml  accounts 


40° 


ntury,  again 
two  species, 
During  the 
ptured  after 


iirkestan  has 
ire  vastly  in 
here  limited 
inks,  beyond 
the  horizon, 
le  iu  Eastern 


Turkestan,  l)oiii<j:,  in  fact,  still  separati'd  l)y  the  low-lying  valley  '>f  the  Tariiii  from 
the  true  Mongolian  deserts.  North  of  Kliotan  and  east  of  the  Kliotan-daria  the 
sandy  region  takes  the  Turki  name  of  Takla-iiiakan.  Here  the  dunes  advancing 
like  the  ocean  waves  are  exiM)sed  to  tlie  full  fury  of  the  northern  Musts,  l»y  which 
they  are  raised  to  heights  of  from  '2(H)  to  400  feet.  West  of  the  Khotiin-diiria, 
however,  they  are  merely  shifting  hillocks  or  mounds,  mostly  from  10  to  'JO  feet 
high,  all  drifting  south-eastwards.  Hut  even  here  some  rise  to  100  feet  and 
upwards,  forming  regular  crescents,  with  the  horns  projecting  on  either  side 
beyond  the  central  mass.  The  proximity  of  the  desert  is  announced  in  the  oasis, 
and  uj)  to  the  very  foot  of  the  Kuen-lun  and  Pamir  ranges  by  the  fine  particles  of 
dust  whirling  in  the  air,  and  often  clouding  the  azure  sky.  The  sun  is  not  distinctly 
visible  for  some  hours  after  dawn,  and  when  the  east  winds  prevail  it  remains  at 
times  overcast  throughout  the  day.  Then  the  lamps  arc  lit  in  the  houses  at  noon, 
as  in  Lomhm  during  the  winter  fogs.  When  driven  in  dense  masses  before  the 
storm,  the  sands  are  as  disastrous  to  the  eultivatec^  lands  as  they  are  beneficial 
when  they  fall  imperceptibly  in  the  form  of  an  impalpable  dust.  To  these  sands 
of  the  desert  the  natives  thus,  not  without  n,  attribute  at  once  ttic  gradual 

ruin  of  their  country  and  the  temporary  alii,      nuio  of  their  crops. 

Not  all  the  Turkestan  wastes  are  covered  with  dunes,  which  are  chiefly  concen- 
trated in  the  south  and  south-west  under  the  action  of  the  northern  winds.  Some 
of  the  desert  tracts  are  true  steppes,  like  those  of  the  Aral  basin,  yellow  or  reddish 
rolling  lands  following  each  other  with  the  uniformity  of  waves  under  a  steady 
breeze.  In  the  distance  white  rocks  worn  by  the  sands  stand  out  like  ruined 
buildings,  while  saline  incrustations  cover  the  beds  of  ancient  lakes. 

At  the  foot  of  the  Kueu-lun  stretch  vast  stony  wastes,  and  the  old  Chinese 
records  speak  with  horror  of  all  these  "  rivers  of  sand  "  and  rocky  plains.  The 
wilderness  stretching  east  of  Lob-nor  is  haunted  by  winged  dragons  and  evil 
genii.  Hero  the  path  is  traced  only  by  bleached  bones ;  the  voice  of  the  sands 
mocks  the  wayfarer  or  fills  him  with  vague  fears,  now  singing,  now  moaning,  or 
muttering  like  distant  thunder,  or  uttering  shrill,  hissing  sounds,  as  if  the  air  were 
alive  with  invisible  demons.  Much  of  this  may  be  due  to  the  fevered  fancy  of 
travellers  ;  but  the  Eastern  Turkestan  dunes  may  also  re-echo  with  that  •'  music  of 
the  sands "  spoken  of  by  explorers  in  Sinai,  Afghanistan,  Peru,  and  by  many 
naturalists  on  the  seashore.  The  same  voice  of  the  burning  sands  is  mentioned  by 
the  traveller  Lenz  during  his  recent  visit  to  Timbuktu. 

During  the  prosperous  days  of  the  kingdom  of  Khotan  the  sandy  wastes  were 
far  less  extensive  than  at  present,  although  even  then  the  cultivated  tracts  were 
hemmed  in  by  the  surrounding  desert.  A  great  river  is  mentioned  as  flowing 
towards  the  north-west,  to  the  west  of  Khotan,  but  which  has  now  completelj' 
disappeared.  In  the  north-east  also  the  inhabitants  of  a  city  called  Ilo-lao-lo-kia, 
rejecting  a  message  from  heaven,  were  condemned,  according  to  the  legend,  to 
perish  under  a  rain  of  sand.  Elsewhere  another  tradition  speaks  of  3G0  cities 
swallowed  up  in  a  single  day  by  the  sands  of  the  Takla-makan.  Certain  shepherds, 
we  are  told,  know  the  sites  of  these  cities,  but  keep  the  secret  in  order  to  enrich 


..^Mt^ 


m 


''Mi 


'4 


06 


KAST  ASIA. 


tlicmwIvcH  with  lln-  n<M  coiiH  ami  other  prcciinis  ohjccts  liiiri<  '  in  the  ruins. 
JiilniHoii,  who  ri'I'i'i's  to  litis  tni<litiiiii,  visitnl  one  ruined  city  iose  to  Khotau, 
where  "  hriek  tea,"  (ireek  iniil  Myzantine  eoiuH,  l)e.siih>M  j<;ohl  orn  liueiitw  like  thow 
Ntill  worn  liy  tlie  iliuilu  women,  are  l're(|uently  piiked  up.  The  ruiM>  of  another 
city  near  Kiria  yielded  ima^'es  of  Ituddha  and  a  clay  Nliitiiette  of  the  ape 
llanunian.  Thanks  to  its  almost  rainless  climate  nnd  dry  air,  the  ruins  of  Chinese 
Turkestan  last  for  loii^  a;;es,  and  walls  of  adolte  are  still  seen  just  as  fhoy  hUwhI 
when  dismantletl  some  eij,'ht  hundred  years  u^o.  The  samls  also  help  to  preserve) 
the  Ituildiiif^s,  and  when  a  shifting;  dune  reveals  stane  old  edilice,  it  is  ^enenilly 
found  in  the  Hiunu  stuto  uh  when  <u-i^inally  engulfed. 

Fi.oiiA  AM)  Faina. 

In  suil)  a  climate  voj^etation  is  naturally  represented  by  hut  few  species.  The 
plains  noniiero  display  f^rassy  tracts  or  flowery  steppes.  Heeds  and  tall  lupiatic 
plants,  a  few  shrul)s  such  as  tho  Jidd  [Kliiinjiiiis^,  a,  Hort  of  wihl  olive,  noiho 
tamarinds  and  poplars  at  most  MO  or  40  feet  hij^h,  form  tho  chief  elements  in  tho 
8j)ontaneous  ji;rowth  of  the  Tarini  hasin.  The  poplar,  which  i.s  the  .salient  feature 
uloufif  the  watercourses,  is  of  the  I'o/>ii/i(n  iliivrxijolio  sper'ies,  presenting,  as  indicated 
hy  its  lM)tanical  name,  a  j^reat  variety  in  tho  form  and  \av  cd'  its  leavcH.  The  very 
sap  of  these  plants  is  saline,  and  in  their  shade  the  ground  is  (piitc  bare,  covered 
either  with  ;,'r<'y  sand  oi  a  white  elHorescence. 

Thanks  to  their  irr  _,ation  works,  tho  natives  have  developed  u  cultivated  flora 
relatively  far  richer  than  the  wihl  growths.  The  hamlets  are  shaded  with  clu.sters 
of  walnut.s,  and  all  the  gardens  in  fh  •  Kliotaii  and  Varkand  districts  have  their 
mulberry  ph)ts.  Tho  pear,  apple  ;  <  i'^h.  it.ricot,  olive,  and  trailing  vine  inter- 
twine their  branches  in  the  orchard  ;,  ,1  :'ii  vield  excellent  fruits,  while  abundant 
crops  of  maize,  milh*,  barley,  v  ,  v;il,  rice,  cotton,  hemp,  and  melons  are  raised 
round  about  the  villages,  which  no  often  buried  in  u  den.se  vegetation  of  almost 
tropical  luxuriance. 

On  the  bank.s  of  the  Tarim  and  its  affluents  the  species  of  wild  fauna  arc  even 
less  numerous  than  those  of  the  wild  flora.  IJcsides  the  wild  boar  and  hare  quadru- 
peds are  rare,  although  the  tiger,  panther,  lynx,  wolf,  fox,  and  otter  are  met  in 
the  thickets  along  the  river  banks,  while  the  mural  deer  and  antelope  keep  to  tho 
open  plains.  None  of  the  mamnnds  and  two  species  only  of  birds  are  peculiar  to 
this  region.  Prjevalsky  enumerates  forty-eight  species  of  avifauna  altogether,  but 
in  .s2)ring  and  autunni  Lake  Ijob  is  visited  by  millions  of  birds  of  passage,  which 
here  find  a  convenient  resting-place  cm  their  weary  flights  between  Southern  Asia 
and  Siberia.  They  arrive  in  a  thoroughly  exhausted  state,  and  it  is  noteworthy 
that  they  come,  not  from  tho  south,  but  from  the  south-west,  thus  avoiding  the 
bleak  plateaux  of  Tibet. 

It  was  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Lake  Lob  that  Prjevalsky  saw  a  wilu  camel, 
un  animal  who.se  existence  had  been  doid)trd  by  most  naturalists,  although  (con- 
stantly mentioned  in  the  Chinese  records  and  spoken  of  by  the  natives  of  Turkestan 


Ill  tlic  niiiH. 
M'  III  Klmtmi, 
its  likf   lli(iM> 

IS    of    lllKltllCI' 

of    the     ii|>*> 

HM  of  ('liint'NC 

lis  flicy  HttMMl 

l|)  fo  jm'MiTVc 

I  is  gciK'niUy 


spocios.  The 
111  tall  ii(]iiatio 
1 1  olive,  some 
k'nu'iits  ill  the 
^alii'Ut  foaturo 
^,  as  indicated 
es.  Tlu!  very 
bare,  covered 

ultivated  flora 
[  with  clusters 
lets  have  their 
if^  vine  iuter- 
hile  ahundunt 
)ns  arc  raised 
ion  of  almost 

auna  are  even 
I  hare  quadru- 
;er  are  met  in 
e  keep  to  the 
re  peculiar  to 
ilto<j;cthcr,  but 
)assa«^e,  which 
Southern  Asia 
is  noteworthy 
avoiding  the 

a  wil«i  camel, 
although  con- 
*  of  Turkestan 


>.. 


ilrlifrnK-     '    -      ■- 


-■'.  *^!<aiW^Li-HJ.-.»U!>j'Ui 


f 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


V 


■ 


1.0 


1.1 


12.2 


:^  pi£  mil  2.0 

u 

Hi     u 
Hiuu 


L25  iU  11.6 


—    6" 


Photographic 

Sciences 

Corporation 


23  WEST  KiAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  M5S0 

(716)t72-4S03 


■^^ 


nBMH  Yrr-mimin  111  '■ txttiiriii  r,^.mM.>MiMiga!-'  —-■  — 


CIHM/ICMH 

Microfiche 

Series. 


CIHIVI/ICIVIH 
Collection  de 
microfiches. 


Canadian  Inalltuta  for  Hittorlcal  Microreproductioni  /  Inatitut  Canadian  da  mlcroraproductlona  hiatorlquaa 


.A- 


INIIABITANTS-THE  KASHGARIANS. 


67 


and  Monj^olia  to  all  recent  travellers.  It  is  at  present  met  chiefly  east  of  Loh-nor, 
in  the  sandy  Kumtug  deserts,  and  less  frequently  about  the  Lower  Tarim  and 
Cherchen-daria,  and  on  the  Altin-tagh  uplands,  in  company  with  the  yak  and  wild 
ass.  Very  numerous  twenty  years  ago,  they  have  become  somewhat  rare  since  the 
Lob  hunters  have  begun  to  pursue  them  into  the  desert.  They  are  extremely  Mary, 
and  scent  the  enemy  several  niiles  off  under  the  wind.  They  are  distinguished 
by  some  anatomical  features  from  the  domestic  animal,  and  the  two  varieties  differ 
also  in  size  and  the  colour  of  their  coats.  AH  the  wild  camels  are  small  compared 
with  the  giants  of  the  caravans,  and  it  is  on  the  whole  more  probable  that  they 
represent  the  original  stock  than  that  they  descend  from  individuals  of  the  tamo 
species  which  have  escaped  to  the  desert. 

Most  of  the  traffic  is  carried  on  by  means  of  horses  of  large  size  imported  from 
Ferghana,  while  the  small,  hardy,  and  vigorous  breed  used  as  mounts  come  chiefly 
from  the  Southern  Tian-shan  valley.s,  and  especially  the  Ak-su  district.  Owing  to 
the  great  heat  the  yak  could  scarcely  live  on  the  plains,  and  this  animal  is  imported 
only  for  the  shambles  of  the  Turkestan  cities.  The  sheep  and  goats  tended  by  the 
Kirghiz  nomads  on  the  slopes  of  the  Tian-shan  and  Pamir  are  of  the  same  species 
as  those  of  Tibet,  and  are  equally  noted  for  their  delicate  fleece.  According  to 
Shaw  the  best  wool  in  the  world  comes  not  from  Tibet,  but  from  Turfan. 

Inhabitants — The  Kashgarians. 

The  peoples  of  the  Tarim  basin  are  evidently  a  very  mixed  race.  Old  geogra- 
phical names  and  many  facts  mentioned  in  the  Chinese  records  show  that  at  least  a 
portion  of  the  inhabitants  are  of  Aryan  stock.  The  legendary  heroes  of  the 
country  are  the  same  Iranian  heroes,  "  Rustan  and  Afrasiab,"  Avhose  exploits  are 
associated  with  the  gorges,  precipices,  and  other  natural  wonders  of  the  land.  They 
are  the  Charlemagnes,  the  Rolands,  and  Arthurs  of  Central  Asia,  and  even  in  the 
legends  of  Chinese  Turkestan  their  names  recur  more  frequently  than  that  of 
Alexander  himself,  the  "  Hazret  Sikander,"  supposed  to  have  conquered  China  in 
order  to  propagate  Islam  in  that  region.  At  present  the  only  tribes  of  undoubted 
Iranian  stock  are  the  Galchas,  akin  to  those  of  the  Upper  Oxus  valleys.  Like 
them,  they  are  a  fine  race,  of  symmetrical  build,  frank  and  upright  in  their  deal- 
ings, still  worshippers  of  fire  and  the  sun.  Although  scattered  in  small  groups 
amongst  the  Kirghiz  of  Turki  speech,  many  still  preserve  the  old  language,  and 
Persian  is  still  current  in  the  Upper  Sarikol  valley,  over  700  miles  from  the  frontier 
of  Irania.  But  the  little  Aryan  community  of  this  upland  region  recently 
threatened  to  disappear,  Yakub  Khan  having  forcibly  removed  them  to  the  Kashgar 
district.  Even  amongst  the  Turki  people  of  the  plains  many  traits  recall  the 
regular  Aryan  type.  Europeans  who  have  visited  Yarkand  were  struck  by  the 
resemblance  of  many  natives  to  the  English  in  their  regular  features  and  florid 
complexion.  They  had  well- furnished  beards,  although  men  of  pure  Turki  stock 
are  mostly  beardless. 

But  such  is  the  mixture  of  races  in  this  region  that  Persians,  Tibetans,  Arabs, 


1^ 


f 


SMliH 


«au 


G8 


EAST  ASIA. 


Kirj?lnz,  Kalmuks,  every  variety  of  Mongols  unci  Tatars  as  well  as  Hindus  and 
Cliinese,  are  represented  in  their  erossinj^s  with  the  Sartes,  or  Taranchi,  of  Eastern 
Turkestan.  F-ven  in  the  whoh>sale  niassaeres,  such  as  those  of  ISO?},  1H77,  and 
1S7S,  when  the  inliabitants  of  whole  cities  were  exterminated,  the  hatred  of 
oppressor  and  oj)i)ressed  corresponds  in  appearance  only  with  that  of  hostile  races. 
However  the  Kashgarians  may  have  detested  the  very  name  of  Chinese  some  years  ago, 
many  people  were  none  the  less  met  in  the  streets  bearing  an  unmistakable  resemblance 
to  tlie  natives  of  the  "  Middle  Kingdom."  The  only  real  contrasts  here  observed 
arc  such  as  are  caused,  not  by  race,  but  by  social  habits,  pursuits,  or  climate.  The 
two  really  distin(rt  elements  are  the  agricultural  classes  of  the  lowlands,  whatever 
may  be  their  origin,  and  the  Kirghiz  or  Kalmuk  nomads  of  the  upland  pastures. 

In  the  cultivated  tracts  the  people  designate  each  other  not  by  ethnical  names, 
but  by  their  native  places,  calling  themselves  Khokandi,  Yarkandi,  Kashgari, 

Fig.  25.— Races  op  Chinese  Tuekebtan. 
Scale  1  :  1S,000,000. 


18,000  and  upwards. 
aoOMUeik 


Turfani,  as  the  case  may  be.  They  have,  nevertheless,  a  sort  of  collective  patriotic 
sentiment  based  on  a  community  of  political  conditions  and  social  habits. 

Proceeding  from  the  foot  of  the  Karakorum  north-eastwards,  one  observes  a 
gradual  transition  in  the  aspect  of  the  people,  Aryan  features  insensibly  yielding  to 
the  Mongol  type.  But  all  this  intermingling  has  by  no  means  resulted  in  a  fine  race. 
In  the  Yarkand  district  every  third  person  you  meet  suffers  from  goitre,  and  this 
affection  is  quite  as  common  in  the  plains  as  on  the  uplands.  Ophthalmia  is  also 
very  prevalent,  thanks  to  the  dazzling  glare  of  the  sun,  the  dust,  and  fierce  sand- 
storms. .  ■       . 

The  current  speech  differs  little  from  the  Turki  dialect  of  Tashkent,  the  chief 
differences  arising  from  the  use  of  Chinese  words  and  of  some  Kirghiz  expressions, 


li'..... 


t^ 


ROUTES  AND  PASSES. 


60 


Hindus  and 

li,  of  Kustoru 
ii;{,  1H77,  and 
ao  hatred  of 
hostile  races. 
)nie  years  ago, 
e  reseinhhmce 
lere  ohserved 
)liuiate.  The 
lids,  whatever 
id  pastures, 
hnical  names, 
di,  Kashgari, 


f/ 


ti.2- 


f/fOf 


ictive  patriotic 
jits. 

»ne  observes  a 
)ly  yielding  to 
in  a  fine  race, 
•oitre,  and  this 
thalinia  is  also 
lid  fierce  sand- 
ken  t,  the  chief 
iz  expressions, 


which  seem  to  have  found  their  way  from  Orenburg  without  leaving  any  trnco  of 
their  passage  in  the  Sir  and  Oxus  basins.  The  East  Turkestan  dialect,  which  is 
spoken  with  great  uniformity  throughout  the  Tarim  basin,  possesses  no  literary 
importance.  It  boasts  of  neither  jjoets  nor  prose  writers,  and  even  books  are 
extremely  rare  in  the  country. 

The  strangers  here  settled  come  mostly  from  Ferghana,  and  are  collectively 
known  as  Andijani,  from  the  name  of  the  old  capital  of  Kokhand.  Hindus  arc 
met  only  in  the  bazaars  of  the  chief  towns,  but  Kashmiri  people  are  numerous,  and 
some  Tibetan  settlers  from  Haltistan  raise  tobacco  and  melons  in  the  Yarkand 
district.  The  Jews  were  till  recently  almost  unknown  in  the  country,  Yakub,  like 
the  Emir  of  Bokhara,  having  excluded  them  from  his  kingtlom.  IJut  since  the 
return  of  the  Chinese  numerous  Jewish  families  have  crossed  the  eastern  slope  of 
the  I*amir  from  Ilussian  Turkestan.  Under  Yakub  the  law  for  strangers  was, 
"  Islam  or  death,"  the  Ealmuks  alone  being  allowed  to  retain  their  Buddhist 
fetishes.  The  Kashgarians  entertain  a  great  aversion  for  Christians  of  the 
Catholic  and  Greek  rites,  who  place  images  or  statues  in  their  churches.  But  they 
regard  the  iconoclastic  Protestants  as  Mohammedans  of  an  inferior  order,  neglect- 
ing the  observances,  but  none  the  less  forming  part  of  the  great  family  of  Islam. 
But  with  all  their  zeal  the  people  are  extremelj'  immoral,  and  thousands  have  been 
brutalistnl  by  the  use  of  opium,  or  of  utrshti,  a  mixture  of  an  extract  of  hemp  and 
tobacco,  which  is  highly  intoxicating.  Apart,  however,  from  the  tricks  of  trade, 
robbery  and  theft  are  rare.  When  a  pack  animal  strays  from  the  caravan  the  load 
is  left  on  the  spot  while  they  go  in  search  of  it.  In  Yakub's  time  the  method  of 
dealing  with  thieves  was  at  once  simple  and  summary :  for  the  first  offence  a  warn- 
ing, for  the  second  the  bastinado,  for  the  third  loss  of  both  hands,  for  the  fourth 
decapitation. 

Chinese  Turkestan  is  on  the  whole  a  poor  country,  although  Shaw  found  it 
superior  to  India  as  regards  the  well-being  of  the  people.  Yet  the  mud  houses  are 
not  even  whitewashed,  and  the  dust  penetrates  everywhere  through  the  fissures. 
Even  in  the  large  towns  the  remains  of  edifices  are  rarely  seen  embellished  with 
enamelled  porcelain  and  arabesques,  like  those  of  Samarkand  and  Bokhara. 
Industry  seems  to  have  declined,  judging  at  least  from  the  descriptions  of  the 
Chinese  records  and  the  valuable  treasures  often  brought  to  light  from  the  debris 
of  old  buildings  buried  under  the  sands.  The  chief  local  industries  arc  cotton, 
silk,  and  woollen  fabrics,  carpets,  boots,  and  saddlery.  Notwithstanding  the  rich 
•mineral  deposits,  most  of  the  copper  and  iron  wares  are  importe<l,  as  are  also  all 
the  woven  goods  of  finer  quality.  At  present  most  of  these  articles  come  from 
Russia,  the  imports  from  India  being  of  little  value. 

Routes  and  Passes. 

Between  Lake  Karashar  and  the  sources  of  the  Kashgar-daria,  Kuropatkin 
enumerates  thirteen  passes  used  by  the  caravans  crossing  the  Tian-shan  and  its 
western  prolongation,  the  Alai.     All  these  passes  are  practicable  in  summer  for 


{■lli 


m 


._J=&- 


70 


EAST  ASIA. 


saddlo-horscs  and  pack  animals,  and  at  least  ono,  that  leading  from  Kashgar  over 
tlic  Turug-art  (11,750  feet)  and  the  Terekti  (12,800),  might  easily  he  converted 
into  a  carriage  road.  On  the  other  hand,  one  alone  is  utilised  throughout  the 
whole  your.  This  is  the  fumouH  Terek-davun,  or  "  I'oplar  Pass  "  (10,450  feet), 
used  throughout  the  historic  period  by  most  of  the  Central  Asiatic  conquerors. 
When  the  winter  snows  arc  unusually  heavy,  the  Surtlar,  a  neighhouring  Kura- 
kirghiz  tribe,  are  employed  to  transport  the  goods  across  the  pass.  The  future 
railway  from  Russian  Turkestan  to  the  Tarim  basin  will  j)robably  follow  this 
route,  which  offers  the  most  direct  line  from  the  Volga  to  the  Iloung-ho  basin. 
But  for  the  present  there  is  no  question  of  railways  in  a  region  where  even  the 

Fig   26. — liovTKS  FROM  Kasmoar  to  Fkuohana. 
Scale  1  : 2,600,000. 


.  60  MileR. 


main  highway  round  the  base  of  the  mountains  from  Ehotan  to  Hami  assumes  the 
aspect  of  a  mere  desert  track. 

TopooRAPHY — Administrative  Divisions. 

The  chain  of  oases  encircling  the  Tarim  depression  begins  at  the  foot  of  the 
Central  Kuen-lun  with  the  city  of  Chcrchen  (Charchan,  Charchand,  Chachan), 
which  has  probably  been  visited  by  no  European  since  the  days  of  Marco  Polo  and 
Benedict  de  Goes,  and  whose  position  can  only  be  approximately  determined.  Too 
inaccessible  to  be  subjugated  either  by  the  Chinese  or  the  Khotani,  it  lies  about 
6,000  feet  above  sea-level  on  a  torrent  flowing  to  Lake  liob  in  a  corn-growing 
district.  It  is  a  small  place,  of  some  five  hundred  houses,  according  to  Johnson, 
reduced  by  Prjevalsky  to  thirty. 


'L_ 


TOPOGRAPHY— ADMINISTRATIVE  DIVISIONS. 


71 


Kashgar  over 
1)0  converted 
rougbout  the 
10,450  feet), 
\i  conquerors, 
ourinj^  Karu- 
The  future 
y  follow  this 
ang-ho  basin, 
liere  even  the 


121 


ti  assumes  the 


"West  of  Cborcbon  follov  Nnifa,  Kiri/i,  Cliira,  and  numerous  villages  along  the 
foot  of  the  Kuen-lun,  but  no  i'liportant  town  till  we  come  to  Klmtdii  (Ilclii),  for- 
merly .  royal  residence,  and  si  ill  capital  of  a  province.  Standing  on  a  considerable 
stream  in  a  highly  productive  district,  it  is  often  mentioned  by  Arab  and  Persian 
writers  in  eonnecticm  with  the  famous  perfume  procured  from  the  musk  deer  (»f 
the  neighbouring  hills.  It  was  no  less  renowned  in  China  under  the  name  of  Yu- 
thian,  owing  to  the  yu,  or  jade,  collected  in  its  streams,  and  to  Avhieh  wore  attri- 

Fig.  27.— KlIOTAN    AM>   TUB    SOUTHERN   PlATEAVX. 
AooordiDfr  <o  Monl^omerie.    Scale  1  :  2,400,000. 


m 


■  IBPIII 


60  Miles. 


le  foot  of  the 
d,  Chachan), 
irco  Polo  and 
[•mined.     Too 

it  lies  about 
corn-growing 

to  Johnson, 


buted  special  magical  virtues.  The  moderate  brightness  of  the  yu  is  humanity, 
its  perfect  hardness  wisdom  or  prudence,  its  unyielding  angles  justice.  Suspended, 
it  represents  urbanity,  while  its  harmonious  sound  stands  for  joy,  and  the  substance 
itself  for  the  rainbow.  Jade  is  also  found  in  Upper  Bunnah,  but  is  nowhere  so 
abundant  as  in  the  Kuen-lun  and  the  streams  flowing  thence  to  the  Tarim  basin. 
The  white  species,  which  is  the  most  esteemed,  occurs  only  in  the  Khotan  district, 
whence  even  in  remote  times  it  found  its  way  to  the  farthest  limits  of  the  continent. 


s  If iTM iiw  1^^'-  '-•^-*""-*'''- "'iiifaii^i' 


72 


EAST  ASIA. 


Durinpf  tlio  prosperous  period  of  the  kingdom  of  Khotan  the  jade  harvest  began 
after  every  rise  of  the  waters  with  u  religious  eoromony  conducted  by  the  King, 
and  the  finest  specimens  were  reserved  for  his  treasury. 

At  the  begiiming  of  the  Christian  era  Khotan  was  u  hirge  city,  and  capital  of 
a  powerful  empire.  Tlio  (Jhineso  records  speak  of  u  garrison  of  JiO.OOO  troojjs,  and 
a  population  of  8.5,000,  all  JJuddhists,  besides  numerous  lamassaries  in  the  district, 
and  u  large  monastery  of  3,000  monks,  50  li  further  south.  During  the  proces- 
sions from  the  city  to  the  surrounding  temples  the  King  walked  barefooted  l)efore 
the  image  of  Ihiddhu,  and  presented  himself  to  the  high  priest  bareheaded  uud 
laden  with  perfumes  and  flowers. 

The  Chinese  conquest  and  subsequent  Mongolian  invasions  juincd  the  trade  of 
Khotan,  although  it  was  saved  from  the  fato  of  so  many  other  cities  engulfed  in 
the  sands.  In  18G3  it  was  the  first  place  to  revolt  from  the  Chinese,  and  notwith- 
standing the  massacres  which  then  took  place,  Johnson  describes  it  two  years 
afterwards  as  a  large  manufacturing  town.  Hero  are  produced  copper-ware,  silks, 
felts,  silk  and  woollen  carpets,  coarse  cotton  goods,  and  paper  made  of  the  nml- 
berry  fibre.  The  district  yields  cotton  and  silk,  while  the  neighbouring  mountains 
abound  in  gold,  iron,  antimony,  coal,  salt,  sulphur,  and  saltpetre.  But  the  gold 
mines  alone  are  worked,  yielding  a  yearly  average  of  about  2,100  lbs.,  valued  at 
£110,000. 

In  the  south-east  corner  of  the  Turim  basin  lies  San/ti,  on  a  torrent  which  ia 
lost  in  the  desert.  Farther  west  and  north-east  follow  Kiliaii,  I'inlina,  Giima, 
Kanjalik,  and  to  the  north-west  Poagam,  all  crowded  together  in  the  richest  part 
of  the  whole  country.  Here  also  is  the  famous  city  of  Yarkand,  the  largest  in 
Eastern  Turkestan,  with  a  population  estimated  at  from  60,000  to  100,000,  includ- 
ing some  8,000  foreigners  of  every  nationality.  The  bazaar  lies  in  the  centre  of  an 
intricate  labyrinth  of  streets  and  canals  encircled  by  a  broad  wall,  which  is  flanked 
by  towers  and  defended  on  the  west  by  the  fortress  of  Yangi-shahr,  or  "  New 
Town,"  erected  by  the  Chinese  to  overawe  the  unruly  Yarkandi.  Nearly  all  the 
towns  of  Eastern  Turkestan  have  their  Yangi-shahr,  consisting  mainly  of  adminis- 
trative buildings  and  barracks. 

The  route  from  Yarkand  to  the  second  capital,  Kashgar,  approaches  the  foot  of 
the  mountains  in  order  to  connect  the  city  of  Yangi-Imsfir,  or  "  Newcastle,"  near 
which  are  some  metal  works  visited  by  Shaw.  Kashgar,  which  lies  5  miles  west  of 
its  "  Yangi-shahr,"  is  surrounded  by  a  thick  mud  wall,  beyond  which  are  the 
remains  of  a  city  said  to  have  been  destroyed  by  Timur.  Although  lying  in  a  less 
productive  district  than  Yarkand,  Kashgar  occupies  a  better  position  for  trading 
purposes,  for  it  commands  the  route  leading  over  the  Terek-davan  to  Ferghana, 
besides  several  others  here  converging  from  the  Tian-shan.  It  is  thus  at  once  a 
commercial  entrepot  and  strategical  point  of  vital  importance,  a  warlike  city  in 
legendary  history,  the  birthplace  of  the  hero  Hustan.  In  the  surrounding 
villages  ooars?  cloths  are  woven  and  exported  to  the  yearly  value  of  over  £100,000. 
North  of  Artush,  one  of  these  villages,  the  defiles  leading  to  Russian  Turkestan 
were  fortified  in  Yakub's  time  by  the  etronghold  of  Ta8h-km*gau. 


'w*M'»»<*iw»1i  wtaHiMA  ii 


3  harvest  began 
I  by  the  King, 

and  capital  of 
DOO  troops,  and 

in  the  district, 
ing  the  proces- 
refooted  Iwl'ore 
)archeadcd  uud 

icd  the  trade  of 
ica  engulfed  in 
e,  and  notwith- 
8  it  two  years 
per-ware,  silks, 
,de  of  the  niul- 
ring  mountains 
But  the  gold 
)  lbs.,  valued  at 

orrent  which  is 
I'inlina,  Giima, 
the  richest  part 
',  the  largest  in 
00,000,  includ- 
the  centre  of  an 
s'hich  is  flanked 
lahr,  or  "  Now 
Nearly  all  the 
nly  of  adminis- 

ches  the  foot  of 
Bwcastle,"  near 
5  miles  west  of 
which  are  the 
1  lying  in  a  less 
tion  for  trading 
in  to  Ferghana, 
thus  at  once  a 
warlike  city  in 
le  surrounding 
over  £100,000. 
sian  Turkestan 


t^ 


TOPOailAlTIY— AI>MIN1STUATIVK  lUVKSIONS. 


78 


Another  importimt  fortross  is  Maraffids/ii,  lying  oiiHt  of  Kiislignr,  noiir  tho 
junction  of  the  Ki' 'hK'ir-chiriii  luid  Yiirkund-fhiriii,  and  ut  the  j  unci  ion  of  the 
routes  coiiiu'ctin)^  the  cliief  cities  in  the  Tiirini  hiisin.  North-west  of  it  the  Hiutill 
town  of  UH/i-tiir/iiii,  with  u  garrison  of  lii.OOO  men,  guards  the  route  Uuiding  over 
the  lliidal  I'ass  (15,000  feet)  to  the  Issik-kul  vuUey.  Hut  the  most  important 
place  at  the  Houthern  base  of  the  Tian-shun  is  Ak-nu  ("  White  Water  "),  a  fortitied 
town  at  the  toot  of  a  hhiff,  formerly  overlooking  the  Ak-su  lliver,  which  now  How8 
nearly  10  miles  farther  west.  Heyond  .Ak-su,  liiti,  Knrlui,  Kor/a,  Kaiitsltar,  and 
all  the  other  towns  of  Chinese  Turkostuu  lie  ut  some  distance  from  the  Tarim, 
which   hero   flows  through  the  heart  of  the  desert  over  tiO  miles  south  of  the 

Fig.  28.— Yaukand  and  Yanui-shahh. 
Ponle  1  :  .Vl,00O. 


1.  CoUege.    2.  OiaBegidenoeoftbeKhaii.    n.  Magnzines.    4.  Old  Citadel. 
_—i.^^^^_— ^^— .  8,300  Yards. 


advanced  spurs  of  the  Tian-shan.     They  are  all  small  places,  with  little  trade  or 

industry. 

Nor  are  there  any  towns  on  the  Lower  Tarim,  or  near  Lake  Lob,  although  the 

ruins  of  ancient  cities  are  here  both  numerous  and  extensive.     The  remains  of  a 

place  called  Kok-nor  He  concealed  amid  the  reeds  of  a  river  three  days'  journey 

south-west  of  Lake  liob,  and  contain  a  temple  with  an   image,  apparently,  of 

Buddha,  still  visited  by  the  natives.     They  report  that  the  statue  and  temple  walls 

are  adorned  with  precious  stones  and  ingots  of  gold  and  silver,  which  no  one  dares 

to  touch  for  fear  of  being  struck  dead  by  an  invisible  hand.    The  present "  Tarimtzi," 

or  inhabitants  of  the  lake,  reduced  to  a  few  hundred  families,  have  nothing  but 

wretched  reed  hovels,  with  a  few  fishing  boats  and  nets.     The  dead  are  laid  on  a 

skiff,  with  another  reversed  above  it  to  form  a  coflSn,  and  with  them  is  placed  half 

a  net  to  fish  with  in  the  other  world,  the  second  half  being  kept  by  the  relatives  in 

memory  of  the  departed. 
88 


74 


KAHT  ASIA. 


A  ri'iMirf  IiikI  Imipf  Ixm'h  current  that  oortaiii  UuMriiun  nootario«  had  taken  refiij^o 
(III  llic  l)aiikH  III'  llic  'I'iiriiM.  itut  I'rji'valsky  has  hIimwii  that  the  re|M)rt  wax 
^nMiiHUess,  iiikI  that  the  'rarimt/i,  witli  tlieir  "  Aryan  "  features,  <lilVer  in  no 
respeet  I'mm  the  other  Smtes  of  the  Tarini  l>a.sin.  It  is  ixaie  tlie  h'ss  certain  that 
some  UuNsian  liaskohiiks  foiintl  tlieir  way  to  thin  dreary  ^e^'ion  in  seareli  of  thu 
marvellous  "  While  Wiitt  r,"  whieli  eleans(>n  of  their  sins  all  who  hathe  in  it, 
besides  Heeurini,'  for  llieni  all  earthly  happiness.  A  few  yoiin^,'  ni<  ii  first  arrived  to 
erect  hilts  anil  prepare  the  lields  for  the  colony.  Next  year  eaiiie  the  rest  of  the 
iniiiii;;iiiiits  with  their  families  ;  hut  despairiii),' of  lindin<j;  the  soiiglit-for  I'lden  on 
the  shores  of  the  Loh-nor,  tlioy  hoou  retrai-ed  tlieir  steps  northwards  to  Urunusi, 
und  since  then  nothing  further  han  been  heard  of  these  mystic  pilgrims. 

('hinese  Turkestan  compris(>s  ten  hir)j;e  diNisionH,  which,  proceediiij^  from  the 
Hoiith-west,  are:  Kliotan,  Yarkaiid,  Yanj^i-hissar,  Kash^ar,  Ush-turfan,  Ak-8U, 
Mai,  Kucha,  ICorla,  Karashar.  Three  military  commandants  reside  ut  Karashar, 
Kliotan,  and  Yarkand,  the  last  luimed  lieinjjf  also  the  seat  of  the  ji;enerul  admiiUH- 
tratioii.  Amongst  all  the  cities,  Hovon  arc  considerod  as  enjoy iiij?  a  special  diji^nity, 
apart  alto;i;ethi'r  from  tlieir  sizo  and  administrative  rank.  Kliotan,  Yarkand, 
Yaiif,'i-hissiir,  Kashfjfar,  Ush-turfan,  Kucha,  und  Karusbur  uro  tUo  mt'inbers  of  thid 
Jiti-shuhr,  or  •'bcptupolis." 


^ 


<^>h»-^Pi 


"— -  n'    Hill    - 1-  ■■Hill  lifciiiimnriffc 


i     


1(1  liikcji  ivfupfo 
tlii"  itport  wiiM 
'M,  «lil1'(<r  in  no 
•HH  certain  that 
in  NiMii'i'li  of  tho 
u)  iKithc  in  it, 
tirsl  arrived  ti» 
•  the  rest  uf  the 
fht-t'iir  MdiMi  on 
[1h  to  UruiutMi, 
iniM. 

i'din^  from  the 
turfan,  Ak-8U, 
0  at  Kanishar, 
nneral  adniinis- 
spccial  dijj;nity, 
)tan,  Yai'kand, 
jcnibcrH  of  this 


CIUPTKU  IV. 


MONUOlilA. 


T.— THK  KrivIT-NOR. 

UK  mountainous  rcfjjion  Htirtching  for  houjo  I'JO.OOO  Hquaro  niiles  to  tho 
north-cust  of,  and  oftou  included  in,  Tibet,  in  really  quite  diNtiuct 
from  that  country.  It  dt'pends  politically  rather  on  the  Kmperor 
of  Chinu  than  on  the  Dalai-laniu,  whiU>  its  commercial  relations 
are  far  more  im])ortant  with  the  (jhinese  province  of  Kansu  than 
with  the  valley  of  the  Tsangho.  A  triple  mountain  barrier  separates  the  Kiiku- 
nor  and  Chuidam  basins  from  tho  inhabited  regions  of  Tibet,  whih'  the  mtturul 
slopo  of  tho  hind  is  towards  tho  north-west;  that  is,  towards  the  Gobi  and  the 
Mongolian  domain.  Nevertheless,  this  land  of  lofty  plateaux,  of  closed  basins  and 
difficult  mountain  ranges,  can  hardly  be  regarded  us  beh)nging  to  tho  same  natural 
division  us  tho  Gobi  wastes,  or  the  cultivated  plains  of  Kansu.  Hence  it  must 
bo  studied  apart,  as  far  us  tho  scanty  geographical  materials  nuiy  enable  us  to 
do  so. 

Relief  ok  the  Land. 

East  of  Lake  Lob  the  Altin-tagh  and  Chameu-tii;j:h  ranges  are  interrupted  by  a 
broad  gup,  through  which  tho  Chaidani  dei)ression  merges  in  the  plains  of  the 
Lower  Turim  and  Lob  basin.  Still  further  wist  rise  other  ranges  also  belonging  to 
tho  Kuen-lun  system,  and  forming  the  advanced  scarps  of  tho  Tibetan  plateaux. 
These  are  the  parallel  chains  between  which  the  great  rivers  of  East  Tibet  have 
their  source.  Such  are  tho  Muriu-ussu,  which  farther  down  becomes  tho  Kiusha- 
kiang  and  Yung-tze-kiang ;  the  Lantzan-kiang,  or  Upper  Mekhong;  and  the 
mysterious  Nup-chu,  forming  the  boundary  of  Tibet  proper,  and  supposed  to  be 
identicul  with  the  Lu-tze-kiung,  or  Upper  Salwon.  Tho  ranges  themselves,  with 
tho  intervening  vuUcys,  run  beyond  the  plateau  north-west  and  south-east,  parallel 
with  the  Chttidum  valley,  which  is  continued  on  the  one  hand  by  that  of  the  Lower 
Tarim,  on  tho  other  by  the  lacustrine  district  where  the  Hoang-ho  takes  its  rise. 
It  is  thus  easy  to  imderstand  why  the  old  Chinese  geographers  unanimouslj'  assert 


i: 


W 


^T" 


76 


EAST  ASIA. 


that  the  sources  of  the  Yellow  River  arc  the  springs  from  the  undergrownd  waters 
flowing  from  Tjako  Ijob.  The  early  travellers  were  unable  to  determine  the  general 
inclination  of  the  slopes  between  the  Lob  and  the  Iloang-ho.  Yet  tlic  Chinese 
maps,  ])r()jo('ted  in  a  reverse  sense  from  ours,  figure  a  rampart  of  mountains  between 
the  "  Stars,"  or  lakelets,  forming  the  source  of  the  Iloang-ho,  and  the  plains  whose 
central  depression  is  occupied  by  Lake  Lob. 

Still  the  transverse  depression  of  the  Tarim  and  Iloang-ho  is  consistent  with 
the  presence  of  northern  mountain  masses  and  ranges,  which  are  connected  with 
the  Tibetan  plateau  by  an  extremely  irregular  region,  across  which  the  Yellow 
River  forces  its  way  through  a  series  of  formidable  gorges.     This  highland  system, 


Fig.    29.— S0UUCB8   OP  THE   HOANO-HO,   FllOM   A   CHINESE   MaP. 


which  may  be  called  that  of  the  Kuku-nor  from  its  central  lake,  is  also  intersected 
by  various  affluents  of  the  Hoaug-ho.  In  the  north  the  Nan-shan  range  (Siwen- 
shan,  or  Kilien-shan),  running  nearly  west  and  east,  forms  the  outer  limit  of  the 
Kuku-nor  region  above  the  plains  of  the  Mongolian  Kansu,  thus  apparently 
prolonging  the  Altin-tagh  east  of  the  Chaidam  gap.  Towards  the  sources  of  the 
Az-sind  some  of  its  crests  rise  above  the  snow-line,  here  fixed  at  about  14,000  feet. 
South  of  the  Xan-shan,  which  is  dominated  by  the  Konkir,  one  of  the  "  amne," 
or  sacred  mountains,  of  the  Tanguts,  there  rises  another  range,  the  Chetri-shan, 
separating  the  valley  of  the  Tatung-gol  from  the  southern  basin  of  the  Kuku-nor. 
Beyond  this  lake  succeed  other  mountains,  the  Southern   Kuku-nor  system  of 


r^>wwMliillg»!i"iiiWHllit,it.m>aB»ii 


OfcH^WliBlilNl,.^^ 


LAKE  KUKU. 


77 


Tground  waters 
line  the  "fcneral 
iTet  the  Chinese 
intains  between 
lie  plains  whose 

consistent  with 
connected  with 
ich  the  Yellow 
[ghland  system, 


Prjcvalsky,  which  break  into  nunierouM  ri(lfj;os,  all  aboiuulinp;  in  minerals.  Hero 
much  gold  was  formerly  collectctl ;  but  since  the  Dungan  insurrection  the  washings 
liave  been  abandcmed. 

The  opposite  slopes  of  all  these  ranges  present  the  same  contrasts  as  do  those 
of  the  Tian-shan  in  Kulja,  and  those  of  the  Altai  in  Siberia.  Thus  the  Xan-sban 
is  well  wooded  on  its  northern  Hank,  whereas  timber  is  very  scarce  on  the  opposite 
side.  Still  the  flora  of  this  region  is  extremelj'  vai'ied  compared  with  that  of  the 
northern  steppes  and  southern  plateaux.  Forests  of  conifoi-s,  billows,  and  red 
birch,  besides  other  trees  elsewhere  unknown,  rise  to  an  altitude  of  10,000  feet. 
Peculiar  species  of  the  rhododendron  and  honeysuckle  are  found  in  the  under- 
growth and  on  the  alpine  prairies.      The  Kuku-nor  liighlands  are  also  the  special 


t*cA/ 


Fig.    30.— KUKU-NOH. 
Aoourding  to  Prjeralgky.    Scale  1  :  3,7S0,000. 


ilso  intersected 
range  (Siwen- 
T  limit  of  the 
lus  apjjarently 
sources  of  the 
ut  14,000  feet, 
the  "amne," 
le  Chetri-shan, 
the  Kuku-nor. 
nor  system  of 


60  Sliles. 


home  of  the  medicinal  rhubarb,  for  which  the  Chinese  merchants  of  Sining  pay 
high  prices.  The  fauna  of  these  regions  is  also  surprisingly  rich,  and  Prjevalsky 
here  discovered  no  less  than  forty-three  new  species. 

Lake  Kuku. 

The  Kuku-nor,  which  gives  its  name  to  the  province,  is  the  Tso-gumbum  of 
the  Tibetans,  or  the  Tsing-hai,  or  "  Blue  Lake,"  of  the  Chinese.  It  is  so  named 
from  its  Iwautiful  azure  colour,  contrasting  with  the  delicate  white  of  the  snows 
mirrored  in  its  waters,  which  Prjevalsky  describes  as  "  soft  as  silk."  It  has  the 
fonn  of  an  ehmgated  ellipse,  with  a  circuit  of  from  !2'-20  to  tj40  miles,  and  an  urea 
of  from  2,000  to  2,000  square  miles.     It  was  formerly  fur  more  extensive,  as 


78 


EAST  ASIA. 


shown  by  tho  water-marks  on  tho  cliffs  at  a  groat  distance  from  its  present  shores. 
Its  nmnorous  foiders  from  the  west,  of  wliieh  the  Hiikhain-gol  is  the  hirgest,  do 
not  suffice  to  compensate  for  the  evaporation,  and,  as  there  is  no  outlet,  its  waters 
have  become  saline.  Towards  the  cast  is  an  island  (5  miles  in  circumference, 
which,  according  to  the  legend,  closes  up  the  abyss  whence  sprang  the  waters  of 
the  lake.  It  was  dropped  by  a  gigantic  bird  from  the  skies  on  the  spot,  in  order 
to  stop  the  flow,  which  was  threatening  to  submerge  the  world.  A  convent  with 
about  a  dozen  lamas  stands  on  this  solitary  island,  completely  cut  off  from  the 
mainland  during  the  siunmer,  when  no  craft  dares  to  venture  on  the  stormy  lake. 
But  during  the  four  winter  months  the  monks  cross  the  ice  and  renew  their  stock 
of  flour  and  butter.  The  lake,  which  is  said  to  abound  in  many  species  of  fish, 
stiinds  10,(J00  foot  above  the  seu,  and  is  fringed  by  dense  thickets  of  shrubs. 


The  Ch.vidam  Basin. 

Several  other  smaller  lakes  are  scattered  over  tho  plateau  west  of  the  Upper 
Hoang-ho,  but  the  largest  of  all  the  inland  seas  in  this  region  has  long  disappeared. 
The  valley  of  the  Chaidam  (Tsaidam)  was  formerly  the  bed  of  this  vast  reservoir, 
which  filled  the  triangular  space  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Nan-shan,  east  by 
the  Kuku-nor  highlands,  south  by  the  Burkhan-Buddha  range.  It  is  traversed 
south-cast  and  north-west  by  the  large  river  Bayan-gol,  or  Chaidam,  which  is 
porliaps  250  to  300  miles  long,  vud  480  yards  wide  at  the  point  crossed  by 
Prjevalsky.  But  as  it  approaches  the  desert  its  volume  gradually  diminishes, 
until  it  disappears  at  last  in  the  Dnbsun-nor  swamps,  near  the  gap  through  which 
the  Chaidam  Lake  was  formerly  united  with  the  Lob-nor.  Throughout  its  eastern 
section  the  Chaidam  plain  is  covered  with  saline  marshes,  while  in  the  north-west 
nothing  is  seen  except  argillaceous  or  stony  tracts.  The  vegetation  is  limited  to 
the  reeds  of  the  swamps,  a  scanty  herbage  and  thickets  of  the  Nitmria  Scholeii 
growing  to  a  height  of  7  feet,  with  berries  at  once  sweet  and  bitter,  eagerly  devoured 
both  by  man  and  beast.  They  are  gathered  in  the  autumn,  and  mixed  by  the 
natives  with  their  barley-meal. 

The  fauna  of  Chaidam  is  as  poor  as  its  flora,  which  is  probably  due  to  the 
swarms  of  mosquitoes  infesting  the  marshy  tracts,  and  driving  the  flocks  and  wild 
beasts  to  the  surrounding  uplands.  The  animals  most  frequently  met  on  the  plain 
are  a  species  of  antelope,  the  wolf,  fox,  hare,  and,  according  to  the  Mongolians,  the 
wild  camel  in  the  western  solitudes.  Although  visited  only  by  tho  hunter  and 
nomad  pastor,  the  country  is  not  unsuitable  for  a  settled  population,  being  well 
watered  by  the  Bayan-gol,  and  enjoying  a  comparatively  mild  climate,  especially 
towards  its  western  extremity,  where  it  falls  to  little  over  .'{,000  feet  above  sea-level. 
The  ruins  of  an  ancient  city  at  the  confluence  of  the  Bayan-gol  with  another 
stream  in  the  centre  of  the  plain  are  still  silent  witnesses  of  the  great  changes 
that  have  taken  place  in  a  region  once  perhaps  thickly  peopled,  now  occupied  only 
by  a  few  nomad  tents. 

The  upland  steppe  of  Oduntala,  north  of  which  runs  the  water-parting  between 


>m£» 


»^  inWili  ifaiiw^tiuiiLUyjIMHiiiilWh 


■NMti 


.'■iijwii«>j(W-    L  i^iff»»wi^kM^'^sim^4'^nlif^«^li^iiM''mv''''nim«t*^'» 


INIIABITANTS-TIIE  TANGUTANS. 


79 


present  shores. 
Ihe  lurj^est,  do 
itlot,  its  waters 
circumference, 
the  waters  of 
;  sjwt,  in  order 
L  convent  with 
;  off  from  the 
10  storm}"^  lake, 
lew  their  stock 
species  of  fish, 
shrubs. 


:  of  the  Upper 
g  disappeared, 
vast  reservoir, 
-shan,  east  by 
It  is  traversed 
lam,  which  is 
nt  crossed  by 
ly  diminishes, 
through  which 
out  its  eastern 
the  north-west 
n  is  limited  to 
fraiia  Scholevi 
»erly  devoured 
mixed  by  the 

)ly  due  to  the 
locks  and  wild 
!t  on  the  plain 
ongolians,  the 
10  hunter  and 
un,  being  well 
ate,  especially 
[)ove  sea-level, 
with  another 
a^reat  changes 
occupied  only 

rting  between 


the  Bayan-gol  and  Hoang-ho,  is  a  holy  land  for  the  ISIongols  and  Chinese.  Here 
are  the  Lakes  Jaring  and  Oring,  which  drain  to  the  Yellow  River.  But  no 
European  has  at  least  recently  visited  this  region  of  Sinsu-liai,  or  the  "  Starry 
Sea,"  although  its  pastures  are  frequented  in  summer  by  the  Mongols,  who  come 
to  worship  their  god  near  the  sacred  springs.  Seven  spotless  animals — a  yak,  a 
horse,  and  five  sheep — are  consecrated  by  the  priests,  who  tie  a  red  ribbon  round 
their  necks  and  drive  them  to  the  mountains,  charged  with  the  sins  of  the  tribe. 

West  of  the  Oduntala  steppe  begins  the  Burkhan-Buddha  ("  Lord  Buddha") 
range,  which  here  forms  the  angular  escarpment  of  the  Tibetan  plateau.  It  is  an 
arid  chain  of  nearly  uniform  height  and  regular  slopes,  consisting  mainly  of  clay, 
conglomerates,  and  porphyry.  It  is  separated  rather  by  a  narrow  gully  than  a 
valley  from  the  Shuga,  another  barren  range  of  grey,  yellow,  and  red  rocks,  some 
of  whose  peaks  rise  above  the  snow-line.  Farther  south  stretches  the  bleak 
plateau,  strewn  with  hillocks  and  low  ridges,  torn  here  and  there  by  crevasses, 
covered  in  one  place  with  stones,  in  another  with  sands  or  a  white  saline  efflo- 
rescence. For  travellers  this  elevated  rolling  plain,  from  14,000  to  15,000  feet  high, 
is  a  region  of  horror  and  of  death,  from  which  they  gladly  escape  over  the  Bayan- 
khara  border  range  down  to  the  pasture  lands  fringing  the  Muru-ussu,  or  Upper 
Yang-tze-kiang. 

Inhabitants — The  Tangutans. 

The  Kuku-nor  country  is  officially  bounded  by  the  Shuga  range,  but  it  is  often 
extended  to  the  Bayan-khara,  or  even  to  the  valley  of  the  Blue  River,  and  beycmd 
it  to  the  Khara-ussu.  But  in  such  a  vast  and  mostly  uninhabited  regitm  the 
frontier-line  must  necessarily  be  somewhat  fictitious.  Its  population  may  be 
estimated  at  about  150,000,  and  in  the  region  west  of  the  lake  there  can  scarcely 
Ije  more  than  20,000  inhabitants  altogether.  Towards  Donkir,  near  the  Chinese 
frontier,  the  population  is  tolerably  dense,  and  here  the  districts  spared  by  the 
Dungan  rebels  are  admirably  cultivated.  Chinese  settlers  have  already  penetrated 
into  these  valleys,  where  the  aboriginal  element  consists  of  Tanguts  and  of  Dalds, 
an  agricultural  tribe  unlike  the  Chinese  in  appearance,  although  assimilated  to 
them  in  religion,  manners,  and  customs.  Their  dialect  is  a  mixture  of  Chinese, 
Mongol,  and  unknown  words. 

The  most  sedentary  tribes  are  Mongolians,  degenerate  representatives  of  their 
race.  Oppressed  by  the  Tanguts,  and  lacking  the  spirit  to  resist,  they  obey  in 
silence,  scarcely  remembering  that  their  forefathers  were  once  masters  of  the  land. 
The  dominant  Tanguts  themselves  are  mostly  a  proud  and  daring  race,  fully 
conscious  of  their  strength.  Of  Tibetan  stock  and  speech,  they  dilfor  greatly  from 
the  Mongolians  in  appearance  and  habits.  With  large  black  eyes,  oval  face, 
moderately  high  cheek  bones,  full  black  beard,  straight  or  aquiline  nose,  they 
present  a  startling  likeness  to  the  South  Russian  gipsies.  The  Mongol  is  jjcaceful, 
the  Tangut  combative ;  the  Mongol  loves  the  arid  waste,  the  boundless  space,  while 
the  Tangut  prefers  the  valleys  and  moist  pastures  of  the  uplands.     The  former  is 


80 


EAST  ASIA. 


hospitable  unci  friendly  to  8trnn{?ers,  the  latter  drives  them  from  his  tent,  or  makes 
them  pay  dearly  for  their  entertainment.  For  the  Tangut  is  greedy  and  specula- 
tive, fond  of  pillage  and  plunder,  but  at  the  same  time  religious,  never  forgetting 
to  obtain  absolution  for  the  deeds  of  violence  and  blootlshed  committed  in  his 
marauding  expeditions  against  the  caravans  and  Mongol  encampments.  On  the 
sacred  shores  of  the  IJlue  liakc  they  purchase  or  seize  the  capture<l  fish  and  restore 
it  to  its  native  element,  their  good  actions  thus  soon  outnundwring  their  misdeeds. 

The  Tangutans  are  not  polyundrous  like  the  Southern  Tilwtans,  but  polygamy 
is  permitted,  and  the  wealthy  proprietors  readily  exchange  their  yaks  and  sheep 
for  new  wives.  The  women,  however,  are  not  treated  as  slaves,  moving  about 
freely  and  six^nding  much  of  their  time  at  the  toilet.  The  tents  are  usually  made 
of  black  yak  hair,  with  an  opening  at  the  top  for  the  smoke  to  escape.  The  family 
sleeps  in  a  circle  round  the  hearth  on  heajjs  of  grass  and  branches,  or  even  on  the 
bare  ground,  amid  the  kitchen  dirt  and  refuse. 

In  the  Kuku-nor  eoiuitry  there  is  a  living  incarnation  of  Buddha,  although  his 
glory  is  much  obscured  by  that  of  his  Tibetan  rival.  Here  a  great  many  lamas 
live  under  the  tent,  while  those  residing  in  community  often  wander  about  from 
tribe  to  trilx).  At  their  death  they  receive  funeral  honours,  whereas  the  simple 
faithful  are  thrown  to  the  beasts  and  birds  of  prey.  The  only  occupation  of  the 
natives  is  stoc^k-breeding,  and  some  rich  proprietors  possess  hundreds  of  yaks  and 
thousands  of  sheep.  Everything  is  paid  for  by  so  many  head  of  cattle,  and  thanks 
to  the  trade  thus  carried  on  in  flour,  tobacco,  woven  goods,  tea,  and  rhubarb,  the 
Chinese  Government  has  gradually  succeeded  in  re-establishing  its  supremacy  over 
the  natives.  By  means  of  this  local  traffic,  and  the  caravans  constantly  passing 
through  their  country  between  China,  Mongolia,  and  Lassa,  the  Tanguts  are  able  to 
maintain  frequent  relations  both  with  the  Dalai-lama  and  the  Emperor  of  China, 
their  spiritual  and  temjwral  sovereigns.  The  monastery  of  Cheibsen,  about  45 
miles  north  of  Sining-fu,  on  an  affluent  of  the  Yellow  River,  may  be  regarded  as 
the  capital  of  the  country.  According  to  Prjevalsky  the  province  is  divided  into 
twenty-nine  kitoshuti,  or  "banners,"  five  in  Chaidam,  nineteen  in  the  Kuku-nor 
district  and  its  northern  valleys,  five  south  of  the  Hoang-ho.  Sining  is  the 
residence  of  the  Chinese  officials,  through  whom  the  Tangut:uis  communicate  with 
the  Imperial  Government. 


II.— MONGOLIAN  KANSU. 


The  desert  zone  stretching  from  the  Takla-makan  sands  north-eastwards  to  the 
elevated  plateaux  bounded  by  the  Great  Khingan  range,  although  often  represented 
as  a  region  of  great  uniformity,  is  really  characterized  by  considerable  diversity  in 
its  relief,  soil,  and  climate.  Thus  the  tract,  some  300  miles  broad,  lying  between  Ilami 
and  the  Nan-shan  Mountains,  is  not,  strictly  speaking,  a  desert  at  all.  It  merges 
no  doubt  in  one  direction  with  the  wastes  of  the  Lower  Tarim,  in  another  with  the 
dreaded  plateaux  of  the  Eastern  Gobi,  while  some  of  its  plains  form  smaller  inter- 


"Ill.Wilitlll     'M 


iMJiMWin  iwiaiii 


t'ut,  or  makes 

and  spocula- 

cr  forgetting 

nitted  in  his 

nta.     On  the 

h  and  restore 

nr  misdeeds. 

ut  polygamy 

cs  and  sheep 

loving  alnrnt 

usually  made 

The  family 

even  on  the 

although  his 
many  lamas 
r  a7x>ut  from 
IS  the  simple 
ation  of  the 
of  yaks  and 
,  and  thanks 
rhubarh,  the 
remacy  over 
ntly  passing 
8  are  able  to 
ar  of  China, 
n,  about  45 
regarded  as 
divided  into 
B  Euku-nor 
aing  is  the 
inicate  with 


ards  to  the 
represented 
iiversity  in 
ween  Ilami 
It  merges 
er  >vith  the 
aller  inter- 


i 
p 


« 

o 

H 

I 

g 


s 


CT^^wiWPiPIBH 


^_ 


maaiMMMMMIMMiHMIi 


teSTT 


*W*I*« 


CLIMATE  AND  RAINFALL. 


81 


mediate  solitiulos,  waterless  and  destitute  of  vegetation.  But  elsewhere  the  streams 
from  the  Nan-slum  and  neighlwuring  highlands  are  copious  enough  to  flow  between 
verdant  banks  northwards  to  the  foot  of  the  advanced  spurs  of  the  Tian-shan.  The 
"  deserts  "  traversed  by  these  rivers  are  not  dismal  solitudes  like  the  Takla-makan 
of  the  Tarim  basin,  or  the  "Black  Sands"  and  "Red  Sands"  of  the  Arulo-Cas- 
pian  depression.  Water  is  found  almost  everywhere  near  the  surface,  and  springs 
bubble  up  in  the  hollows,  often  encircled  by  extensive  oases.  Everywhere  the 
ground  is  hard  and  easily  traversed  bj*  horses  and  carts.  Wayside  inns,  villages, 
and  even  towns  with  bazaars  and  industries  have  sprung  up  here  and  there 
along  the  banks  of  the  running  waters  in  the  midst  oi  cultivated  lands  and 
plantations. 

Climate  and  Haixfall. 

The  cause  of  this  break  in  the  great  central  desert  must  be  sought  in  the  con- 
tours and  relief  of  the  continent  itself.  South  of  this  comparatively  fertile  belt 
the  coast-line  is  deeply  indented  by  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  forming  a  semicircular 
curve  with  a  radius  of  not  less  than  900  miles.  Thanks  to  this  vast  marine  basin 
penetrating  far  inland  between  the  two  peninsulas  of  India  and  Indo-Chino,  the 
space  separating  Kansu  from  the  ocean  is  reduced  by  one-half.  The  vapour-charged 
clouds  are  thus  borne  inland  beyond  the  Kuku-nor  district.  The  atmospheric 
currents  crossing  East  Tibet  from  the  Brahmaputra  delta  to  the  Mongolian  wastes 
find  no  obstacles  comparable  to  those  presented  farther  west  by  the  vast  plateau  of 
Central  Tibet,  with  its  plains  from  15,000  to  16,000  feet  above  sea- level,  and  its 
mighty  escarpments  towering  to  an  altitude  of  23,000  or  24,000  feet.  The  ranges 
in  the  province  of  Eham  are  not  only  less  elevated  than  those  of  West  Tibet,  but 
also  present  many  breaks  of  continuity,  while  often  running  in  parallel  lines  with 
the  meridian,  thus  enabling  the  southern  winds  to  sweep  up  the  valleys  as  far  as 
the  Kuku-nor  highlands. 

The  south-west  monsoons,  which  bring  such  u  prodigious  quantity  of  water  to 
the  Brahmaputra  basin,  are  far  from  being  exhausted  after  crossing  the  Bayan- 
khara  range.  From  April  to  the  end  of  autumn  they  bring  both  snow  and  rain, 
and  the  atmosphere  is  really  clear  and  dry  only  during  the  winter  season.  Prje- 
valsky  found  snow  falling  daily  during  the  whole  month  of  April.  Hence  it  is  not 
surprising  that  sufficient  moisture  is  still  discharged  beyond  the  Nan-shan  range 
to  give  rise  to  true  rivers,  which  flow  thence  far  into  the  plains.  Still  none  of 
them  are  able  to  reach  streams  with  a  seaward  outlet,  so  that  all  ultimately  disap- 
pear in  saline  lakes  and  marshes  overgrown  with  reeds.  The  river  Ngansi,  flow- 
ing westwards  in  the  direction  of  Lob-nor,  runs  dry  in  the  depression  of  Khara- 
nor,  or  the  "  Black  Lake."  The  Az-sind  (Etzina,  or  Edsinei)  receives  the  waters 
of  the  "  Snowy  Mountains,"  after  which  it  is  joined  north  of  the  Great  Wall  by 
the  Tolai  from  Suchew.  Farther  on  it  gradually  diminishes  in  volume  until  it 
disappears  at  last  in  the  Sogok-nor  and  the  Sobo-nor  on  the  verge  of  the 
desert. 


89 


EAST  ASIA. 


RoVTES — EXTKXT — PolTI.ATION. 

ThankH  to  tbo  fertile  triiot  thus  nittiuj,' tlic  (iohi  iiili)  two  prcut  sections,  tho 
Cliineso  have  been  able  easily  to  maintain  tlu-ir  eoiniiiuniratioiiH  from  tbo  Nan- 
sban  to  the  Tian-shan  with  the  western  provinces  of  the  enij)in>.  The  natural 
route  always  followed  by  the  caravans  and  invadinji;  hosts  starts  from  liantebcw-fu, 
at  the  fjreat  western  bend  of  tlie  lloanjj-ho,  and,  aft(>r  crossin<j;  the  mountains 
skirtiii};;  the  Kuku-nor  basin,  descends  through  tlie  Kiayu  defile  and  the  (Jreut 
Wall  into  the  northern  plains,  and  so  on  nortii-westwards  to  the  Ilanii  oasis.  Here 
the  historic  hij^hway  branches  oil  on  either  side  of  the  Eustcru  Tiun-shan,  one 

Fig.  31.— Wkrt  Enii  oi'  TiiK  Great  Wall. 

Scale  I  :  A,000,000. 


120  Milea. 


I 


track  penetrating  into  the  Tarim  basin,  the  other  passing  through  Zungaria  into 
the  Aralo-Ca.spian  basin  ;  that  is,  into  the  Russian  world  and  Europe. 

It  is  thus  evident  how  important  to  China  must  be  this  relatively  fertile  region 
conquered  two  thousand  years  ago,  which  divides  the  desert  zone  into  two  parts, 
and  which  is  traversed  by  the  great  transver.se  route  from  the  Hoang-ho  to  the 
Tian-shan.  The  whole  country,  although  lying  beyond  the  (Jreat  Wall  and  sepa- 
rated by  lofty  ranges  from  the  Iloang-ho  basin,  has  accordingly  been  attached  to 
the  province  of  Kausu.  Even  in  the  bust  century  the  districts  of  Ilumi  and  Pijan, 
on  the  southern  slope  of  the  Tian-shan,  were  included  in  this  j)rovinec  as  integral 
parts  of  the  inner  empire.  North-west  of  a  parting  ridge  crossed  by  the  Usu-ling 
Pass  (about  10,000  feet)  a  belt  of  inhabited  lands,  in  some  places  scarcely  30  miles 


HtiaiM 


a*. 


L.. 


TOPOORAPIIY. 


88 


sections,  tho 
>in  the  Nuu- 
The  iiatuml 
Liuntehcw-fu, 
e  moiintuins 
1(1  tlie  (ireut 
oasis.  Here 
un-»han,  ono 


59- 


b7' 


broad,  conneets  rhinese  Kansu  with  this  Nortli-wcstern  Kansu,  which,  from  tho 
nomads  frefjuentinj?  it,  may  be  called  ^[ongolian  Kansu.  Its  area  may  he  esti- 
mated at  100,000  square  miles,  with  a  population  of  probably  less  than  ono 
million,  centred  chiefly  in  tho  southern  towns  and  in  tho  oases  at  the  foot  of  tho 
Tian-shni. 

Inhaiutants. 

In  a  repfion  of  such  strategic  imjjortance,  and  so  often  disputed  by  rival  hosts, 
the  inhabitants  are  naturally  of  very  mixed  origin.  Tribes  of  Turki  stock,  the 
Uigurs  and  Usuns,  ^longols  of  diverse  banners,  the  Tanguts  of  Tibetan  blood,  and 
the  Chinese  have  frequently  contended  for  the  possession  of  the  pass  connecting 
the  Gobi  with  the  snowy  range.  The  work  of  the  nomad  warriors  was  soon  done ; 
after  destroying  everything  in  their  sudden  inroads  they  would  retreat  rapidly  to 
the  steppes  of  the  plain  or  to  the  upland  valleys.  ]iut  the  Chinese,  v.hile  slower 
in  their  movements,  were  more  tenacious  and  persevering.  They  founded  garrison 
towns  at  convenient  intervals,  which  soon  became  centres  of  culture,  and  the  land 
was  thus  slowly  peopled,  while  the  wilderness  was  crossed  bj'  military  and  trade 
routes.  The  barbarian  might  return  and  burn  the  crops,  level  the  fortresses,  waste 
the  cities.  But  after  the  storm  was  over  a  few  years  olways  sufficed  for  the 
Chinese  to  restore  the  network  of  their  strategic  routes  and  strongholds.  Thus 
the  cities  of  Northern  Kansu,  reduced  to  masses  of  ruins  during  the  recent  wars 
between  Dungan  Mohammedans  and  the  Imperial  Government,  are  again  gradually 
recovering,  while  others  are  being  founded  by  the  Chinese  agricultural  settlers. 

Tho  Mongols  ranging  over  these  steppes  belong  mostly  to  the  great  family  of 
the  Eliuts,  kinsmen  of  the  Kalmuks.  Some  fifteen  hundred  years  ago  the  country 
was  occupied  mainly  by  the  Usun,  supposed  by  some  to  have  been  of  Teutonic 
stock,  and  who  were  distinguished  from  all  their  neighbours  by  their  deep-set 
eyes  and  straight  nose.  These  "  men  of  horse-like  features,"  as  tho  Chinese 
described  them,  were  gradually  driven  westwards  to  the  Tian-shan  and  Tarim 
basin.  Here  Prjevalsky  met  many  of  the  peasantry  who  seemed  remarkably 
like  his  fellow-countrymen  of  Central  Bussia. 


angaria  into 

crtile  region 
o  two  parts, 
ig-ho  to  the 
11  and  sepa- 
attached  to 
i  and  Pijan, 
3  as  integral 
he  Usu-ling 
elv  30  miles 


Topography. 

The  chief  towns  going  westwards  in  the  district  connecting  the  inner  and  outer 
Eansu  are  the  walled  cities  of  Liang-cheic,  Kanchew,  and  Suchew,  founded  at  the 
time  of  the  first  settlement  two  thousand  years  ago.  From  the  combined  names  of 
the  last  two,  capitals  of  the  Kan  and  Su  districts,  the  province  of  Kansu  has  been 
named.  Kanchew  has  rapidly  recovered  irova,  the  disastrous  civil  war,  and  Liang- 
chew,  a  large  and  busy  place,  is  one  of  the  cleanest  and  most  orderly  cities  in 
China.  This  is  true,  however,  only  of  the  portion  comprised  in  the  inner  enclo- 
sure, the  quarter  stretching  between  the  first  and  second  wall  being  a  mere  mass 
of  ruins.  From  the  ramparts  are  visible  a  number  of  small  forts  dotted  over  the 
landscape,  all  of  recent  origin,  having  been  erected  since  the  Dungan  insurrection 


M 


EAST  ARIA. 


by  i\w  jH'usiintrv  »»  u  promution  agoinNl  froHh  troublcfi.  Hucliow,  on  tlic  Tnlai, 
WHS  {(triiHM'ly  tlio  l)iil\viirk  of  tho  nnpirc.  Hut  when  rotukon  by  the  Chinese  in 
IM72  not  11  sinfi;k'  housso  wuh  Htiinding. 

Ininu'diiitely  west  of  Siichew  stands  the  famous  Kiayu-kuan,  or  "  Jado  fJate," 
so  oalU'd  because  it  led  to  the  Khotari  country,  whence  the  (.'hinese  trach'rs  broup:lit 
back  the  precious  mineral.  Hut  the  gate  does  not,  as  is  usually  supposed,  mark 
tho  verge  of  tho  desert,  for  shrubs  und  patches  of  herbage  still  line  both  aides  of 


Fig.  3'2.— FouTiFinu  ViLLAOKg  NKAii  Lantchbw,  Puuvincb  of  Kaniiu. 


i 


I 


the  routes  beyond  it.  Nor  is  there  any  lack  of  running  waters  fringed  by  the 
poplar  and  weeping  willow.  Two  centuries  after  Marco  Polo,  the  Portuguese 
missionary,  Benedict  de  Goes,  was  the  first  European  to  follow  this  route  from 
Khotan;  but  he  only  reached  Suchew,  where  bodied  in  1607.  His  companion, 
Isaac,  the  Anncnian,  was  unable  to  save  his  manuscripts,  although  he  continued 
the  journ(\v  to  Peking.  Suchew  is  a  great  mart  for  the  surrounding  Mongols,  as 
are  ulso  Ntjaim  (Ansi),  Kwachew,  and  Shachew,  or  "  Sandy  Town,"  a  place  already 


:-r-ttH$m 


TOl'OORAI'IIY. 


80 


1  tlio  Tc.laT, 
("liiiK'so  in 

Jado  (iat«>," 
It'iM  brought 
posed,  mark 
K>th  Hides  of 


m 


■i^l 


v-.» 


jcd  by  the 
'ortuguese 
oute  from 
ompanion, 
continued 
ongols,  as 
ce  already 


invaded  by  tho  Hands  of  the  western  desert.  Soni(>  fifteen  bunth'ed  yeais  ago, 
(hiring  the  Hourishing  periofl  of  tlie  kingdom  of  Khotan,  Shachew  was  a  chief 
centre  of  the  caravan  trade  iM'tween  China  and  the  Tarini  l)asin. 

YiiiiniuHiini,  lying  on  the  route  to  llami,  comph'tcly  escaped  the  ravages  of  the 
Dungans,  while  X;/miHi,  on  the  same  route,  was  entirely  destroyed.  Nothing  is 
now  to  Ih)  seen  on  its  site  except  heaps  of  rubbish,  ruined  temples,  the  scattered 
fragnuMits  of  idols.  The  neglected  gardens  no  longer  i-heck  the  advancing  sands, 
which  in  some  places  are  surging  over  tho  ramparts.  I'nless  the  place  be  so(»n 
resettled,  it  will  disappear  altogether.  North  of  it  tho  desirt,  pn)p(M'Iy  so  called, 
stretches  away  beyond  (he  horizon  in  tho  direction  of  the  Tiun-shan.  lint  this  it; 
not  the  region  most  dreaded  by  the  traveller,  although  as  far  as  tho  llami  oasis  ho 
n»ee(s  little  beyond  u  few  cumping-grounds  on  tho  bunks  of  tho  streams,  and  tho 
debris  of  ruintnl  cities. 

JIdiiii  (Khami,  Khamil),  described  by  Marco  Polo  under  the  name  of  Camul,  is 
one  of  those  cities  which  may  be  regarded  as  indispensable.  It  occui)ies  u  position 
clearly  nuirked  out  for  a  centre  of  population.  Ilencie,  although  frc(|U(>ntly  wasted 
or  destroyt>d,  it  has  always  risen  from  its  ruins,  either  on  the  same  spot  or  in  the 
immediate  vicinity.  The  Ilumi  oasis  is  a  necessary  resting-place  for  armies  and 
caravans,  whether  arriving  from  or  plunging  into  the  desert.  No  coiupieror 
advancing  east  or  west  would  venture  to  push  forward  without  first  secui-ing  a  firm 
footing  in  llami,  and  commanding  all  the  resources  of  the  district.  As  a  strategical 
point  it  is  almost  unrivalled  in  Central  Asia.  The  zones  of  vegetation  which 
fringe  lx)th  sides  of  tho  neighbouring  Tian-shan  have  necessarily  become  the 
"Nan-lu"  and  "rc-lu" — that  is,  tho  southern  and  northern  routes  to  the  western 
world — and  hero,  accordingly,  converge  the  great  historic  highways.  Yet  llami 
never  seems  to  have  been  u  largo  place,  the  strip  of  arable  land  surrounding  it 
being  too  limited  for  tho  development  of  a  great  capital.  During  the  recent 
rebellion  it  suffered  much,  its  rice-fields,  vineyards,  and  gardens,  noted  for  their 
excellent  melons,  having  been  frequently  wasted. 

West  of  llami,  the  two  towns  of  Pijan  (Pishan)  and  Turfan,  now  much 
reduced,  occupy  neighbouring  oases  extremely  fertile,  and  yielding  excellent 
cotton,  sesame,  wheat,  besides  all  sorts  of  fruits,  especially  magnificent  grapes. 
Although  frequently  traversed  by  Chinese  travellers,  Hegel  is  the  only  Euroi)ean 
naturalist  who  has  visited  this  region  in  recent  times.  Yet  there  are  few  districts 
of  Central  Asia  more  deserving  of  careful  exploration.  Between  I'ijan  and  Turfan 
rises  an  isolated  cone,  which  is  said  to  have  vomited  lava  and  ashes  some  ten 
centuries  ago.  Tho  old  geographers  also  speak  of  a  mountain  west  of  Turfan, 
rising  in  a  series  of  terraces,  all  com|M)sed  of  blocks  of  agate.  On  this  sacred 
mountain  not  a  single  plant  is  to  be  seen,  and  its  dazzling  brightness  is  caused  by 
the  sparkling  agates,  "  the  remains  of  the  hundred  thousand  lohaii,"  who  have 
earned  immortality  by  their  virtues.  Turfan  was  the  last  city  recaptured  by  the 
Chinese  in  1877  from  the  Dungana.  It  lies  about  30  miles  west  of  Old  Turfan, 
which  was  destroyed  four  hundred  years  ago,  and  of  which  the  walls,  50  feet  high, 
are  still  standing.     Their  peculiar  structure  is  referred  by  Kegel  to  the  Uigurs, 


■fc 


HO 


EAST  AHIA. 


wli«)iii  he  n-j^inlw  iim  tlu'  iiiiccMtorH  <»f  tlio  |»ri'M«'iit  I>iiii^iiiih.  (^liiiirNo  ixirrt-lainN  and 
KiiddliiHt  Ntaliii'ttcN  an<  pirkrti  u])  aiiioii^Nt  the  ruiiiH,  and  lifrt<  art*  alHit  a  iiia);iiiH- 
ct'iit  luinari't  and  liiiildin^H  rcNcniltling  thtiH<>  of  Samarkand.  In  tlu>  ni-i^fldMiui'- 
hutwl  is  tli«^  ni(mi|ur  of  Maxar,  "  IioIut  «>v«<n  than  MtTca,"  witli  a  chapel  traditionally 
of  NcMtorian  orif^in. 

Thr  town?*  on  the  northern  n1o|h>  of  th««  Tian-whan  as  far  at*  tin-  rruintMi  vnlloy 
an>  included  in  the  provini't>  of  KaiiMU.  lUnkiil,  no  calliHl  from  liakc  Itar,  which 
occupieu  u  depreaHiuii  in  the  plateau,  HUpplenieutH  tbv  Ntrutegieul  puHitiuii  uf  Ilami. 

Fiif.  33.— Oaiim  ok  Bahki'l  awd  Hami. 
Aooonlint  tu  lurallov.    Had*  I  :  l,SOt),uW). 


.80  Miles. 


It  18  the  first  military  and  trading  station  on  the  route  leading  from  Hami  to  the 
Zungarian  plains,  and  as  the  southern  highways  converge  on  Hami,  so  those  of 
the  north  unite  at  Barkul,  the  Chinsi-fu  of  the  Chinese.  It  is  a  large  place, 
commanded  by  two  fortresses,  and  surrounded  by  gardens  and  orchai-ds.  The 
Kosheti-davau,  one  of  the  three  passes  connecting  the  two  cities,  has  an  elevation 
of  9,100  feet  above  the  sea,  or  about  5,300  above  the  surrounding  oases.  But  this 
is  a  very  slight  altitude  compared  with  that  of  the  passes  opening  farther  west,  in 
the  snowy  range  of  Eongor-adzigan,  while  the  Tian-shan  cannot  be  turned  towards 


-^MKMliMlHliSlB 


»iw  «iw^>iMW|!P 


TOI'OdUAl'HY. 


w 


orcclaiiiM  and 

Ml)  11  iiiii^tiifi- 

H'  lu'ijflilMMir- 

truditioiiully 

uintNi  valloy 

'  Har,  which 

ion  of  Hami. 


its  i'n>*f(Tn  fxtririiity  without   |»limffinj?  info  fho  «U"«'rt.     Ilnico  lh»»  parimiount 
iniiMirtancr  of  the  llaiiii-llurkiil  rmitc. 

To  Pijan  anil  Tiirfan  corn'siiond  f/iirfirii  and  XiiiHH,  Hut  here  tho  Tian-Nhan 
has  already  hran'lx'd  olf  into  two  panilhl  chains,  whilo  the  ^^ciicral  ch'vation  is 
Huch  as  to  prevent  (...^.sy  coninmnicat ion  from  shujo  to  nhtpe.  In  the  aniphitlieatro 
of  hills  dcvcloptsl  still  farther  west  lies  the  fainouH  city  (d'  rniintsi  (Tnuitsi),  tlu^ 
Tihoa-chew  t»f  the  (Mnese,  or  tin  Hiin-nn'ao;  tliat  is,  the  "  Red  T«'niple,"  foiuided 
in  the  Man  dynasty,  'flns  was  the  Mishhalik  of  tlie  Mcin^fols  and  Tatars,  which 
enjoyed  ^reat  ini;ii»rtanco  at  different  epochs,  and  which,  thanks  to  its  liajipy 
uituution,  hus  always  lapidly  recovered  after  every  frotih  disuHtcr.     As  cupitul  of 


Fig.  34.— Umuhtiii,  TvHfAit,  ani>  hi-hhoundino  Mointainm, 

Ifriim  n  Nkntoti  Ijy  Venyuknv     Hcale  I  :  tl.MiO.UtO. 


EnPG 


tto  Milei. 


Inmi  to  the 
80  those  of 
large  place, 
hards.  The 
an  elevation 
s.  But  this 
her  west,  in 
aed  towards 


the  Uigurs,  it  was  the  residence  of  princes  who  ruled  on  both  sides  of  the  Tian- 
shan  over  a  vast  domain  designated,  like  the  chief  town,  by  the  name  of  Bishbalik, 
or  "  Pentapolis."  Here  may  have  reigned  one  of  the  sovereigns  known  in  Europe 
as  "  Prester  John."  In  the  last  century  the  place  was  very  populous,  and  took  the 
foremost  rank  amongst  the  Chinese  colonies  of  Northern  Kansu.  It  was  said  to 
have  had  200,000  inhabitants  ;  but  all  were  butchered  by  the  Dungans,  who  were 
afterwards  butchered  in  their  turn.  Urumtsi  consists  of  two  distinct  quarters,  the 
old  town  occupied  by  the  traders,  and  the  new  or  Manchu  town.  Notwithstanding 
its  disasters,  it  does  a  considerable  trade  at  present  with  Russia  through  the  town 
of  Chuguchak,  and  with  Turkestan  and  China  through  the  basin  of  an  old  lake,  the 
centre  of  which  is  occupied  by  the  town  of  Daban-shan.     Like  Turf  an,  TJrumtsi 


88 


EAST  ASIA. 


has  its  hot  sulphur  springs,  and  in  the  neighbourhood  is  a  coal  seam,  which  has 
h)ng  boon  in  a  state  of  combustion.  One  of  the  eminences  commanding  the  city  is 
yearly  visited  by  the  inhabitants,  who  here  offer  sacrifices  to  the  "  Holy  Mount." 


III.— ZUNGARIA  AND  KULJA,  OR  ILL 

Zttnoaria  is  the  broad  gateway  leading  from  the  Chinese  to  the  Western  world. 
Tlie  old  gulf  of  the  driod-up  sea,  which  sweeps  round  to  the  north  of  Mongolian 
Kansu,  ponetrates  far  westwards  between  the  southern  offshoots  of  the  Altai  and 
the  Tian-slian.  Kere  it  ramihes  into  two  branches,  which  in  remote  geological 
epochs  formed  two  marine  straits,  and  which  have  now  become  two  historical  routes 
for  trade  and  migration.  The  eastern  depression  forming  the  common  entrance  of 
these  routes  is  mostly  strewn  with  marshes,  remnants  of  the  ancient  sea,  and  is  con- 
tinued by  two  troughs,  one  of  which  runs  north-west  along  the  valley  of  the 
Ulungur  lliver,  which  is  itself  continued  beyond  the  lake  of  like  name  by  the  Black 
Irtish.  The  other  skirts  westwards  the  Katun  and  Iren-khabirgan  ranges  belonging 
to  the  Tian-shan  system.  The  northern  opening,  where  are  collected  the  farthest 
head-streams  of  the  Irtish,  presents  nearly  everywhere  an  easy  route  over  the  hard 
clayey  soil  of  the  steppe,  at  .aij  extreme  elevation  of  scarcely  2,550  feet  above  the 
sea.  The  southern  opening,  which  is  much  deeper,  is  occupied  by  sluggish  steppe 
streams  and  closed  basins,  such  as  the  Ayar-nor  and  Ebi-nor,  continued  westwards 
by  the  Ala-kul  and  the  other  lakes,  all  formerly  united  with  Balkhash.  Here  also 
the  route  between  Lepsiusk  and  Urumtsi  presents  little  difficulty.  The  two  plains 
have  a  mean  elevation  of  from  650  to  850  feet,  and  the  road,  which  lies  between 
the  Barlik  and  Zungarian  Ala-tau,  is  formidable  only  from  the  fierce  gales  which 
here  prevail.  The  space  separating  the  northern,  or  Irtish,  from  the  southern,  or 
Tian-shan  Pe-lu  opening  is  partly  occupied  by  the  Jair  and  Barlik  ridges  and  the 
eastern  projections  of  the  Tarbagatai  and  Sauru  ranges.  Yet  it  offers  a  third  pas- 
sage, which,  although  narrower,  is  more  frequented  than  the  other  two,  and  which 
runs  by  the  city  of  Chuguchak. 

Historical  Routes. 

The  expressions  Tian-shan  Pe-lu,  or  Northern  Tian-shan  route,  in  opposition 
to  the  Tian-shan  Nan-lu,  or  Southern  Tian-shan  route,  shows  that  the  Chinese  had 
fully  appreciated  the  importance  of  this  historic  highway,  which  continues  the 
road  running  from  the  Jade  Gate  obliquely  across  Mongolian  Kansu  through  Hami 
and  Barkul  to  Urumtsi.  An  imperial  route,  commanded  at  intervals  by  forts  and 
military  settlements,  crosses  the  country  from  east  to  west  as  far  as  the  triangular 
plateau  bounded  north  by  the  Zungarian  Ala-tau,  south  of  the  Boro-khoro  range. 
From  this  point  the  Talki  Pass  (6,350  feet)  and  other  neighbouring  openings  lead 
down  to  the  rich  Kulja  valley,  which  already  lies  on  the  western  slope  of  the 


UISTORICAL  UOUTES, 


89 


}am,  which  has 
ling  the  city  is 
loly  Mount." 


iVestern  world. 
L  of  Mongolian 
the  Altai  and 
note  geological 
listorical  routes 
ion  entrance  of 
sea,  and  is  con- 
valley  of  the 
le  by  the  Black 
ngcs  belonging 
:ed  the  farthest 
)  over  the  hard 
'  feet  above  the 
sluggish  stoppe 
lued  westwards 
sh.  Here  also 
The  two  plains 
h  lies  between 
ce  gales  which 
10  southern,  or 
ridges  and  the 
srs  a  third  pas- 
wo,  and  which 


continent,  and  which  is  connected  with  all  the  routes  of  the  Aralo-raspian  dojuvs- 
sion.  Thus  from  the  Black  Irtish  to  the  Hi  River,  a  distance  of  about  liOU  iiiilos, 
the  semicircle  of  plateaux  and  mountain  ranges  surrounding  the  Chinese  Empire 
is  interrupted  at  various  points  by  valleys  and  dei)ro.ssions  of  easy  access.  Tlirough 
these  natural  higliways  the  devastating  hosts  of  the  Iluns,  Uigurs,  and  Mongols 
advanced  westwards,  and  the  same  tracks  were  followed  by  the  Chinese  when  they 
overran  the  only  districts  which  they  still  possess  on  the  western  slope  of  the  con- 
Fig.  35.— Ebi-noe. 

According  to  Mouohketov.    Scale  1 : 1,200,000. 


EoPG. 


62*50- 


85°50' 


.90  Miles. 


,  in  opposition 
le  Chinese  had 
continues  the 
through  Kami 
s  by  forts  and 
the  triangular 
-khoro  range, 
openings  lead 
slope  of  the 


tinent.     Those  arc,  on  the  one  hand,  the  Upper  Irtish  valley,  on  the  other  that  of 
the  Hi. 

The  Russians,  on  their  part,  were  fully  aware,  from  the  time  of  the  first  inva- 
sion of  Siberia,  that  the  road  to  China  lay  between  the  Altai  and  (he  Tiun-shan. 
For  it  was  in  this  depression  that  they  sought  for  the  great  lake  of  Ivitai,  a  name 
since  extended  by  them  to  the  whole  Chinese  Empire.  Nevertheless  this  was  not 
the  way  they  first  took.  Peking  lying  far  from  the  centre  of  China,  they  were 
obliged  to  go  round  by  the  bleak  and  elevated  eastern  plateaux  of  Mongolia  in  order 
to  reach  that  city  from  Eiakhta.  But  they  now  perceive  how  much  better  for 
their  trade  it  would  be  to  go  directly  from  West  Siberia  through  Zungaria  and 
Kansu  to  China.  From  Zaisan  to  Hankow,  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  true 
centre  of  the  empire,  there  are  no  serious  obstacles,  and,  except  a  break  of  about 
88 


00 


EAST  ASIA. 


1(50  miles  practicable  for  pack  animals,  the  whole  distance  of  2,600  miles  may  be 
traversed  by  wa<j;<>;ons  in  abont  one  liundred  and  forty  days,  whereas  the  roundabout 
journey  ria  Kiaklita  to  Pekinj;  takes  two  liundred  and  two  days.  The  future 
continental  railway  from  Calais  to  .Shanjj;hai  may  be  said  to  be  already  traced  by 
the  hand  of  nature  throu^li  Zunjjfaria,  ^lonj^olian  Kansu,  and  Lianjj^ehew-fu  to  the 
Uoanf^-ho  basin.  Ilenee  the  impoitanee  attached  by  the  Russians  to  the approaclies 
of  this  route,  which  they  secured  before  consenting  to  restore  the  Kulja  district, 
occupied  by  th«'m  duriufj;  the  Dungan  insurrection.  On  the  other  hand,  Kulja 
itself,  j)rojecting  between  Zungaria  and  the  Tarim  basin,  is  of  vital  importance  to 
the  Cliinese,  enabling  them  as  it  does  to  reach  the  Kashgar  and  Yarkand  oases 
directly  from  Zungaria,  without  going  a  long  way  round  to  the  east  of  the 
Tian-shan. 

ZlXOAHIA — LaKK   SaIUAM — ThK   Ii.I,    oh   KvIJA   DlSTRIfT. 

The  two  regions  of  Zungaria  and  Kulja,  separated  l)y  the  lloro-khoro  range, 
differ  greatly  in  size,  population,  and  physical  aspect.  Like  most  of  the  Mongolian 
phiins,  Zungaria  consists  of  monotonous  expanses  of  yellow  or  reddish  clays,  with 
little  vegetati(tn  except  stunted  shrubs,  and  along  the  streams  the  poplar  and  asjR'u. 
The  usually  barren  southern  slopes  of  the  Chinese  Altai  arc,  however,  here  and  there 
relieved  by  patches  of  herbage,  meadow  lands,  and  even  forests.  The  Southern 
Katun,  Uoro-khoro,  and  Talki  chains  are  still  better  wooded,  some  of  their  slopes 
being  entirely  covered  with  conifers.  But  the  most  picturescjuc  district  of  Zungaria 
lies  in  the  south-west  corner,  where  the  depression  is  filled  by  the  waters  of  the 
Sairam-nor.  Although  less  extensive,  this  lake  is  deeper  than  the  Ebi-nor,  the 
Ayar-nor,  or  the  Ulungur.  It  presents  the  apiMjarance  of  a  vast  crater  encircled 
by  wooded  hills,  and  rising  only  a  few  hundretl  yards  above  the  Talki  ridge,  which 
is  crossed  by  the  impcritil  route  leading  down  to  the  Hi  valley.  It  is  said  to  dis- 
charge its  superfluous  waters  by  a  subterranean  channel  under  the  Tulki  I'ass  to  the 
copious  streams  which  water  the  plains  of  Kulja. 

The  territory  of  Kulja,  one  of  the  finest  regions  in  Central  Asia,  compri-ses  the 
central  section  of  the  Tian-shan,  here  rising  to  heights  of  from  10,000  to  24,000  feet, 
with  its  vast  glaciers,  grassy  plateaux,  forests  of  pines  and  apples,  fertile,  well- 
watered,  and  highly  ]n'oductivc  plains.  Owing  to  their  great  clevatiim  the  valleys 
of  the  Tekes,  Kunges,  and  Kash  Rivers  are  thinly  peopled,  and  nearly  all  the  popu- 
lation is  centred  in  the  plains  traversed  by  the  middle  course  of  the  Hi,  which 
farther  on  enters  Russian  territory,  and  finally  loses  itself  in  Lake  Balkhash. 


IxuAmTANTs — Thk  ZixoAniANs — DrxoANs  AxnTAiiAxnii  Wars  axd  Massacres. 

The  Zungarians — that  is,  the  "  Tribes  of  the  Left  Wing  " — have  ceased  to  exist 
as  a  niition,  and  their  name  has  survived  only  as  a  geographical  expression,  indi- 
cating the  region  which  was  formerly  the  centre  of  their  jKtwer.  They  belongc>d  to 
the  Eleut  section  of  the  Mongol  stock,  and  were  the  last  of  their  race  who  succeeded 


"■'fiBK!5^vaft*aR'^^T« 


'  '*^*'''^""  '■■T*'vi  'II  mm\  li'ii I Ill  n  1 1 1 II  iiiiiftwinwii 'rui  juifip^,!. 


iiiMM»*im' 


"mfft 


}  miles  may  bo 
tlio  rouiulubout 
•t.  The  future 
eiu'iV  traced  l»y 
!;ehew-fu  to  the 
I  thcMipproaclies 

Kulja  district, 
or  hand,  Kulja 
[  importance  to 

Yarkand  oases 
lie  east  of   the 


;1CT. 

o-khoro  range, 
the  Mongolian 
lish  elavs,  with 
plar  and  us]R'n. 
,  here  and  there 
The  Southern 
of  their  slopes 
ict  of  Zungaria 
B  waters  of  the 
10  Ebi-nor,  the 
'rater  encireknl 
ii  ridge,  which 
t  is  said  to  dis- 
ilki  I'ass  to  the 

,  comprises  the 
>  to  24,000  feet, 
s,  fertile,  well- 
ion  tlie  valleys 
y  all  file  popu- 
the  Hi,  which 
tilkhash. 


M)  Massackes. 

ceased  to  exist 
tpression,  indi- 
ley  belongt>d  to 
who  succeede<l 


I 


en 
H 

E- 


on 


a 

■< 


en 

-< 

B 


TOPOGRAPHY. 


91 


■  1 1  ■  I 
":.'i,"  I, 


in  foiuulinj?  an  empire  independent  of  CLinu.  The  Zunf^nrian  state,  established 
towards  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century,  became  in  a  few  years  oni?  of  the  most 
extensive  in  Asia.  Their  soverei^ii  is  said  to  have  comnianded  a  million  armed 
warriors  ;  from  the  mountains  of  Ilami  to  Lake  lialkhash  all  the  land  was  subject  to 
his  rule,  while  Yarkand,  Kash<^ar,  and  even  some  places  in  Wesf(>rn  Turkestan  paid 
him  tribute.  After  three  successive  attacks  his  armies  captured  Lassa  and  the  sacred 
stronghold  of  Potala  in  1717.  But  dissension  and  intestine  wars  prevented  the  state 
from  nuiintaining  its  independence,  and  although  two  imperial  armies  were  annihi- 
lated, a  third  overthrew  the  Zungarian  power  in  1757.  The  whole  country  was 
subdued,  and  those  of  the  rebels  who  failed  to  reach  Siberia  or  Westem  Tui-kestan 
were  all  mercilessly  put  to  the  sword.  A  million  of  all  ages  and  sexes  perished  in 
this  overwhelming  national  disaster.  The  ruined  cities  were  replaced  by  military 
stations  and  cohmies  of  convicts  from  all  parts  of  China  and  Mongolia,  and  ihese 
were  soon  followed  by  free  migration  to  the  depopulated  regions.  In  1771  the 
Ealmuks  of  the  Turgut  branch,  then  occupying  the  Lower  Volga  steppes,  resolved 
to  escape  from  the  oppressive  surveillance  of  the  Russian  Government,  and  return 
to  the  Zungarian  plains,  which  still  lived  in  the  national  traditions.  Of  the  ;J00,000 
who  started  from  the  western  shores  of  the  Casi)ian  many  thousands  perished  on 
the  way.  IJut  according  to  the  Chinese  accounts  the  great  majority  succeeded  in 
reaching  their  ancient  homes,  where  they  were  joined  by  multitudes  of  other  Mon- 
golians from  Ijeyond  the  limits  of  the  empire.  Altogether  about  500,000  migrated 
to  the  wasted  lands  stretching  from  liake  lialkhash  to  the  Gobi,  and  the  Emperor 
Kiun-long  could  boast  that  he  had  become  master  of  the  whole  Mongolian  nation. 

But  fresh  massacres  were  brought  about  by  the  differences  of  race  and  religion, 
and  still  more  by  the, oppressive  Chinese  rule.  A  century  after  the  overthrow  of 
the  Zungarian  power  the  agricultural  populations  of  the  Hi  basin  rose  against  the 
mandarins  and  imperial  troops.  The  Dungans — that  is,  the  native  Mohammedans — 
and  the  Taranchi — that  is,  the  colonists  from  the  Tarim  basin — alone  took  part  in 
the  struggle,  the  Eazaks  and  Kara-kirghiz  holding  aloof,  owing  to  the  advantages 
enjoyed  by  their  nomad  life.  The  war,  at  first  conducted  with  hesitation,  gradually 
increased  in  violence,  culminating  in  18G5  with  the  wholesale  massacre  of  the  Chi- 
nese, Manchus,  and  other  military  colonists  from  the  east.  The  arrival  of  the  Russians, 
to  whom  the  Kulja  territory  was  temporarily  intrusted,  put  a  stop  to  the  flow 
of  blood,  but  not  before  the  2,000,000  inhabitants  of  the  country  had  been  reduced 
to  139,000,  mainly  Dungans  and  Taranchi.  By  the  new  treaty,  which  restores 
Kulja  to  China,  Russia  has  reserved  a  district  in  the  north-west,  where  these  rebels 
may  find  a  refuge  from  the  imperial  vengeance.  But  such  are  the  natural 
advantages  of  the  Hi  valley,  that  notwithstanding  the  frightful  butcheries  of  18G5 
this  country  is  still  more  thickly  peopled  than  Zungaria,  which,  with  an  area  five 
times  greater,  has  scarcely  more  than  double  the  population. 

Topography. 

In  North  Zungaria  there  are  no  towns  properly  so  called,  although  two  military 
stations  have  acquired  some  importance  as  resting-places  for  the  caravans  crossing 


I  • 


I 


02 


EAST  ASIA. 


t 


iho  ])liiiiis.  These  iirc  lin/ini-folcoi,  on  t1u«  soutli  side  of  LnlvO  Ulinij>;ur,  and  Tii/fii  on 
a  Irilmtarv  of  the  IMiick  Irtish,  wliere  the  liussiuii  dealerM  hiivo  iin  entrepot  for  their 
oxcliun;»es  with  Mon<;oHa.  Hut  the  husiest  mart  in  the  fountrv  is  C/ni/fiicfifi/,-, 
\\in<:i;  at  the  soutliern  foot  of  tlie  Tarbu;,^atai  ranfye  in  the  valley  of  the  Kniil,  an 
alHiient  of  the  Ala-kul.  Situated  on  the  Siberian  slope  within  11  miles  of  the 
frontier  post  of  Hakti,  this  town  oilers  <^reat  advanta<i;cs  to  the  Russian  traders,  who 
arc  hero  as  exempt  from  the  exactions  of  tho  mandarins  as  in  their  own  territory. 
In  1H.j4  it  exported  to  Russia  tea  to  the  value  of  1,600,000  roubles,  and  had  at  that 
time  a  ])o})ulation  of  JJO.OOO.  Ruined  during  the  Dungan  insurrection,  it  is 
gradually  reviving,  and  already  comprises  numerous  Cbinest',  Manchu,  Mongol, 
Kirghiz,  and  Taranchi  settlers.     It  is  surrounded  by  well-watered  gardens,  and  sorao 


Fig.    30.  — Cut'Ol'CHAK    AND   THE   TaUIIAIIATAI    KaNOR. 
Scale  1  :  1,300,000. 


.10  )rile8. 


coal  mines  have  been  opened  in  the  neighbourhood.  The  Khabarassu  Pass  (9,580 
feet)  is  ])racticable  for  carts,  and  a  caravanserai  stands  on  its  summit. 

AVest  of  Urunitsi  all  the  to^wns  of  Southern  Zungaria — Matim(^KuiUm),  Karhara- 
U8>,u,  Sliiklio,  Jinlio — are  military  stations  peopled  by  exiles,  like  most  of  the  other 
settlements  btiyond  tho  Great  AVall.  In  this  region  colonisation  is  being  rapidly 
developed,  especially  in  a  tract  east  of  JIanas,  which  is  the  most  fertile  part  of 
Zungaria  north  of  the  Tian-shan.  Near  Shikho  are  some  gold-washings,  coal-fields, 
salt  beds,  and  a  lake  of  naphtha  mentioned  by  Hegel. 

In  the  Hi  valley  Old  KuIJa  alone  has  survived  the  recent  tro.i'  l<v-'.  It  is  a  large 
place,  containing  l'.>,000  inhabitants  Avithin  its  square  walls,  beyond  which  stretch 
extensive  suburbs  concealed  from  the  traveller  by  a  belt  of  poplars.  Although  built 
by  the  Chinese,  who  call  it  Nin-yuan,  Kulja  has  rather  the  aspect  of  a  town  of 
Russian  Turkestan,  its  houses  of  beaten  earth,  with  their  ( lay  roofs,  strongly  reseni- 


NORTH  MONGOLIA  AND  THE  GOBI. 


08 


,  nnd  Tiiltn  on 
rciKit  for  their 
is  Cliiiiiiiclinii, 
the  Kinil,  an 
[  miles  of  the 
u  traders,  who 
own  territory. 
1(1  had  at  that 
reotion,  it  is 
chu,  Mongol, 
lens,  uud  suinc 


bling  tliose  of  the  U/hegs  and  Tajiks  in  the  Aral  basin.  The  inhal)itants  arc  also 
mostly  Mohammedans,  and  there  is  h(>re  a  small  lloman  Catholii;  comnninity 
founded  after  the  overthrow  of  the  /ungarian  Empire.  Old  Kiilja  is  an  industrious 
place,  with  paper-mills,  well-cultivated  gardens,  and  extensive  arable  lands,  on  which 
during  the  Ilussian  occupation  the  poppy  was  much  cultivated. 

AVest  of  Old  Kulja  the  traces  of  the  late  civil  war  are  everywhere  conspicuous. 
The  little  J)ungaii  town  of  Simliiii  still  exists.  l}ut  of  the  neighbouring  IJayandai, 
said  to  have  hud  a  population  of  150,000,  nothing  remains  except  some  crumbling 
walls  overgrown  with  elms.  Ncic  KuIJa  also,  founded  by  the  Chinese  in  1704  as 
the  capital  of  the  country,  is  now  a  mere  fort  surrounded  by  heaps  of  bones  and 
rubbish.  Farther  on  follow  other  ruined  cities,  such  as  Clam-ha-liodzi,  Almi-tn, 
K/ioi-fjos,  Jtirkrut,  and  A/,/,riif,  and  hero  the  very  land  is  being  converted  into  a 
swamp  by  the  former  irrigating  canals  now  choked  with  refuse.  Hut  so  great  are 
its  natural  resources  that  the  country  cannot  fail  soon  to  recover  from  its  disasters. 

Fig.  37.— Valley  op  thk  Tkkes. 

eoiUo  1  :  2,500,000. 


SO  MQes. 


1  Pass  (9,580 

un),  lutrlara- 
t  of  the  other 
being  rapidly 
fertile  part  of 
1^8,  coal-fields, 

It  is  a  large 
vhich  stretch 
Ithough  built 
of  a  town  of 
•ongly  reseni- 


The  province  of  Ili  contains  gold,  silver,  copper,  lead,  and  graphite,  besides  extensive 
coal-fields,  some  of  which  have  already  been  worked.  Hot  springs  abound  in  its 
valleys,  and  no  region  of  Central  Asia  presents  such  magnificent  prospects  as  the 
banks  of  the  Eash  and  the  basin  of  the  Tekes  River  at  the  foot  of  the  glaciers  and 
highlands  above  which  towers  the  mighty  Khan-tcngri,  or  "  King  of  the  Heavens.' 


TV.— NORTH  MONGOLIA  AND  THE  GOBI. 

This  vast  domain  of  th(;  Mongol  nomads  is  of  itself  alone  nearly  as  large  as 
China  proper,  and,  with  Zungaria,  Outer  Kansu,  and  the  Tarim  basin,  it  occupies 
about  one-half  of  the  empire,  liut  between  it  and  the  basins  of  the  Hoang-ho  and 
Yang-tze-kiang  the  contrast  in  climate,  soil,  and  .social  life  is  complete.  China  is 
one  of  the  best  cultivated  and  industrious,  as  well  as  one  of  the  wealthiest  and 


iii&o>fc«*«*4\fe..- 


04 


EAST  ASIA. 


most  (IciiHoly  pcdplod  rcpfinns  on  tlic  ^lolu*,  wluTcas  Mun<;<ilia  ih  oih'  of  tlio  most 
fliinly  iiihiiln'ti'd,  iiiul  even  in  niiiiiy  placeN  sepjinite*!  honi  China  pioju'r  l»y  eojn- 
plele  deserts.  Yet  here  and  there,  iind  especially  towards  the  sonlli-«'ast,  eohmisa- 
tion  lias  e(»nver(ed  the  eoinitry  into  a  sort  of  ( )nter  China,  nineh  more  tliiekly 
peoph'd  tlian  .Monj>;oliu  proper,  ami  l)v  tli(>  Cliinese  ealh'd  Tsaoti,  or  "(irassy 
Lands."  Tluis  lias  been  formed  an  intermediate  zone,  whielj  no  Itmjjer  heltinj»s  to 
Monjjolia  etlmically,  altlionfjli  eonsistinj;  «»f  the  same  jjeolo^^ieal  formations.  The 
nntnral  h'mit  of  tlie  steppe  is  eh-arly  marked  hy  a  h'dj^e  of  ;;ranite  rocks,  over 
whidi  has  l)een  dilTnsed  a  vast  stream  of  unduhitinj;  hivas.  lint  these  hi va.s  huvo 
heen  furrowed  hy  tlie  action  of  runnin<i;  waters,  produeinj.!:  (h-ep  vaUeys,  through 
which  the  Cliinese  agricultural  settlers  have  jicnetrated  into  the  plat«'au 

The  (Jreat  Wall  erected  by  the  Imperial  (iov«'rnment  between  Mongolia  and 
the  Middle  Kin<;(h)m  Ih  merely  a  visibh?  landmark  between  two  re<;ions  already 
separated  by  the  hand  of  nature.  This  cardinal  fact  in  the  history  of  the  Chinese 
world  ha.s  not  been  without  its  influences  on  Kurope  itself.     The  elush  between  tho 

Fig.  38.— Sj!l,-TI().N    OK   TUB    (idlll,    OdINd    KasT   A.ND    WmT. 

Scolo  1 :  Zl.non.OtM)  for iliNtinccH. 
1  :  !MO,OUU  I'ur  liciglita. 


3300 


.GOOUUea. 


two  rival  races  has  more  than  once  re-echood  in  hostile  invasions  or  peaceful 
migrations  to  the  farthest  extremities  of  the  West. 

Mongolia  and  tho  Gobi  differ  from  China  less  in  tho  configuration  of  the  land 
than  in  their  elimutie  conditions.  On  Iwth  sides  of  the  Great  "Wall  tho  surface  is 
varied  by  plains  and  valleys,  plateaux  and  highlands,  lakes  and  running  waters. 
The  Iloang-ho  itself  Ijelongs  at  once  to  both  regions.  In  its  middle  course  it 
sweeps  in  a  great  curve  northwards,  thus  separating  the  Ordos  country  from  the 
rest  of  Mongolia.  Nevertheless  Mongolia  and  the  Gobi  may  ))e  described,  in  a 
g(>neral  way,  as  a  vast  plateau  slightly  hollowed  in  the  centre,  and  rising  gniduully 
from  the  south-west  towards  the  north-east.  The  mean  elevation,  which  is  about 
2,600  feet  in  the  west,  thus  exceeds  4,000  in  the  east.  Most  of  the  land  is  bounded  by 
ranges  and  mountain  masses — the  Altai  and  Sayan  on  the  north-west,  the  !i[unku- 
sardik,  Kentei,  and  Baikal  highlands  on  the  north,  the  Khingan  on  the  east,  the 
uplands  oveHooking  the  planisof  Peking  on  the  south-east ;  histlj',  the  eastern  exten- 
sions of  the  Knen-lun  and  Nan-shan  on  the  south.  Towards  the  Wi'st  alone  M«)n<roliu 
lies  open  in  the  direction  of  the  Zungarian  defiles  and  the  closed  basin  of  tho  Tarim. 


%, 


mmMf^mr^,  ii«,Mii>ii 


WATER  SYSTEM— li A KKS  UUSA  AND  KOSO. 


M 


ic  of  tlio  most 
ru|M'r  |»y  cuin- 
tjist,  coloiiisa- 
iiKiri'  tliirkly 
«»r  "(iruMMy 
p-r  hclniij^s  to 
lint  ions.  The 
to  rcH'kH,  over 

t>N(«  III  MIS  luiVO 

I  leys,  through 

II  u 

Mongolia  and 
gioiis  alri'july 
if  th<>  Chiiiose 
h  between  tho 


3  or  peaceful 

n  of  the  land 
the  surface  is 
lining  waters. 
Idle  course  it 
itry  from  the 
>scribed,  in  a 
ing  gradually 
'h  it'll  is  about 
is  bounded  by 
,  the  iSFunku- 
the  east,  the 
astern  ex  ten- 
one  Mongolia 
[)f  the  Tarim. 


Tmk  KKT\(i  Altai  and  Tanm  -oi.a  Uan(ii;s. 

Owing  to  the  greater  eh'vation  <if  the  Mongolian  ])Iiiins,  the  southern  sjoprN  of 
tlie  Altai  have  a  h)wcr  relative  elevation  than  those  lacing  northwards.  Mere,  also, 
the  snow-line  is  higher,  rising  to  about  S,700  or  !),(»(M»  I'eet,  altitudes  reached  by 
few  of  the  northern  crests,  except  in  the  wVst  on  the  K«  >  plateau.  In  this  region 
of  Central  Asia  the  most  humid  atmospheric  currents  are  those  which  come  from  the 
nearest  iiuirine  basin;  that  is,  from  the  Polar  Sea.  Hence  the  rain-bearing  and 
fertilising  winds  bhiw  from  the  north-east.  Hut  these  winds  discharge  their 
moisture  on  the  northern  8lojM\s  of  the  Altai,  so  that  those  facing  Mongolia  are 
mostly  destitute  of  vegetation.  In  several  places  the  contrast  is  complete  between 
the  two  sides — dense  forests  on  the  north,  mere  scrub  and  brushwood  on  the  south. 

The  two  chief  ranges  branching  from  the  Altai  into  Mongolian  territory  arc 
the  Kktiig  Altai  and  the  Tannu-ola.  The  former,  sometimes  also  called  the  "  (Jreat 
Altai,"  runs  north-west  and  south-east  parallel  with  the  course  of  tho  IWack  Irtish 
and  Ulungur.  Some  of  its  crests  rise  alnive  the  snow-line,  whence  the  term  Kktag, 
a  dialectic  form  of  the  Turki  Ak-tagh,  or  "  White  ^lountains."  IJut  the  range 
is  pierced  by  deep  depressions,  through  which  the  llussiun  caravans  easily  reach 
the  KoIhIo  plateau  from  the  Irtish  valley.  The  range  itself,  as  shown  by  tho 
recent  explorations  of  I'otanin,  is  continued  south-eastwards  far  beyond  the 
meridian  of  KolMht,  after  which  it  trends  eastwards  under  the  name  of  the  Altai- 
nuru.  In  this  recently  discovered  section  some  of  tho  peaks  attain  an  altitude  of 
10,000  feet,  and  tho  Olon-duba  Puss,  crossed  by  the  Kobdo-Barkul  route,  is  no  lo«« 
than  9,400  feet  high. 

Farther  east  other  ranges  run  parallel  with  the  Ektag  and  Tannu-ola — that  is, 
north-west  and  south-east ;  but  these  are  everywhere  cut  up  into  irregular  masses 
by  erosion.  Here  is  apparently  the  culminating  jioint  of  the  Altai  system,  crossed 
by  Ney  Elias  at  tho  Bayan-ingir  Pass  (over  9,000  feet)  on  the  route  from  Kobdo 
to  Biisk.  A  snowy  peak  rising  immotliately  north  of  the  pass  seemed  to  this  traveller 
to  have  an  elevation  of  12,000  feet,  or  8IJ0  more  than  the  Bielukha,  highest  summit 
of  tho  Russian  Altai. 

The  Tannu-ola,  or  eastern  chain  of  tho  Kobdo  plateau,  stretches  far  east  of  the 
Altai  to  tho  head-streams  of  the  Selenga.  Although  some  of  its  peaks  pass  the 
snow-line,  the  Tannu-ola  is  in  many  places  but  slightly  elevated  above  the 
surrounding  plains.  From  its  base  the  plateau  stretches  for  120  miles  southwards 
to  the  Khangai  range,  above  whose  wooded  slopes  several  snowy  crests  arc  said  to 
have  an  elevation  of  10,000  feet.  Between  the  Kinghai  and  the  Altai-nuru  the 
steppe  has  a  mean  altitude  of  from  5,000  to  G,000  feet. 

"Water  System — Lakes  Ubsa  an»  Koso. 

All  tho  depressions  of  the  plateau  comprised  in  the  vast  quadrilateral  of  the 
Mongolian  Altai  are  oceupitHl  by  lacustrine  basins.  One  of  these  is  the  saline 
Ubsa- nor,  one  of  the  largest  lakes  in  the  (.'hinese  Empire,  with  an  area  of  at  least 


06 


KAHT  A.^IA. 


l.'v'IMt  sqiian'  iiiiirs,  hut  with  no  outflow,  iiltlioii^;|i  receiving  the  W!it«'rM  of  a  vast 
aiiijtliillicatn' of  liills.  The  otlirr  lakes,  also  saliiio  Iwcaust-  witliout  niiissarifH,  if 
loHM  oxtonsivo  than  tlic  in)Ma-nor,  sornctiiiu>s  lulonjj;  to  hirjj^crhydro^rrajiliir  Hysti'iiiH. 
The  riv(»r  Dsalt^aii,  risinjy  on  tlic  Miuthcrn  slope  of  the  Tannu-(»hi,  swfcps  round  the 
north-west  coriH-r  of  thr  liilly  I'h'asutai  phitcau,  and  after  ret-oivin);  its  torrents 
disa|i]H!irs  in  tlie  saline  niarslies  sontliof  the  Ihsa-nor.  To  the  same  l)asin  helon^n 
the  Kohdo  or  Kara-sM  l-ake,  wliich  receives  the  waters  of  the  Mktajf  Altai  through 
the  rivers  Kolxlo  and  Hnyantn.  The'  lower  lakes  arc  fringed  hy  poplars  and 
aspens;  lait  elsewhere  trtn^s  an*  rare,  and  the  vegetation  of  these  hilly  regions  on 
the  whole  r<'senil»les  that  of  the  steppe. 

Mast  of  tlie  Tainiu-ohi  the  Mongolian  territory  ]H-n«>trates  far  into  the  region 
draining  to  the  Aretie  ( >eean  ;  for  the  I'pper  Yenisei  and  Selenga  hasins,  which 
How  to  the  great  Silterian  rivers,  still  lu'long  to  Mongolia.  The  nomad  pastors  of  the 
"(irassy  liaiids"  naturally  songht  to  exteno  their  (himain  to  the  whole  region  of 
pasturage.  Southwards  their  natmal  limit  is  thi"  des»'rt,  northwards  the  forest. 
All  the  intermediate  zoiu',  in  whatever  direction  the  rivers  may  How,  is  frequented 
hy  their  Hocks.  Hence  they  have  occupied  all  the  "  Keiii,"  or  head-streams  of  the 
Yenisei,  Itesides  the  extensive  hasin  of  the  Selenga.  Here  is  the  loninntic  Koso- 
gol,  wh<»se  hlue  waters,  sjicre<l  in  the  eyes  of  the  Mongolian  lluddi  i  its,  reflect  the 
h)fty  crest  of  the  ^lunkn-sardik,  with  its  larch  groves,  red  escarpnii'rn,  and  diadem 
of  glaciers.  The  Koso-gol  is  not  a  closed  hasin,  like  the  lakes  of  the  Kohdo 
plateau;  for  it  discharges  its  sweet  waters  through  the  Kke-gol  to  the  Selenga. 

North-east  Mongolia,  lying  east  of  the  Selenga,  may  he  regarded  as  lx>longing 
to  the  Annn*  hasin  ;  for  the  Kemlen,  which  flows  parallel  with  the  Onon  to  the 
J)alai,  or  "  Sea,"  fornierly  united  to  the  Khuilar,  is  one  of  tho  chief  afHuentH  of  the 
Argun,  or  Upper  Anmr. 

The  Gobi  Desert. 

South  of  this  region  strctclies  the  Gobi  desert,  which,  although  crossed  by  some 
caravan  routes,  is  nowliere  permanently  inhabited.  The  Gobi — that  is,  "  Sandy 
Desert,"  or  "Shamo"  of  tlie  Chinese — forms  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  vast  zone 
of  arid  lands  obliquely  traversing  tho  eastern  hemisphere  from  Senegal  to  the 
Khingan  range.  I^ike  the  Takla-makan,  the  Western  Turkestan  sands,  the  Persian 
and  Arabian  wastes,  and  the  Sahara,  the  Gobi  lies  on  the  track  of  the  dry  winds. 
In  winter  the  prevailing  atmospheric  current  is  from  the  north-west,  which,  after 
traversing  the  Silx'rian  plains  for  a  distance  of  1,800  miles,  discharges  its  little 
remaining  moisture  on  the  Sayan  slopes,  so  that  nothing  is  left  for  the  Mongolian 
plateaux.  In  summer  the  south-east  monsoons  prevail ;  but  nearly  all  the  humidity 
brought  by  them  from  the  Pacifl;;  falls  on  the  slopes  of  the  parallel  ranges  and 
terraces  separating  China  proper  from  the  desert  plateaux.  Nevertheless  the  Gobi 
is  sometimes  visitcnl  by  heavy  summer  rains,  forming  here  and  there  temj)orury 
meres  and  lakes,  which  are  .soon  evaporated,  leaving  nothing  behind  except  a  saline 
efflorescence.  Klsewhero  the  ground  is  furrowed  by  sudden  torrents,  and  here  the 
nomads  sink  their  wells,  hoping  thus  to  husband  a  little  moisture  when  the  plateau 


TUK  QODI  VTM'A. 


07 


torn  of  11  vast 
ciiiissnrifs,  if 

ijdiic  HYHtt'inN. 
|>.H  round  the 

if  its  torrcntH 
Misin  holoiigf) 

Mtai  tliroii^h 
}M)|)lar.s  and 
y  rt'j^ioiiH  on 

o  llic  r<-p:i(>n 
Wasins,  wliicli 
pastors  of  llu> 
lolf  rojfion  of 
Is  iho  forest, 
is  frcqucntt'd 
t roams  of  the 
ninntic  Koso- 
t«,  rotloot  tlie 
,  and  dindom 
tlio  Kobdo 
:  »Solonf>;a. 
as  bolonginf!^ 
Onon  to  the 
HuontH  of  the 


ssed  by  some 
is,  "  Sandy 
the  vast  zone 
noffnl  to  the 
I,  the  Persian 
e  dry  winds, 
wliicli,  after 
p;vH  its  little 

0  Mongolian 
he  humidity 

1  ranges  and 
ess  the  Gobi 
e  temporary 
oept  a  saline 
itnd  here  the 
I  the  plateau 


has  again  bocomo  an  arid  M-asto.  Tint  no  pomianont  ^tfeott.  has  Ix  i  (h'vcli  p^'d  in 
tlio  wlmlc  rogion,  somo  ISO.OOO  wpiaro  mih's  in  i\t«'ii  -fivrchin^  im  the  Ivomlni 
Houlhwiirds  to  llio  Hoang-ho,  botwo(<n  the  Kliingtm  ><xv  and  ?  >iig(>li,tii  iimi 
east  and  west.     Tho  rapid  evaporation  on  the  (iobi  plattaiix  is  dm  to  tli.  .co 

of  tho  winter  gales  and  llio  high  tomporaturo  in  summer.  For  the  (»obi  i  t  unco 
Siberian  and  Indian  in  its  extremes  of  temperature,  and  these  extivmi  tiutcN 

Fig.  3',i.     ViBW  IS  THr  Oont 


succeed  each  other  within  the  space  of  a  few  hours.  In  the  South-eastern  Mongo- 
lian highlands  Prjovalsky  recorded  on  March  16th,  1872,  a  temperature  of 
68°  Fahr.  in  the  shade,  followed  during  the  night  by  18°  below  freezing  point. 

The  intense  cold  of  the  Mongolian  winters,  aggravated  by  the  terrible  north- 
west winds,  explains  the  errors  of  the  old  geographers,  who  gave  the  Gobi  plateau 
an  altitude  of  more  than  8,000  feet  above  the  sea.  This  has  boon  reduced  by  Ney 
Elias  and  other  recent  explorers  to  a  mean  elevation  of  about  4,000  feet,  rising  in 


m 


EAST  ASIA. 


wnni'  pliiros  fo  |,r)00  und  ovrn  "j.OOO,  Hinkiii^  in  the  lowoHt  (loprrHsioiiH,  fnrmorly 
(illnl  liy  salt  lak«'s,  t<»  ;{,(»<(()  iiikI  cvrii  V.',(iO(»  tVtl.  Notwitlistamliii^j;  llicsi-  diMTr* 
paiicicH  then-  in  litllo  ti>  n'litvi'  tlii'  iiiniKiliiiiy  i»l'  llii<  vaxf  rolling;  plains  oxiH'pt  ii 
f«'W  I'licky  cmincnci's  risinjif  Iuto  anil  lliciv  uIn>vo  \\w  iMiiiiidlfss  waste  of  yi'llow 
Hands,  For  days  and  days  tlic  (Join*  dt'snt  every  w  here  presents  to  the  weary 
traveller  the  muue  inttTininidtle  pieture  of  tlies««  vast  undnlatin^;  plains,  st-areely 
relieved  by  a  few  patehes  of  send)  and  lines  of  hilloeks  sueeeeding  cuuh  other  like 
waves  on  the  siirfaee  of  the  shoreless  deep. 

The  soil  of  the  (jolii  pro[M'r  is  almost  everywhoro  composed  of  reddish  sands 
intei'spersed  with  (juart/  pebbles,  njjates,  eoruelians,  or  chalet'dony.  The  deprcs- 
eions  are  filled  with  stdino  waters,  or  i'lHoreseenca'H  of  saltpetre,  which  the  Mongols 
call  ynchir,  and  which  the  camels  eagerly  lick  as  they  pass.  (Jrass  is  very  riiro, 
and  the  yellow,  grey,  or  reddish  soil  is  nowhere  entirely  concealed  by  the  scanty 
tufts  of  vegetation.  In  the  argillaceous  hollows  grows  the  (fiiisii  (LuHifitjrontig 
«j)/iii(lnhs'j,  a  shrub  with  twigs  luinl  as  wire,  which  is  also  a  characteristic  feature 
of  Western  Turkestan.     But  true  trees  arc  uuwhero  found  except  perhaps  in  a  fow 


3.3aoF.^ 


Fig.  40.— Ubci'ion  ok  thi  Ooiii  nKTWKSN  Uuua  and  Kaluan. 
Itineriiry  uf  Friliclio. 


Soalel  ' 
I 


in,0()O.(li)O  n>r  (liiitnnoea. 
I'tu.uuo  fur  elevutluiu. 


iMofri- 1-ff-r 


Latitude 


46* 


42* 


,  isn  Milex. 


well-sheltered  cavities.  From  Kalgan  to  Urga,  a  distance  of  over  420  miles, 
Pumpelly  met  two,  and  Russell-Killough  five  stunted  trees  only.  Elsewhere  grow 
a  few  wretched  elms,  which  the  Mongols  contemplate  with  a  sort  of  uwo,  not  daring 
even  to  touch  for  fear  of  desecrating  them.  The  wind,  even  more  than  the  natural 
barreimess  of  the  soil,  prevents  the  growth  of  any  vegetation  except  low,  pliant 
herbiige.  Withered  plants  arc  uprooted  and  scattered  by  the  gale  over  the  steppe 
like  patehes  of  foam  on  the  stormy  sea.  In  these  regions,  as  on  the  Tibetan 
plateaux,  the  only  fuel  is  the  droppings  of  the  animals,  which  are  carefully  col- 
lected, und  which  are  always  the  first  thing  supplied  on  his  orrival  in  the  canij)  to 
a  friend  or  stranger  for  his  evening  fire.     Such  are  the  laws  of  nomad  hospitality. 

The  fuunu  of  the  Gobi  is  no  more  varied  than  its  flora.  As  in  Siberia,  the 
steppe  is  often  honeycombed  with  the  burrowings  of  the  lagomys,  a  species  of  mar- 
mot no  bigger  than  a  rat,  always  inquisitive,  always  on  the  olert,  incessantly 
popping  out  of  their  luiderground  dwellings  to  see  the  ])assing  wayfarer,  and  sud- 
denly disappearing  at  his  approach.  Threatened  by  the  wolf,  fox,  and  birds  of 
prey,  they  live  in  u  state  of  constant  trepidation,  starting  at  every  shadow,  trem- 


-"T* 


TIIK  KIIIN'OAN   AM)  I\-SIIAN  FIKJIII.ANDS. 


00 


*ii»iiN,  formerly 

^  llirsf  (lift  ri>- 
)laiiis  t'Xt'cpt  a 
istc  of  yellow 
to  the  weury 
laiuM,  Mcareely 
iich  other  like 

rcddiNli  mnih 

The  (Icprcs- 

I  tlie  Mongols 

4  18  very  raro, 

by  the  seiiiity 

(^Luxitif/ronfis 
eristie  feature 
liaps  in  u  How 


liliii};  al  every  wiiiiid.  The  largest  inaiiiiiial  in  the  (ilolii  in  t\w  i/zrrni,  ur  AHfifopf 
f/iitfiinisii, an  animal  proitahly  nnsurpassfd  for  speed.  Mven  when  inoitally  woinided, 
or  with  a  liroki  II  leg,  he  will  outntrip  the  fleetest  horse,  and  siieh  is  his  teinu'ilv  of 
life  llial  unless  the  liullel  pierce  his  head,  heart,  or  spine,  he  always  escapes  capture. 
The  herd  consists  usually  of  thirty  or  forty  head,  although  they  are  oica-ionally 
nu'l  in  (locks  of  severid  hundreds,  inul  even  a  thousand.  Of  hirds  the  most  com- 
ninn  are  the  vulture,  which  follows  in  the  wake  of  the  caravan,  and  the  raven, 
which  will  holdly  perch  on  th(!  camel's  hump  aiul  draw  its  life-ltlood.  Above  the 
grii->y  steppe  hovers  tlu'  lark,  endowed  with  as  sweet  a  song  as  the  Muntpean 
Hjxries,  and  also  possessing  the  faculty  of  imitating  the  notes  of  other  songsters.  The 
reedy  marshes  aiul  lakes  harbour  multitudes  of  duck,  whi(!h  migrate  in  winter  to 
South  China. 

Till';   KltlNOAN    AM)    T\-SIIAN    HKiHtANDS. 

Eastwards  the  (jiobi  is  limited  by  uidands,  which  have  no,  yet  been  thoroughly 
explored,  but  which  are  known   to  form  a  U)ng  frontier  range  rising  above  the 


Fig.  -11.— HiilTH-EAItT   COIINKB   ()!•■    THE    MoNOOUAS    PlATEAU. 
Acooidinx  to  Fritncho.     HniUe  1  :  3,000,000. 


1-- 

■H — 


3.300  ff 
l,«50fl: 
0 


T  420  miles, 
wwherc  grow 
■0,  not  daring 
n  the  natiiral 
t  low,  pliant 
or  the  steppe 
the  Tibetan 
L'arefully  col- 
i  the  camp  to 
hospital  ity. 
I  Siberia,  the 
jcies  of  mar- 
,  incessantly 
rer,  and  sud- 
md  birds  of 
ludow,  trem- 


>  CO  Milei. 


Manchurian  plains,  and  the  lower  steppe  lands  commonly  called  the  East,  or  Little 
Gobi.  This  is  the  Khingan  chain,  which  stretches  northwards  to  the  Argun 
(Amur),  and  which  deflects  this  river  towards  the  parallel  Stanovoi  ranges,  Accord- 
inar  to  Fritsche  none  of  the  crests  exceed  8,300  feet,  thus  falling  short  of  the  snow- 
line.    In  the  lost  century  the  mis.'^Ionaries  Gerbiilon  and  Verbiest  had  spoken  of 


100 


EAST  ASIA. 


tlio  I'ccliii,  a  mountain  mass  sonio  15,000  feet  high,  forming  the  southern  limit  of 
tlio  Kliingaii  system.  l?ut  Fritsehc  and  rrjovalsky  have  shown  that  in  this 
seetiou  there  are  nothing  hut  low  eminences,  while  the  highest  peak  is  only  0,900 
feet  above  the  sea,  or  scarcely  more  than  1,500  or  1,000  feet  above  the  Gobi  steppes. 
On  its  western  slopes  the  Khingan  consists  of  rounded  treeless  crests,  but  on  the 
opposite  side  there  are  many  green  upland  valleys,  especially  towards  the  south- 
east extremity  of  the  plateau. 

The  gneiss  and  lava  ranges  bounding  the  Gobi  north  of  Peking  are  continued 
under  various  Mongol  and  Chinese  names  south-westwards,  skirting  the  valley  of 
the  Hoang-ho  along  the  northernmost  section  of  its  course.  Collectively  known  as 
the  Tn-shan,  tliis  system  terminates  in  the  saline  Alu-shan  wastes  to  the  north- 
west of  the  great  bend  of  the  Yellow  River.  Here  the  granite,  gneiss,  and  por- 
phyry crests  rise  to  heights  of  from  0,000  to  9,000  feet,  and  the  polisiie<l  surface  of 
many  betrays  the  former  presence  of  glaciers.  These  highlands  are  distinguished 
from  most  of  the  Mongolian  ranges  by  their  copious  streams  and  rich  vegetation. 
The  Yellow  Sea,  which  penetrates  through  the  Gulf  of  Pechili  far  inland,  sends  to 
the  In-shan  Mountains  sufficient  moisture  to  clothe  them  in  a  green  mantle  of 
herbage,  shrubs,  and  even  forest  trees.  Here  flourish  the  hazel,  the  eglantine, 
wild  peach,  aspon,  birch,  maple,  elder,  elm,  sorb,  and  wild  plum.  But  the  Chinese 
have  in  some  })laces  completely  disafforested  the  slopes,  and  in  many  valleys 
nothing  is  now  to  be  seen  except  a  few  scattered  and  withered  trunks. 


m 


jii 
m 


The  Ordos  Plateau  axh  Ala-siian  Uplands. 

Large  herds  of  antelopes  frequent  the  In-shun  pastures,  especially  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  Buddhist  monasteries ;  for  the  Mongol  lamas,  like  those  of  Tibet, 
forbid  the  killing  of  these  animals.  Amongst  them  is  also  found  a  species  of  the 
argali,  or  mountain  sheep,  and  the  tiger  and  panther  are  said  still  to  haunt  the 
lu-shan  valleys.  South  of  this  range  the  great  bend  of  the  Hoango-ho  encloses 
what  must  be  regarded  as  a  detached  fragment  of  Mongolia  ;  for  the  Ordos  plateau 
still  belongs  physically  and  ethnically  to  the  same  natural  region  as  the  Gobi, 
although  separated  from  it  by  the  broad  valley  of  the  Yellow  River,  with  its  fertile 
plains  and  Chinese  towns.  This  tableland,  which  has  a  mean  elevation  of  about 
.'J,500  miles,  forms  a  quadrilateral  of  over  40,000  square  miles,  bounded  on  three 
sides  by  the  Tloang-ho,  and  on  the  south  by  mountain  ranges  whose  southern  slopes 
belong  to  China  proper.  The  soil,  far  more  arid  than  that  of  Mongolia  itself,  consists 
nearly  everywhere  of  sand  or  clay  charged  with  m\t,  and  quite  unsuited  for  cultiva- 
tion. Immediately  south  of  the  Ilcang-ho  valley  the  surface  is  intersected  by  low 
dunes,  mostly  from  40  to  50  feet  high,  of  a  uniform  yellowish  colour,  relieved 
hero  and  there  by  a  few  green  oases,  and  animated  only  by  the  grey  or  yellow 
lizards,  which  are  scarcely  distinguishable  from  the  surrounding  sands.  Towards 
the  centre  of  the  plateau  the  Babsun-nor  morass  forms  a  vast  deposit  of  salt 
mingled  with  a  nitrous  efflorescence,  and  encircled  by  low  hills.  As  in  the  Kash- 
garian  deserts,  the  very  air  in  these  frightful  solitudes  is  fidl  of  awe-inspiring 


r^F>53S^PaR->'i.vr^Sl3-3SS'S??5P-' -  ■  - 


-Twrrjf^y^-^f"' 


THE  ORDOS  PLATEAU  AND  ALA-SIIAN  UPLANDS. 


101 


ithcrn  limit  of 
1   that   in  this 
I  is  only  0,9G0 
Gol)i  stcppoa. 
sts,  hilt  on  the 
"(Is  the  south- 
lire  continued 
the  valley  of 
vely  known  as 
to  the  north- 
eiss,  and  per- 
iled surface  of 
distinguished 
cli  vegetation, 
iland,  sends  to 
een  mantle  of 
the  eglantine, 
it  the  Chinese 
many  valleys 


'cially  in  the 
lose  of  Tibet, 
species  of  the 
to  haunt  the 
:o-ho  encloses 
Ordos  plateau 
as  the  Gobi, 
ith  its  fertile 
tion  of  about 
ided  on  three 
uthern  slopes 
itself,  consists 
d  for  cultiva- 
sected  by  low 
our,  relieved 
■ey  or  yellow 
Is.  Towards 
>l)08it  of  salt 
in  the  Kash- 
iwe-inspiring 


sounds,  associated  in  the  popular  fancy  with  the  massacres  of  Jenghiz  Khan,  who 
is  supposed  to  have  died  here,  and  to  now  lie  buried  in  a  silver  and  wooden  coffin 
somewhere  under  a  yellow  silk  tent.  At  a  respectful  distance  from  the  spot  are 
also  intcrrcfl  the  various  members  of  his  family,  and  a  horse  and  sheep  are  said  to 
be  still  sacrificed  every  evening  to  the  shades  of  the  mighty  conqueit)r. 

Some  20  miles  south  of  the  Iloang-ho  the  ruins  are  visible  of  a  city  now 
buried  in  the  sands,  whose  ramparts  were  5  miles  long  both  ways,  and  about  50  feet 
thick.  At  present  most  of  the  land  beyond  the  river  valley  is  a  complete  solitude, 
and  the  Dungan  rebels  have  even  destroyed  the  encampments  of  the  Ordos  Mongols. 
The  very  cattle  have  again  run  wild,  losing  the  dull,  heavy  air  acquired  in  the 
domestic  state,  and  assuming  the  habits  of  a  free  life.  In  two  or  three  years  the 
change  was  complete,  and  at  the  approach  of  man  these  animals  take  to  flight  like 
wild  beasts.  Camels  and  horses  also  roam  in  herds  over  the  steppe,  but  all  the 
sheep  have  been  devoured  by  the  wolves.  In  1871,  when  ^rje^•alsky  explored 
the  country,  its  only  visitors  were  u  few  traders,  who  came  in  search  of  the  liquorice 
plant,  characteristic  of  this  region. 

Near  the  right  bank  of  the  Iloang-ho,  where  it  flows  northwards,  a  range  of 
hills  gradually  increasing  in  elevation  attains  towards  its  southern  extremity  the 
proportion  of  true  mountains.  This  range,  known  as  the  Arbuz-ola,  is  continued 
on  the  other  side  of  the  river  by  the  loftier  chain  of  the  ^Vla-shan,  whose  highest 
summits,  the  Dzumbur  and  Bugutu,  10,000  and  11,000  feet  respectively,  still  fall 
short  of  the  snow-line.  Both  sides  of  the  Ala-shan  are  fringed  by  a  narrow  strip 
of  verdure,  watered  by  the  rivulets  flowing  from  its  slopes.  But  its  flora  is  very 
poor,  although  the  uplands  are  here  and  there  clothed  with  forests  of  pines,  spruce, 
willows,  and  aspens,  the  resort  of  the  deer,  musk  deer,  and  ibex. 

Beyond  the  Yellow  River  the  sands  of  the  Ordos  country  are  continued  west- 
wards by  a  still  more  barren  and  desolate  region.  Its  fierce  sand-storms,  combined 
with  the  absence  of  water  and  herbage,  render  this  one  of  the  most  inhospitable 
sections  of  the  Gobi.  This  Trans-Ordos  steppe  stretches  uninterruptedly  between 
the  southern  spurs  of  the  In-shan  and  the  northern  extremity  of  the  Ala-shan  as 
far  as  the  Az-sind  River  and  the  plains  of  the  Mongolian  Kansu.  For  a  stretch  of 
some  300  miles  the  eye  lights  on  nothing  but  sandy  and  gravellj'  wastes,  or  saline 
clays  overgrown  with  the  hardy  saksaul  and  thorny  sulkhir  (^f/rj'o/>//////H/«  (johicum), 
the  latter  yielding  a  small  grain  from  which  the  Mongols  make  a  sort  of  flour. 
Here  the  lowest  depression  is  occupied  by  the  Jaratai-dabasu  lake  bed,  which  has  a 
circumference  of  30  miles,  and  is  everywhere  incrustetl  by  a  layer  of  pure  salt  from 
2  to  6  feet  thick.  "  The  sparkling  surface  of  the  Jaratai-dabasu  appears  like  water  in 
the  distance,  and  resembles  ice  when  you  are  near  it.  So  deceptive  is  its  appear- 
ance that  a  flock  of  swans,  apparently  attracted  by  the  sight  of  water  in  the  desert, 
descended  before  our  very  eyes  almost  to  the  surface  of  the  false  lake,  but  discover- 
ing their  mistake,  rose  again  in  the  air  with  affrighted  cry,  and  continued  their 
flight." — Prjevalsky. 


102 


EAST  ASIA. 


TnK  Gkkat  W.\m„ 

Tho  lumlor-line  botwoon  ^loiijfoliu  and  Cliiiui  proper  was  formerly  indicatwl  by 
the  (ireat  Wall,  wliieh,  iiielii(lin<>;  all  its  win(lin<>:s  and  the  double  and  triple  lines 
erected  at  some  jMiints,  has  a  total  len<i[th  of  about  *i,000  miles.  Allowing  a  mean 
heijrht  of  no  more  than  20  feet  and  a  width  of  20  feet,  this  prodigious  structure 
will  represent  a  solid  mass  of  sonio  4,000  million  cubic  feet  of  nuisonry.  Those 
who  assert  that  the  Great  Wall  was  of  no  more  practical  use  than  the  pyramids  of 

Fig.  42.— The  UiuiAT  Wall.    View  taken  at  the  Nankow  Pass. 


Eg\7>t  forget  that  for  many  centuries  it  served  to  arrest  the  military  expeditions 
of  the  lliungnii.  ancestors  of  the  present  Mongolians.  Tlio  sentinels  mounting 
guard  on  the  towers  erected  at  intervals  along  the  ramparts  gave  timely  warning 
of  the  enemy's  approach,  while  all  the  natural  passages  were  guarded  by  encamp- 
ments. Every  gate  hud  its  little  garris(»ii,  around  which  towns  sfton  sprang  up, 
serving  as  market-places  for  the  surroiuiding  populations.     Sheltei'cd  behhid  these 


^MM^miiLMUVi.jyjqp-i 


INHABITANTS-THE  MONGOLIANS. 


108 


y  indicufp(l  by 
lul  triple  lines 
owing  II  mean 
ious  structure 
(onry.  Those 
0  pyramids  of 


>i^^i 


expeditions 
Is  mounting 
ely  wurniug 
by  oncamp- 
I  sprang  up, 
jehind  these 


barriers,  the  Chinese  were  able  to  develojj  their  national  unity,  and  concentrate 
their  energies,  in  on  r  henceforth  to  enter  into  continuous  relations  with  the 
Western  world.  When  the  "  wall  of  10,000  li,"  forced  at  last  by  Jenghiz  Khan, 
thus  lost  all  further  strategic  importance,  it  had  at  least  already  protected  the 
empire  for  a  period  of  fourteen  hundred  years. 

In  its  present  condition  the  Great  Wall  belongs  to  various  epochs.  In  the 
severe  Mongolian  climate,  with  its  sudden  and  violent  transitions  of  temperature,  a 
very  few  years  suffice  to  crumble  most  ordinary  buildings,  and  it  may  be  doubted 
whether  any  portion  of  Shi  Iloangti's  original  work  still  survives.  Nearly  all  the 
eastern  section  from  Ordos  to  the  Yellow  Sea  was  rebuilt  in  the  fifth  century,  and 
the  double  rampart  along  the  north-west  frontier  of  the  plains  of  Peking  was  twice 
restored  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries.  With  the  changes  of  dynasties 
and  the  vicissitudes  of  frontier  wars,  the  lines  themselves  were  modified,  ^wrtions 
being  abandoned  in  one  place,  consolidated  in  another.  Thus  is  explained  the 
great  difference  in  the  style  and  workmanship  at  various  points.  North  of  Peking 
it  is  still  in  a  state  of  perfect  repair,  whereas  in  many  western  districts  along  the 
Gobi  frontier  it  is  little  more  than  an  earthen  rampart,  while  for  considerable 
distances  all  vestiges  of  the  wall  have  disappeared.  Similar  structures  in  the 
Tmnsbaikal  region  north  of  Mongolia,  traditionally  referred  to  Jenghiz  Khan, 
still  recall  the  perennial  struggles  between  the  agricultural  populations  and  their 
nomad  neighbours. 

IxiIAUITAXTS — ^ThE   MONGOLIANS. 

The  Mongolians,  against  whom  the  Chinese  were  fain  at  one  time  to  protect 
themselves  by  such  vast  barriers,  are  a  people  without  any  national  cohesion. 
Conquerors  may  have  occasionally  united  them  in  a  single  army ;  but  on  their 
return  to  the  stt^ppe  they  again  broke  up  into  tribal  divisions.  Thanks  to  the 
intestine  feuds  maintained  between  these  sections  of  the  race,  the  Chinese  have 
been  enabled  to  triumph  over  the  Khalkhas,  Eliuts,  and  Zungars,  while  the 
Buriats  and  Kalmuks  fell  a  prey  to  the  Russians.  The  very  name  of  Mongol  was 
applied  during  the  two  centuries  of  their  political  supremacy  to  all  the  different 
races  who  took  part  in  the  conquests  of  Jenghiz  Ehan  and  his  successors, 
penetrating  on  the  one  hand  into  the  Chinese  Empire,  on  the  other  into  the  heart  of 
Europe.  Even  after  the  extinction  of  the  family  of  Jenghiz  the  vast  empire  of 
Tiraur  was  still  attributed  to  the  Mongolians,  although  it  really  represented  the 
reaction  of  tl  e  Western  Asiatic  world  against  the  East.  Later  on  the  title  of  "  Great 
Mogul "  was  extended  to  Baber  and  his  successors  on  the  throne  of  Delhi,  although 
they  had  no  longer  any  Mongol  warriors  in  their  armies.  I'ride  in  a  remote 
descent  from  the  great  conqueror  was  the  only  claim  to  the  title.  The  Zungarian 
Empire,  founded  towards  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  was  on  the  other 
hand  really  of  Mongol  origin ;  but  it  nowhere  stretched  beyond  the  Central 
Asiatic  plains  and  plateaux. 

In  mediajval  times  the  Mongols  wore  confused  with  the  Tatars,  or  Tatas,  a 
feeble  tribe,  in  the  twelfth  century  occupying  the  In-shan  valleys,  but  which,  in  the 


104 


EAST  ASIA. 


chaos  of  conflicting  elements,  contrived  to  give  its  name  to  Mongols,  Manchus, 
Turks,  and  to  all  the  warlike  nomad  peoples  of  Asia  and  East  Europe.  Neithei- 
Jenghi/  nor  any  of  his  people  took  pride  in  this  name  of  Tatar,  which  helonged 
ori<nnallv  to  an  obscure  section  of  one  of  the  seven  ilongolian  nations.  The  title 
of  honour  assumed  by  them  was  thut  of  Blue  Mongols,  •'  because  uzure  is  the 
sacred  colour  of  heaven,"  and  they  were  themselves  the  masters  of  the  earth.  But 
the  world-wide  fume  of  the  Tatars  was  due  to  the  fact  that  they  generally  formed 
the  van  of  the  Mongol  invasions,  while  the  name  itself  suggested  a  mythological 

Fig.  411.— MoNooi.  Invasions  and  Cosuueht»  ok  tiieiu  Successorb, 

KciilD  1  :  90,000,030. 


oFG.       50 


100* 


E51 


m 


<? 


SluiiKul  Knipire.        Kmplre  of  the  Great  Mogul.       Eitipiie  of 'I'umerlam 
__^^^_ii^.^^_  1.800  MUes. 


'^^'i 


play  of  words  with  the  Tartarus  of  classic  writers.  "  Let  us  be  consoled,"  said 
St.  Louis  of  Franco ;  "  for  if  they  come  hither  we  will  hurl  them  back  to  the 
Tartarus  whencse  they  came,  or  else  they  will  send  all  of  us  to  heaven  I "  At 
present  the  term  is  no  longer  applied,  except  in  the  vaguest  way,  to  the  Mongols 
proper  or  th(>ir  Manchu  neighbours,  and  is  now  restricted  to  the  peoples  of  Turki 
stock,  although  nowhere  acknowleged  or  adopted  by  them. 

Before  the  period  of  their  ccmquests  the  Mongolian  tribes  were  restrictetl  to  the 
northern  and  eastern  ])ortions  of  the  vast  region  now  known  l)y  the  general  namo 
of  Mongolia.     Here  all  the  streams  and  lakes  are  worshipped  as  gods,  and  legends 


-!«i'"nH^>f"»'';w  yytP-' "  Miw^'iBfji 


INHABITANTS— THE  MONGOLIANS. 


106 


!;ols,  Munt'hus, 
ope.  Ncitlier 
[lich  bclonjrod 
ris.  The  title 
!  uzure  is  the 
e  earth.  But 
lerully  formed 
mythological 


nsolcd,"  said 
back  to  the 
aven!"  At 
the  Mongols 
les  of  Turki 

rioted  to  the 
■eneral  naino 
and  legends 


are  assoeiuted  with  every  moimtuin,  which  always  bears  the  title  of  Khan,  or  king. 
The  extreme  north-east  corner  of  this  domain  is  now  occupied  by  tht  Manchu 
Solons  and  other  Mongol  tribes,  which  are  more  or  less  mixed  with  foreign 
elements,  and  which  furnish  numerous  recruits  for  the  military  colonies  founded  by 
the  Chinese  in  the  western  regions  of  the  empire.  The  Khalkhas,  so  named,  like 
the  Mongols  themselves,  from  one  of  their  ancient  chiefs,  are  mainly  concentrated 
in  the  northern  steppes  near  the  kindred  Buriats,  now  subject  to  Russia.  The 
eight  tribes  of  the  Tsakhars  occupy  the  south-eastern  steppes  towards  China,  and 
these  the  Imperial  Government  has  specially  intrusted  with  the  defence  of  the 
frontiers  against  the  Northern  Mongols.  The  Ordos,  now  almost  extinct,  dwelt  in 
the  fluvial  peninsula  named  from  them,  and  farther  west  are  the  Eliuts,  more  or 
leas  mixed  with  Turki  elements,  and  embracing  the  Kalmuk  hordes  of  the  Altai 

Fig.  44.— Inhabitants  of  Mongolia. 
Scale  1  :  S3.O0O.00O. 


.  600  Miles. 


and  Tian-shan.      Lastly,  in  the  Upper  Yenisei  basin,  the  Turki  Dorkhats  and 

Donvas,  or  Urianhai,  have  been  largely  assimilated  to  the   Mongolians.      In  a 

general  way  the  race  is  divided  into  Khalkhas,  or  Eastern,  Eliuts,  or  Western,  and 

Buriats,   or    Siberian   Mongolians.      But   the   only  real   division  is  that  of   the 

Khoshun,  or  "  Banners,"  and  according  to  the  vicissitudes  of  wars  and  alliances 

the  tribes  of  the  various  Banners  combine  in  more  or  less  powerful  confederacies. 

The  national  type  seems  to  have  been  best  preserved  amongst  the  Khalkhas, 

who  also  claim  a  certain  superiority  over  the  other  branches  on  the  ground  that 

amongst  them  are  the  families  of  the  Tuitsi,  descendants  of  Jenghiz  Khan.     Yet 

the   Khalkha   least   resembles   the   typical   Mongol  type,  as  described  by  most 

ethnologists.      He   is   rather  brown  than  yellow,   with   open   eyes,  not   inclined 

obliquely,  like  those  of  the  Chinese  or  Ostiaks.     He  has,  however,   the  broad  flat 
40 


'Igg^p; 


100 


EAST  ASIA. 


f«'iitun>8,  proniiiu'iit  cluH'k  boiics,  black  huir,  and  Hcunt  Ijoard  usually  doHcribed  an 
distinctive  charactpriMtics  of  the  type. 

The  M()n}>;(»ls  an'  <i[enerally  of  middle  si/e,  with  Htrong  const itutions,  capable  of 
rosistin};  the  extremes  of  temperature,  and  enduring  hardships  which  would  kill 
most  i'iUropeans.  IJut  although  they  will  remain  for  fifteen  hours  in  the  saddle 
without  a  murmur,  they  will  complain  of  having  to  walk  100  yards  from  their 
tent,  for  they  are  unaecustonu'd  to  walking,  and  even  feel  ashamed  to  be  scon  on 
foot.  Hence  they  despise  the  dance  and  all  f(M)t  exercises,  but  display  cxtra- 
onlinary  skill  in  every  kind  of  horsemanshij).  They  are  excesHively  fond  of  racing, 
in  which  yoimg  and  old  all  take  part.  At  the  races  held  in  honour  of  the  birth  »)f 
a  Mongol  Ituddha  in  ild'-i  no  less  than  'AJ'-V-i  riders  c(»mpete<l  for  the  prize. 

It  is  surprising  that  such  u  hardy  race,  descendants  of  the  conijuerors  of  Asia, 
should  have  so  completely  lost  :dl  political  influence  in  the  Old  World.  As  a 
nation  they  have  even  become  jM)ltroons,  and  recently  thousands  might  have  been 
seen  flying  in  disorder  bt>fore  the  undisciplined  bands  of  Dungan  rebels,  whose 
courag(»  was  largely  inspired  by  the  terror  of  the  foe.  Subtlued,  dismembered,  and 
disorganized,  the  nation  feels  its  weakness.  How  different  the  craven  attitude  of 
the  present  nomads  towards  European  travellers  crossing  the  steppe  from  the 
haughty  bearing  of  Kuyuk  Khan,  who  in  reply  to  the  I'ope's  legate,  J(»hn  du  Plan 
Carpin,  pnu-laimed  himself  the  avenging  instrument  of  God  I  "  I  have  the  right  to 
kill  you,"  he  a(Me<l,  "  since  you  resist  my  will ;  and  the  proof  of  my  right  is  my 
might.  Think  you  I,  a  man,  would  have  the  strength  to  do  these  things  if  God 
had  not  lent  me  His  arm?"  IJefore  Carlyle  and  other  modern  theorists  these 
Asiatic  rulers  of  men  had  diseoveretl  the  formula  of  might. 

At  the  same  time  the  energy  formerly  displayed  by  the  Mongol  race  was  due 
not  only  to  their  personal  bravery,  discipline,  and  warlike  spirit,  but  also  to  their 
natural  love  of  eipiity  and  to  the  progress  they  had  already  made  in  social  cxdture. 
For  tlu^y  were  by  no  means  the  barbarians  pictured  in  the  medioL'val  chronicles. 
They  had,  in  the  first  ])lace,  the  grand  privilege  of  iK'ing  far  more  free  than  most 
of  the  peoples  subdued  by  them.  According  to  their  Yassak,  or  legal  code,  they 
gathered  once  a  year  for  the  tho'i,  or  great  feast,  when  the  princes  appeared  before 
the  assembled  midtitude  to  Iw  questioned,  reproved,  and  even  deposed  for  the  wrongs 
committed  by  them  in  the  exercise  of  their  jx)wers.  The  conquered  nations  were 
themselves  treated  with  far  more  consideration  than  the  Mohammedans  or  Chris- 
tians were  at  that  time  wont  to  show  towards  the  peoples  subdued  by  them.  "  The 
empire  has  l)een  acquired  on  horseback,"  said  a  minister  to  Jenghiz  Khan,  "  but 
it  cannot  be  governed  on  horseback."  The  Mongcjl  sovereigns  displayed  a  high 
sense  of  justice  in  adjudicating  between  their  subjects  of  all  races  and  languages, 
and  amongst  those  who  received  lands  free  of  imposts  every  nationality  in  the 
empire  was  represented.  The  Mongols  also  showc<l  a  degree  of  religious  toleration, 
at  once  the  amazement  and  reproach  of  the  Catholic  missionaries.  Mohammedans 
and  (Christians  were  among  the  friends  and  advisers  of  the  Khans,  and  sucli  names 
as  John,  Nicholas,  George,  and  Mark  occur  in  the  lists  of  the  imperial  magnates. 

Exhausted  by  their  struggles,  morally  debased  by  the  ferocity  of  warfare,  the 


INHABITANTS— THE  MONGOLIANS. 


107 


ly  doHcribod  us 

xms,  oiiimlile  of 
liich  would  kill 

ill  the  suddU' 
idH  from  their 
to  1)0  scon  on 

display  cxtro- 
fond  of  racing, 
of  the  birth  oi 
0  prize. 

jerors  of  Asiu, 
World.  As  tt 
iijj;ht  have  been 
n  rebels,  whose 
iineinbered,  and 
ven  attitude  of 
eppo  from  the 
',  John  du  Plan 
ive  the  right  to 
my  right  is  my 
p  things  if  God 

theorists  these 

d1  race  was  due 
Lit  also  to  their 

social  culture. 

.'val  chronicles. 

free  than  most 

pgal  code,  they 

pi)eared  before 

f«)r  the  wrongs 
'd  nations  were 
cdans  or  Chris- 
y  them.  "  The 
liz  Khan,  "  but 
splayed  a  high 
and  languages, 
ionality  in  the 
;ious  toleration, 
^lohammedans 
md  such  names 
ial  magnates, 
of  warfare,  the 


Mongols  soon  relapsed  into  barbarism.  Most  of  them  have  doubtless  still  the  same 
sense  of  right,  the  same  kindly  feeling  for  strangers  and  heartiness  for  their  eqiuds. 
whom  they  always  address  as  "comnides."  But  they  have  become  extremely 
indolent,  while  their  filthy  habits  and  disgusting  gluttony  bafHe  all  description. 
They  luive  allowed  slavery  to  take  root  in  their  social  system,  and  many  families 
descended  from  prisoners  of  war  are  condemned  to  tend  the  flocks  of  the  Khans, 
who  claim  the  power  of  life  and  death  over  tliem.  However,  the  pasture  lands 
have  not  yet  been  divide<l,  and  still  belong  to  all,  like  the  air  we  breathe  and  the 
water  of  the  lakes  and  running  streams.  At  the  same  tinu>  an  abstract  right  to 
the  use  of  the  land  can  be  of  little  consequence  to  those  who  own  no  flocks  or  herds, 
and  the  nobles  and  lamas,  to  whom  the  live  stock  belongs,  are  ipso  facto  the  pro- 
prietors of  the  soil.  The  high  priest  of  Urga  alone  possesses  a  domain  peopled  by 
one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  of  his  slaves. 

Few  of  the  Mongols  have  turned  to  the  cultivation  of  the  land,  nearly  all  being 
still  exclusively  occupied  with  their  herds  of  camels,  horses,  and  cattle,  and  their 
flocks,  mostly  of  fat-tailed  sheep.  When  they  meet  the  flrst  question  turns  on 
their  live  stock,  more  important  in  their  eyes  than  the  family  itself.  They  cannot 
understand  that  there  can  be  any  human  beings  so  forsaken  of  heaven  as  not  to 
possess  domestic  animals,  and  receive  with  incredulity  the  assurances  of  the  Rus- 
sian travellers  that  they  own  neither  sheep  nor  camels.  All  the  woik  falls  on  the 
women  and  children,  who  not  only  tend  the  herds,  but  also  manufacture  the  houf ')- 
hold  utensils,  saddles,  arms,  embroidered  robes,  tc  t  felts,  camel-hair  cordage,  and 
other  articles  of  camp  life.  From  the  Chinese  and  Russians  they  procure  all  the 
provisions  and  other  supplies  they  require.  Tea  especially  is  indispensable  to  them, 
for  they  never  drink  cold  water,  to  which  they  even  attribute  a  malignant  influ- 
ence. Besides  tea  they  also  drink  kumis,  mare's  milk,  and  too  often  the  vile 
brandies  supplied  to  them  by  the  Russians.  Their  diet  consists  almost  exclusively 
of  nmtton,  camel,  and  horse  flesh,  varied  with  a  sort  of  paste  or  dough ;  but  the 
flesh  of  birds  and  fish  is  by  most  held  in  special  abhorrence. 

The  Mongol  speech,  which  belongs  to  the  Ural-Altaic  family,  and  which  has  a 
large  number  of  roots  in  common  with  the  Turki  branch  of  that  family,  is  sjroken 
with  considerable  dialectic  variety  by  the  Khalkhas,  Buriats,  and  Eliuts,  who  are 
not  always  able  to  converse  together.  Many  foreign  elements  have  everywhere 
crept  in,  and  the  pure  national  speech  has  been  much  corrupted  by  contact  with 
the  Chinese,  Manchus,  Tibetans,  and  Turki  tribes  on  the  frontiers.  Over  two 
thousand  years  ago  it  was  reduced  to  writing,  at  that  time  employing  the  Chinese 
ideographic  characters,  which  were  supplanted  at  the  beginning  of  the  tenth  cen- 
tury by  an  alphabetical  system.  This  was  again  changed  in  the  twelfth  century 
for  another  style,  employed  to  translate  the  Chinese  classical  works.  Unfortunately 
all  these  works  have  perished,  and  the  very  characters  in  which  they  were  written 
have  been  completely  forgotten.  During  the  period  of  conquest  the  Mongols  adopted 
the  alphabet  of  the  Uigur  Turks,  but  a  national  system  invented  in  1269  by  a  lama, 
honoured  by  the  title  of  "  King  of  the  Faith,"  finally  prevailed.  The  Mongols 
write  with  a  pencil  on  wooden  tablets  painted  black  and  powdered  with  sand  or  ashes. 


51 


EAST  ASIA. 

Tlio  Iitlll-^'!(■aI  worlcM  uro  written  in  Kmrhak,  or  TilK'fun,  \\w  y^^wrv^\  lan<;uafj[<>  (if 
tin*  Monp)lians  since  their  conversion  to  Kuthliiisni.  Ilenee  tlie  priests,  wlio  wish 
to  know  something:  more  of  their  r*<ii^:ion  than  the  outward  form,  are  ohli^tHl  to 
Htii<lv  TilK'fan  ;  yet  those  whose  knowh><i^e  is  limited  to  the  reading  of  tlie  saeretl 
volumes  liave  all  the  more  veneration  for  the  text  that  they  do  not  understand  its 
meaninjj;.  Tiie  Kalmuk  lanuis  liave  sometimes  paid  as  much  us  i''J,(KM)  for  the 
Kanjur  and  Tanjur,  and  the  Siberian  Huriats  have  ^iven  Hcvcn  thousand  oxen  for 
a  siiiffle  copy  (»f  the  Kanjur. 

Til>et  is  the  "  |[oly  Land"  of  the  ^fon^dians,  who  regard  the  Dalai-lamu  as 
of  superior  divinity  to  tlieir  own  Taranath-iania,  or  Jetstm-tampa.  Nevertheless 
the  latter  is  also  a  liiirhlidu,  or  "  livinj^  lluddha,"  who  under  divers  forms  is  suj)- 
jjose»l  t()  have  sueeeiMUMl  to  liimstdf  sin<'e  the  mithlle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  if  not 
from  a  more  remote  periml.  At  each  apparent  (h>ath  he  is  recjuired  to  renew  hin>- 
self  in  Til)et,  whither  a  solemn  end)assy  sets  «»ut  to  recover  him  iu  the  f<»nn  of  an 
infant.  Formerly  the  Mongolian  i)ontiif  residwl  at  Kuku-khoto,  near  the  Cliinesu 
frontier,  hut,  having  lu'en  assassinattnl  in  eonset|uenee  of  a  dispute  about  pro- 
eminence  with  tlie  l"'imi)oror  Kan^-hi,  he  was  ordered  by  imperial  decree  to  got 
born  again  at  Trga,  in  North  >[ongolia.  Since  that  time  the  names  of  the  Huddhuti 
eh'ct  must  1mi  Hrst  submitt«Hl  to  the  Foreign  ()tfi<'c  at  Peking. 

The  chief  Mongolian  divinities,  like  those  r*'  Tilwt,  are  of  Hindu  origin,  but 
some  are  also  of  national  descent.  Nor  are  those  the  least  venerated,  although 
occupying  a  lower  rank  in  the  M(»ngol  pantheon.  Such,  for  instance,  is  Yaman- 
dag,  or  "  (jioat  Face,"  tigureil  with  the  head  of  u  goat  or  else  of  an  ox,  wearing  a 
coronet  of  human  skidls,  vomiting  flames,  and  in  his  twenty  hands  grasping  human 
limbs  or  instruments  of  torture.  lie  is  painte<l  a  deep  blue,  and  his  wife  a  light 
blue,  lik«'  the  colours  of  the  Oxfonl  and  Camhridge  rival  Imating  factions. 

The  Mongols  arc  aninuited  by  great  religious  zeal,  spariiig  themselves  no  hard- 
ships and  submitting  to  the  severest  penances  to  obtain  remission  of  their  sins. 
Some  have  l)een  known  to  make  the  round  of  the  lamussarios,  measuring  their 
length  ot  every  stop  in  the  dust  or  mud.  The  best  of  their  incomes  goes  to  the 
lamas,  and  the  temples  and  monasteries  everywhere  bear  witness  to  the  boundless 
generosity  of  the  faithful.  When  the  lamas  go  the  rounds  collecting  alms  in 
the  name  of  the  "  Old  Huddhu  "  they  are  always  well  roi'oived,  and  they  soon 
return  followed  by  pack  animals  laden  with  gifts  and  contributions  for  the  building 
of  the  temples.  The  priests  are  the  true  nnisters  of  the  land,  ond  th(»y  form  the 
only  class  living  in  comfort  without  the  necessity  of  working  for  their  daily  bread. 
Hence  the  projMjrtion  of  clergy  to  the  rest  of  the  pr»pulation  is  fur  greater  than  in 
any  other  country,  not  even  excepting  Tilwt.  One-third  is  said  to  consist  of 
lamas,  or  "  white  men  " — that  is,  shaven — and  there  is  scarcely  a  family  that  is  not 
represented  by  one  or  more  of  its  nicn'.(H>r8  in  the  lamassjirios.  Nowhere  else  are 
the  outward  forms  of  religion  more  scrupulously  observed,  and  even  the  Chinese  of 
the  frontier,  when  retailing  their  adulterated  wares  at  short  measure,  do  not  for- 
get to  wrap  the  parcels  in  paper  bearing  the  sacred  formula,  Otn  mani  padme  hum. 
The  Chinese  Government,  which  pays  little  heed  to  ils  own  bonzes,  protects  the 


i-i5*ri=3^. 


INIIABITANT8-TI1K  MONaOLlAXa. 


109 


'd  laiif;»iiff(>  of 

icHts,  who  wish 

arc  ohli^tnl  to 

r  of    the  MlKTOtl 

ini(lei'stan<l  its 
£",',000  for  the 
UHanil  oxen  for 

Dahii-hiina  an 

Neverthc^less 

H  forms  i8  MUp- 

ceiitury,  if  ""t 

to  renew  hiin- 
the  form  of  an 
mr  the  Chinese 
ite  about  pre- 
,  decree  to  get 
[)f  the  Huddhas 

iidu  ori};in,  but 
rated,  although 
nee,  is  Yaman- 
11  ox,  wearing  a 
[rasping  human 
his  wife  a  light 
ft  ions. 

iselves  no  hard- 
1  of  their  sins, 
acasuring  their 
tncs  goes  to  the 

0  the  boundless 
iccting  alms  in 
and  they  soon 
'or  the  building 

1  they  form  the 
eir  daily  bread, 
greater  than  in 
1  to  consist  of 
mily  that  is  not 
owhere  else  are 

the  Chinese  of 
ire,  do  not  for- 
atii  padme  hum. 
Bs,  protects  the 


M<mgolinn  lamaism  by  guaranteeing  a  cevttiin  n'venue  to  most  of  the  moiiaxicries. 
Its  constant  policy  has  Iwcii  to  increase  tlie  priestly  order,  in  order  thereby  to 
diminish  the  iiiittiral  growth  of  the  population,  and  replace  by  ])oaccful  comiiui- 
nities  the  ohi  encampments  of  its  hereditary  enemies.  Mcvcrlhelcss  the  national 
halrinl  still  smoulders,  fomented  by  social  dilfcrences  and  conflicting  interests. 
Most  of  the  savinsjs  of  the  Mongolian  tribes  find  their  way  to  the  colfers  of  the 
Chinese  dealers  and  usurers,  whence  they  pass  into  the  hands  of  the  lamas. 

Although  the  monasteries  are  )H)th  numerous  and  extensive,  some  containing  as 
many  as  ten  thousand  inmates,  a  great  many  lamas  also  reside  in  their  own  families 
or  roam  about  from  place  to  place,  while  the  old  tSliamanism  has  also  maintained 
its  ])restige  amongst  most  of  the  trilx's.  The  wizards  are  still  appealed  to  when 
the  fl<K'ks  are  attacked  by  disease,  when  "  fine  weather" — that  is,  raiji — is  needed, 
when  the  ailing  are  to  be  healed,  or  the  healthy  stricken  with  a  mortal  illness.  As 
indicated  by  the  very  name  of  Shanuin,  originallj*  applied  to  the  "Samaneans,"  or 
Buddhist  monks,  every  jwssible  transition  is  still  observed  between  the  old  nature- 
worship  and  Buddhism,  introduced  after  Jenghiz  Khan's  death.  Since  the  close  of 
the  last  century  some  Chinese  exiles  and  colonists  have  also  disseminated  Chris- 
tianity amongst  the  triljcs. 

The  various  Manchu,  C^hinese,  Tibetan,  and  Turki  influences  to  which  the 
Mongols  have  been  subjected  are  reflected  in  their  customs.  Thus  the  Manchus 
have  imposed  on  them,  as  on  the  Chinese,  the  fashion  of  shaving  the  head,  leaving 
nothing  but  the  "liigtail."  Monogamy  also  supplanted  polygamy  in  the  seven- 
teenth century,  and,  as  in  China,  the  In^trothals  are  all  settled  by  the  parents  after 
the  astrologers  have  announced  a  happy  conjunction  of  the  stars.  The  ijurchase- 
money  is  paid  as  amongst  the  Kirghiz,  while  a  simulated  alxluction  is  gone 
through,  as  in  Turkmenia.  In  burials  the  Chinese  rites  arc  observed  in  the  ease  of 
princes  and  princesses,  who  are  placed  in  coffins,  before  which  the  family  sacrifices 
are  offered  at  the  prescribed  times.  The  bodies  of  prelates  are  burnt,  and  their 
ashes  covered  with  little  mounds  or  cairns,  whereas  the  poor  lamas  and  the  common 
folk  are  thrown  to  the  wild  beasts  or  dogs,  as  in  Tibet.  The  ravens,  called  by  the 
Chinese  the  "Sepulchres  of  the  Mongolians,"  seldom  quit  the  nomad  steppes, 
where  they  fatten  on  human  remains,  and  the  dogs  regularly  follow  the  funeral 
processions  beyond  the  camping  grounds. 

The  Chinese  immigrants  are  continually  encroaching  on  the  Mongolian  domain, 
and  the  inqwrial  territory  of  Jehol,  oecu])ying  some  20,000  square  miles  north-east 
of  Peking,  has  already  been  entirely  settk^d  by  Chinese  colonists.  Jehol  has  taken 
the  Chinese  name  of  Chengte-fu,  and  all  the  neighbouring  places  have  in  the  same 
way  changed  their  names.  Here  the  immigrants  increased  from  477,000  in  1792 
to  884,000  in  1827,  and  they  appear  to  be  now  fai-  more  ninncrous.  The  region 
usually  called  "  Inner  Mongolia,"  in  contradistinction  to  the  "  Outer  Mongolia" 
north  of  the  Gobi,  is  already  more  than  half  Chinese.  Formerly  the  Great  Wall 
coincided  roughly  with  the  ethnical,  political,  and  geological  limits  of  the 
conterminous  states.  But  this  line  has  long  been  burst  through  by  the  Chinese 
traders  and  peasantry,  who  have  occupied  all  the  fertile  valleys  draining  south- 


I 

5 


no 


EAST  ASIA. 


wnnls.  The  wliiilr>  ropioii  knf)W!i  by  th«>  nnino  of  Knw-vci,  or  "  noyonrl  fho  Gntos," 
is  now  Cliiiipsc  tcMrifoiy,  I'.iitl  IniK  Itccii  ncciitly  iii('nr|Minit<'(l  willi  flic  two  provinces 
ol'  Slumsi  (iiul  I'cdiili.  ( hic  <»f  the  .'liicl'  indiiccmi'nts  to  settle  here  is  tlie  liherality 
nhown  towiirds  th(>  cultivators  of  tl>e  poppy,  who,  for  a  slijjht  tax  of  h>ss  than  VJOs. 
the  acre,  are  aUowctl  to  j<;row  lliis  phint  freely,  and  are  thus  eiialtlcd  to  pn)cure 
opium  at  a  nnxlerate  price.  Although  the  Mon^'oiians,  as  a  rule,  keep  aloof  from 
the  intruders,  extensive  alliances  have  already  taken  place,  and  the  ICrlitza,  or 
olfsjirinj^of  Ciiinese  fathers  and  .Mt)n>i:ol  nmthcrs,  arc  very  numerous  in  some  trilM's. 
Tlie  Tsakhars  especially  have  almost  become  as.-imilated  to  the  <'hinese  in  type  and 
social  habits,  preferriu}^  a  settled  life  to  the  freedom  of  their  nomad  kinsnu<n. 

To  iuNure  the  pcac(>ful  possession  of  Monjrolia  the  Imperial  (iovernmcnt  luis 
hitherto  pursu<>d  the  simph-  |M)licy  of  dividin^r  the  race  into  hostile  tribes,  and 
flattering?  the  vanity  i>f  the  chiefs  by  allowing  them  to  contract  alliancoH  with  the 
imperial  family.  The  princes,  most  of  whom  claim  descent  fronj  Jt'nj^hiz  Khan, 
bear  varicuis  'lereditirv  titles  answering  to  those  of  kinjj^,  duke,  earl,  baron.  Hut 
they  arc  lH)uml  ♦o  consult  the  ('hincse  ministiT  in  all  weijj^hty  affairs,  dependinjf  in 
nil  other  respects  on  the  hijfh  priest  of  I'rj^a.  Annual  national  <<;atlu*rini;M  are  held 
under  the  i)residency  «»f  i»ne  of  the  chiefs  chos(>n  by  the  people  ;  but  their  decisions 
do  not  aopiire  the  force  of  law  until  approved  of  by  the  ('hinese  Government. 
The  Kmp(>ror  has  the  power  of  de]H)sin}<f  the  ruling  ])rinetj8  at  jdeasure,  and  in  any 
case  they  are  all  little  more  than  State  i)ensioiu>rs,  receivinj?  a  yearly  subvention  of 
from  t"{(>  to  .t'HOO,  according  to  their  rank.  Thus,  instead  «>f  adding  to  the  ini]ierial 
treasury,  Mongolia  is  actually  a  burden  to  the  State,  at  least  financially.  The  Mongols 
pay  no  direct  tribute,  but  they  arc  bound  to  military  8t>rvicc,  all  the  men  between 
their  eighteenth  and  sixtieth  years  forming  part  of  the  imperial  cavalry.  Hut  the 
late  Hungan  insurrecticm  has  shown  that  the  ^fcmgolian  army  exists  only  on  paper. 

The  Khalkha  territory,  comprising  the  hirgerhalf  of  Outer  Mongolia,  is  divided 
into  the  four  khanates  of  Tushetu,  Tst'tien,  Suiiioin,  and  Jesaktu  ;  that  is,  of  the 
north,  east,  centi-e,  and  west,  and  the  different  tribes  are  by  usage  interdicte<l  from 
passing  the  limits  of  these  khanates  in  their  pericxlical  migrations.  Southern  and 
Eastern  Mongolia  are  in  the  same  way  divided  amongst  the  Suniut,  Gcishikten, 
Barin,  Xainian,  Kortsin,  I'chumsin,  Uniot,  Jarot,  Tuniet,  Ahkhanar,  the  Durban, 
and  the  eight  Tsakhar  Banners.  The  administrative  coincide  with  the  military 
divisions.  Each  tn>opof  one  hundred  and  fifty  men  forms  a  squadron,  six  squadrons 
a  regiment  an  indefinite  numlK»r  of  regiments  a  K'/tos/iitn,  or  "  Banner,"  this  last 
answering  best  to  the  tribid  division.  A  certain  number  of  Khoshuns  form  an 
Aimiik,  or  section,  which  varies  acconling  to  (urcunistances  in  size  and  importance. 
The  Aimaks  and  Khoshuns  are  distributee!  as  under  : — 

Aimaks.  KhnRhnns. 
Khnlkhii  ilomnin,  or  Xorth  Mongolia      ...       4  h6 

Kii8t  Mcnuoliii 25  61 

'i'siikhnr  doinaiii 1  8 

Alii-Hliiin I  3 

u"-t«i  j  lixrl"**  ^^"'"':'*'" ;:::,!         5[ 

Ordoa  tnrritory I  ^ 

Total "as  172^ 


TO  POO  n  Am  Y. 


in 


nrl  (ho  Gntos," 
•  t\v(i  proviiiron 
s  th«'  lilMTiility 

!<'ss  (l)un  'JOs. 
led  to  procure 
'('l)  aliMif  from 
111*  Ju'/ifzn,  or 
ill  some  trihos. 
■sc  ill  fypomul 
kiiisiiicii. 
ivorriiiH'tit  litiM 
iio  triltcs,  and 
uncos  witli  the 
ronjflii/  Khan, 
,  baron.  lint 
,  (lopcndiiiji^  in 
'riiiffsarc  liold 
their  decisions 

(lovoriiniont. 
ro,  and  in  any 

subvoiition  of 

0  the  iin])orial 
The  Montis 

!  men  iM'twocn 
dry.  Hut  the 
only  on  paper, 
nlia,  is  <lividod 
that  is,  of  the 
terdicted  from 
Southern  and 
lit,  Goshikten, 
r,  the  Durban. 

1  the  military 
six  squadrons 
nor,"  this  last 
huns  form  an 
d  importance. 


TorooilAIMIY. 

The  Iar)j;o  Monj^olian  towns  ar«>  naturally  conoont rated  in  the  soiith-oastorn 
rojrion  "  lloyond  tlio  (Jatos,"  occiipird  by  the  ('liiiu'><('  sottlors.  Novortlioloss  cvni 
in  the  north  there  are  a  few  placoM  onjoyinj;  a  certain  importance,  centres  of  trade, 
and  eoiiver^'iiif;  points  of  the  caravan  routes.  Thus  h'o/n/o,  lyiii;;  4,()(K)  fi-et  above 
the  sea,  on  the  plateau  of  like  nuine  in  the  M(ni;j(»liaii  Altai,  is  the  entrepot  of  the 
Uussiun  dealers  from  the  Altai  mines  on  the  Upper  Irtish  valley.  Some  disfanco 
to  the  east  of  KoInIo,  iiut  on  the  same  hilly  plateau,  is  the  commereial  t(»wn  of 
Uliiisntdi.  Uoth  placoH  resemble  each  other  in  their  general  disjjositioii,  consist iiiff 
of  a  walled  enclosure,  seat  of  the  administration,  and  an  open  <piarter,  the  Matma' 

Fig.    4).— KOBDO  I'LATCAr. 

Hmle  1  :  a.SAO.noO. 


.  eo  MUm. 


rhen,  or  trading  l)orough,  where  tlie  Chinese  mc:-  'ants  reside,  and  round  which  are 
scattered  the  Mongol  encampments.  Both  suffered  much  in  1S70  from  the  Dungan 
insurrection,  Kobdo  having  been  completely  sacked,  while  the  suburbs  of  Uliasutai 
were  burnt.  On  the  same  occasion  Tsakhar-tsin,  120  miles  south  of  Kobdo,  was 
entirely  destroyed.  Nevertheless  trade  has  since  then  rapidly  revived,  and  Kobdo 
now  sends  over  200,000  sheep  annually  to  Kansu.  But  the  population  increases 
slowly,  the  Chinese  settled  here  not  being  allowed  to  bring  their  families  with 
them,  or  to  found  permanent  communities. 

The  true  capital  of  North  Mongolia  is  Frtja,  the  Bogdo-kuren — that  is,  the 
"  Great  Camp  " — of  the  Mongols.  It  lies  on  the  Siberian  sIojm?  in  the  basin  of  the 
river  Tola,  which  drains  through  the  Orkhon  and  Selenga  to  Lake  Baikal      North 


I 


na 


EAST  ASIA. 


of  it  strc'tchex  II  cliain  of  j^cnfly  Nlopiiif^  liillM,  wliilc  to  tlip  Koiitli  risrs  thr  ahrupf. 
Kliiiii-iilii  ri<lj,'<',  tlic  p'liinN  of  wliicli  in  lioiKMirctl  w  illi  ytiiily  Micritii-cs.  Tlic  Ktirni 
properly  so  inllftl.  wliitli  encloses  duo  of  tlu*  tlm-f  pnliXTM  of  tlic  JctHoiitaiiipii,  or 
"  Livinjr  niulillia  "  of  .Moiiy;olia,  slrctclicN  for  coiiNidfralily  nvcr  a  iiiilo  to  tlic  north 
of  the  Tola,  and  forms  a  lahyriiitli  of  courtn  and  allcyN,  whoro  prohaUly  more  than 
10,000  laniaN  have  pitcliod  their  fputH,  or  huilt  their  nuid  huts,  beneath  the  shadow 
of  tlio  fjilded  domes  of  the  tomploR.  Here  in  a  «ort  of  university  emltraeinp;  iho 
facidties  of  m(>dieine,  theoloj^y,  and  astrol(»^:y.  The  Maima-elien,  or  conmioreiul 
(piarter,  lyinpr  cnst  of  tlie  Knren,  is  occupied  hy  idxait  1,000  ('hine?se  dealers. 
Hen'  is  the  campinj;  >f round  of  the  Russian  caravans,  an<l  hero  \h  current  a 
"  PigiHHi  "  Mongolian  jargon  uiixcd  with  all  thu  dialects  of  China  uud  tSibcriu.     A 


FiR.  4(5.— Uuo*. 

Boale  1 :  4K,OC3, 


>  8,800  Yuid*. 


new  quarter  has  also  sprung  up  round  the  Itussian  consulate,  established  in  1861, 
where  have  been  organized  most  of  the  recent  scientific  and  commercial  expeditions 
across  Mongolia.  A  large  triennial  fair  is  held  at  Urga  in  Sejjtember,  visited  by 
about  200,000  persons  from  every  part  of  3IongoHa. 

All  the  trading  routes  converge  on  XJrga,  which  is  the  chief  station  on  the 
great  tr-.i  highway  between  Kiakhta  and  Kalgan,  at  one  of  the  gates  in  the  Great 
AVall,  while  it  is  also  connected  with  Kobdo,  Uliasutai,  and  the  towns  of  Kansu  and 
Manchuria  by  regular  jmstal  routes.  Along  these  tracks  camps  of  fifteen  to  twenty 
tents  are  established  at  intervals,  and  placed  under  a  postmaster,  who  is  bound  to 
provide  travellers  with  night  lodgings  and  mounts  free  of  charge.  By  the  treaties 
concluded  between  Russia  and  China  in  1859-60,  the  St.  Petersburg  Government 


ToronnAriiY, 


118 


HON  tlif  iihrupt. 
».  Tlif  Ktircn 
tMoiitaiiipii,  or 
lo  to  the  north 
l»ly  inf)ro  than 
kth  the  shallow 
I'tiilinifiiip;  the 
Dr  miunion^ial 
lincM'  (loiilorH. 
iH  ciirrciit  a 
1(1  Sibcriu.     A 


iahcd  in  1861, 

al  expeditions 
er,  visited  by 

tation  on  the 
t  in  the  Great 
of  Kunsu  and 
een  to  twenty 
lo  is  bound  to 
y  the  treaties 
'  Government 


hn«  arquired  the  ripfht  to  maintain  at  its  own  PxpriiHc  n  postal  Korvier  In'tween 
Kiaklita  and  Tit-ntHin,  rid  I'rpi.  In  all  the  towns  of  Ir^ii,  Kal^^an,  Peking,  and 
TientNJn,  Itnssiaii  a^i>ntH  look  after  the  transit  of  ^kmIs,  wliii-li  are  forwariled  once 
a  month,  and  the  comfort  of  travellers,  who  nturt  every  ten  duyw.  The  journey 
oecupies  on  nn  nv«>raffe  al)out  two  week«. 

Kdriiknnnn,  the  old  capital  of  the  vast  Moti^olian  Kmpire,  lies  in  the  mime  river 
Imsin  as  Kinkhta.  It  mi)fht  seem  siirprisinjj;  that  the  imperial  residence  Hhould 
hnve  remained  for  nearly  seventy  years  in  the  midst  of  tin-  <lreary  plains  of  the 
I'pper  Selenffa.  Hut  what  the  nomad  conc|uerors  most  needed  was  a  position  on 
the  open  steppe,  whence  sudden  exjH'ditions  could  be  directed  either  against  China 

Fig.    -17.— MoNOOI.IAN    HlOUWAYI. 
Soiia  1  :  30,000,000. 


I      ^ 

5o; 

^ 

Irkoirtty     jjp'V,^^              /""""^l  ^"^ 

50 

1 — ^    /N. 

i^~^"">-A^^*X-/l 

k? 

"x^ 

^^)^^^^\r1 

40 

1 

:'0' 

__ 

sc- 

.:(j'           [ore 

600  Mile*. 


or  Western  Asia.  At  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  eentury,  when  the  work  of 
conquest  was  completed,  and  the  empire  divided  into  eastern  and  western  sections, 
such  a  capital  as  Karakorum  could  serve  no  further  purpose ;  hence  it  was  soon 
succeeded  by  Peking  and  Samarkand.  Ilolin,  or  Khorin  (Kara-kuren,  or  "  Black 
Camp"),  is  already  mentioned  by  the  Chinese  chroniclers  of  the  eighth  century ; 
but  although  Jenghiz  Khan  may  have  here  established  one  of  his  chief  encnuipments, 
it  did  not  become  the  imperial  capital  till  1234,  when  Oktai  Khan  caused  it  to  be 
enclosed.  Here  Longjumel  and  Rubruk  beheld  the  Mongol  Khan  in  all  his  glory, 
courted  by  the  mighty  of  the  earth,  and  surrounded  by  adventurers  from  all  the 
Buddhist,  Mohammedan,  and  Christian  states  in  the  Old  World.  Guillaume  of 
Paris  laid  out  his  pleasure  groirnds,  planning  elegant  fountains  with  their  jets  of 


— 'i^Mmm^im^mmms-mmMiAi'''-  ^ 


114 


EAST  ASIA. 


I* 
mi  ^ 


,i1 


wine,  milk,  kumis,  and  bocr  fallinff  into  silver  basins.  Novortholoss  Karnkorum 
was  never  a  fj;reat  city.  Accordinjj^  to  Marco  Polo  the  ramparts  were  only  •{  miles 
in  circuit,  and  even  most  of  this  space  Avas  occupied  with  palaces  and  temples 
surrounded  by  extensive  courts.  Beyond  the  enclosure  were  two  other  cities,  the 
Maiina-chen  of  the  Chinese,  and  the  Mohammedan  bazaar.  But  these  do  not 
appear  to  have  been  larj^o  quarters,  and  Rubruk  describes  the  whole  place  as  inferior 
to  St.  Denis,  near  Paris.  Hence  it  is  not  surprisinp;  that  soon  after  its  abandon- 
ment by  the  Khans  the  "  Black  Camp"  should  have  vanished  from  the  face  of  the 
earth.  For  a  lonjj  time  its  very  site  was  known  only  to  the  Khalkha  nomads. 
D'Anville  placed  it  on  the  very  verge  of  the  Gobi,  near  the  salt  lake,  Kulcn-ulen, 
while  R«'musat  removed  it  much  farther  north,  about  the  sources  of  the  Orkhon, 
some  '240  miles  south-west  of  TJrga.  And  not  far  from  this  spot  Paderin  came 
upon  its  ruins  in  a  plain  traversed  by  the  Orkhon.  Here  are  still  visible  the 
remains  of  a  crenellated  rampart,  five  hundred  paces  both  ways,  and  enclosing 
some  crumbling  walls. 

In  the  region  east  of  Urga,  watered  by  the  Iverulen  and  Khailar,  and  partly 
attached  to  the  administration  of  Manchuria,  the  centres  of  popidation  are  mere 
villages,  deriving  some  little  importance  from  their  position  as  capitals  of  aimaks 
and  trading  stations.  The  most  frequented  are  Kcrii/rii  and  K/iai/nr,  named  from 
the  rivers  on  which  they  stand.  But  the  trade  of  the  country  is  naturally  concen- 
trated in  the  south-eastern  regions  annexed  to  Hhansi  and  Pechili,  where  the_ 
Chinese,  '•  devourers  of  the  Tatars,"  have  founded  s(>veral  industrious  towns. 
Amongst  these  are  Sarchi,  on  a  tributary  of  the  Ilojing-bo,  and  Kircilina-clicng,  in 
a  small  basin  also  draining  to  the  Hoang-ho.  Th(>  latter,  which  is  the  Kiilni-k/iofo 
of  the  Mongols,  consists  of  a  religious  and  a  trading  (piarter,  and  till  the  end  of  the 
last  century  was  the  residence  of  the  Mongolian  Buddha,  now  enthroned  in  Urga. 
It  is  still  a  great  centre  of  Buddhist  learning,  and  according  to  Hue  20,000 
lamas  and  students  crowd  its  schools  and  convents.  Kuku-khoto  is  a  great  cattle 
mart,  and  nearly  all  the  dressed  hides,  camel's-hair  cloth,  and  cordage  forwarded  to 
Tientsin  for  the  London  and  New  York  markets  come  from  this  place. 

Farther  east  are  the  extensive  ruins  of  Kham-khoto,  or  "  Black  Town,"  and  of 
Tuftfjaa-k/idfo,  or  "  White  Town,"  the  former  a  very  ancient  place,  the  latter 
founded  at  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century  as  capital  of  the  ^longol  Empire, 
and  visited  by  Marco  Polo,  who  calls  it  Chagan-nor.  Thirty  miles  east  of  it  is  the 
Chinese  village  of  Simnfzc,  centre  of  the  Mongolian  Catholic  missions.  In  1873 
the  Mongolian  Catholics  in  this  diocese  numbered  about  12,000. 

No  less  important  than  Kuku-khoto  is  Dolon-iior,  lying  at  an  elevation  of 
4,000  feet  in  the  south-east  comer  of  the  plateau  near  the  extremity  of  the  (Jreat 
Khingan  range.  It  takes  its  Mongol  name,  meaning  the  '*  Seven  Lakes,"  from  a 
number  of  meres,  now  choked  with  the  sands  of  the  desert.  The  Chinese  cull  it 
Lama-miao,  or  the  "  Lama's  Grave,"  from  u  structure  here  erected  by  the  Emiieror 
Kang-hi.  Like  the  other  cities  of  the  plateau,  it  is  an  open  town,  consisting  of  a 
religious  and  trading  quarter.  Its  Chinese  inhabitants  carry  on  a  brisk  trade  at 
the  expense  of  the  surrounding  Mongol  nomads,  and  are  also  skilled  artisans, 


r^'K&'<'«. 


CHINESE  MANCHURIA. 


116 


ss  KnrnkoruTn 
re  only  -i  iiiilcs 
58  and  temples 
thor  cities,  the 
t  these  do  not 
lace  as  inferior 
'  its  abandon- 
he  faee  of  the 
alkha  noinads. 
e,  Kulen-ulen, 
f  the  Orkhon, 
Paderin  came 
ill  visible  the 
and  enclosing 

lar,  and  partly 
ation  are  mere 
als  of  aimaks 
r,  named  from 
urally  concen- 
ili,  where  the„ 
ttrious  towns. 
"iliua-chcug,  in 
lie  Kiikn-klioto 
the  end  of  the 
ned  in  Urga. 
Hue  20,000 
a  great  cattle 
!  forwarded  to 

Wn,"  and  of 
cc,  the  latter 
ongol  Empire, 
ist  of  it  is  the 
ms.     In  1873 

elevation  of 
of  the  Great 
ikes,"  from  a 
liinese  call  it 

the  Emperor 
)nsisting  of  a 
brisk  trade  at 
lied  artisans, 


producing  statues  and  ornaments  of  all  sorts  in  iron  and  gilt  copper  for  tho 
Mongolian  lamassaries  and  temples.  The  grand  effigy  of  Buddha,  over  30  feet 
high,  in  the  great  temple  of  Urga,  was  brought  across  the  desert  from  Dolon-nor, 

In  the  midst  of  the  wilderness,  some  24  miles  north  of  Dolon-nor,  lies  Shang-tu, 
or  the  "  Superior  Court,"  which  succeeded  the  "  White  Town  "  and  Karakorum  as 
residences  of  the  Khans,  and  where  Kublai  Khan  erected  the  marble  and  bamboo 
palaces  described  by  Marco  Polo,  Its  usual  Mongolian  name  of  the  "  Ilxmdrcd 
and  Eight  Temples  "  is  taken  from  its  many  religious  edifices,  formerly  as  nimierous 
as  the  sacred  volumes  of  tho  Kanjiir,  all  now  in  ruins  and  enclosed  by  a  double 
rampart  overgrown  with  grass  and  scrub.  A  grassy  enclosure  at  least  5  square 
miles  in  extent,  lying  north-west  of  Shang-tu,  was  probably  the  wonderful  park  of 
which  Marco  Polo  speaks ;  but  the  fountains,  artificial  streams,  groves,  and  green- 
swards described  by  the  illustrious  Venetian  all  have  vanished. 

Immeasurably  more  extensive  was  the  park  of  Jehol,  a  wooded  district  peopled  by 
wild  beasts,  which  covered  a  wide  expanse  along  the  hills  and  valleys  between  the 
Mongolian  plateau  and  the  palisade  of  Manchuria.  Here  grazed  those  herds  of  ten 
thousand  spotless  white  horses  offered  in  tribute  to  the  Emperor  Kang-hi.  Jehol, 
or  Chingte-fu,  is  noted  for  its  summer  palace,  built  in  1703  on  the  model  of  the 
Peking  structure,  and  rich  especially  in  inlaid  wood  artistic  objects.  Paku,  or 
Pingchicen-hien,  60  miles  east  of  Jehol,  which  consists  of  a  single  street  nearly 
5  miles  long,  is  the  centre  of  the  silk  industry  in  Inner  Mongolia.  Hada,  or 
Chifmg-hien,  is  also  a  busy  place,  much  frequented  by  dealers  in  furs.  In  this 
northern  district  there  is  a  gcgen-suma,  or  temple  of  a  living  Buddha,  with  a 
lamassary  said  to  contain  as  many  as  5,000  priests. 


v.— CHINESE  MANCHURIA. 

This  province  is  bounded  north  and  east  by  the  course  of  the  Amur  and  its  tributary, 
the  Usuri ;  south-east  by  the  highlands  and  solitudes  separating  it  from  Korea ; 
south  by  the  Yellow  Sea ;  but  westwards — that  is,  towards  Mongolia — there  are  no 
natural  frontiers.  Here  the  north-eastern  comer  of  Mongolia,  west  of  the  Great 
Khingan  range,  is  assigned  to  Manchuria,  while  the  forest  lands  and  fertile  tracts 
of  the  Upper  Shara-muren,  east  of  that  range,  now  fonn  what  is  called  Inner 
Mongolia.  Formerly  the  boundary  between  this  section  of  Mongolia  and  South 
Manchuria  was  marked  by  a  long  line  of  palisades,  which,  however,  have  long 
disappeared.  A  few  clumps  are  shown  here  and  there,  which  are  said  to  be  the 
remains  of  the  plantations  made  in  the  time  of  Kang-hi.  But  no  plan  can  be 
detected  in  the  disposition  of  the  clusters  occurring  on  either  side  of  the  old  frontier 
in  the  two  Manchu  provinces  of  Mukden  and  Gii'in.  Such  barriers,  which  the 
Chinese,  Japanese,  and  Koreans  were  formerly  fond  of  erecting,  can  never  have 
had  any  strategic  importance ;  they  were  simply  a  sort  of  magic  circle  traced 
round  the  land,  which  was  thus  placed  under  the  protection  of  the  terminal  deities. 


' 


17.3P 


llfi 


EAST  ASIA. 


In  any  raso  any  conventional  frontier  between  Mongolia  and  Manchuria  can  have 
all  the  loss  significance  that  both  races  are  steadily  retreating  Ijeforo  the  Chinese 
immigrants,  who  already  form  the  majority  of  the  population.  Probably  not  more 
than  one- twelfth  of  the  inhabitants  of  Manchuria  behmg  to  the  race  whence  the 
country  takes  its  name. 


Main  Physkal  Features. 

Manchuria  is  naturally  divided  into  two  distinct  regions,  draining  one  north- 
wards through  the  Amur  to  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  the  other  southwards  to  the  Yellow 
Sea.  The  two  basins  arc  separated  by  a  slightly  elevated  ridge  which  runs  west- 
wards to  the  Mongolian  plateau.  But  great  differences  prevail  in  the  regions  lying 
on  either  side  of  this  low  water-parting.  Northern  Manchuria  forming  part  of  the 
Siberian  world,  while  South  Manchuria  belongs  in  its  climate,  vegetation,  and 
inhabitants  to  China. 

The  Great  Khingan  presents  a  far  more  imposing  appearance  as  seen  from  the 
banks  of  the  Nonni  than  towards  the  west,  where  its  base  is  deeply  rooted  in  the 
Mongolian  plateau.  The  conic  crests  of  the  now  extinct  volcanoes  formerly  stretch- 
ing along  this  range  stand  out  Ijoldly  at  the  head  of  the  deep  and  densely  wooded 
gorges  excavated  '\v  the  affluents  of  the  Nonni.  But  other  cones  rise  also  above 
the  plains  watered  by  the  Nonni,  and  which  were  formerly  dotted  over  with  now 
dried-up  lakes.  In  the  valley  of  the  Udelin,  a  tributary  of  the  Nemer,  which 
joins  the  Nonni  between  Mergen  and  Tsitsikhar,  a  group  of  volcanic  hills  marks  the 
spot  where  the  ground  was  violently  agitated  by  an  earthquake  in  1720,  followed 
the  next  year  by  a  fierce  eruption,  which  lasted  for  over  a  twelvemonth.  These 
igneous  phenomena  were  carefully  described  by  five  imperial  envoys,  who  visited 
the  district  at  ditferent  times,  so  that  there  can  be  no  reasonable  doubt  of  the 
occurrence.  From  a  new  crater  which  rose  to  about  8!30  feet,  with  little  over  half 
a  mile  in  circumference,  four  lava  streams  flowed  down  to  a  great  distance  across 
the  plains,  one  of  them  damming  up  the  Udelin,  and  converting  it  into  an  exten- 
sive lake.  The  group  of  hills  contains  rich  sulphur  beds,  which,  however,  the 
Government  does  not  allow  to  be  worked.  Several  other  hills  in  the  valley  are  of 
igneous  origin,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  they  have  shown  any  activity  in  recent 
times.  In  this  respect  the  group  here  described  is  quite  unique.  Such  volcanic 
action  at  a  distance  of  over  600  miles  from  the  sea-coast  is  a  clear  proof  that  the 
saline  waters  of  closed  basins  may  perform  the  same  office  in  nature's  underground 
laboratories  as  do  the  marine  waters  in  the  production  of  volcanic  eruptions. 

North  of  the  Upper  Nonni  valley  the  Great  Khingan  is  connectetl  by  a  high- 
land region  with  the  Daus^-ulin,  or  Little  Khingan  of  the  Russians.  This  upland 
tract,  known  by  various  local  names,  is  crossed  by  a  much-frequented  route  between 
Mergen  and  Aigun.  In  a  forest  clearing  at  the  highest  point  of  the  route  a  Chinese 
temple  entertains  travellers  of  all  nations  in  the  empire  who  come  to  worship  at 
its  shrine.  The  custodians  of  the  sanctuary,  banished  from  the  "  Flowery  Land," 
are  required  to  look  after  their  comfort  and  guide  them  over  the  dangerous  parts 
of  the  country.     The  Daftsd-alin,  which  appears  nowhere  to  rise  higher  than  5,000 


RIVER  SYSTEMS— THE  SUNGARI  AND  I,IAO-HE. 


117 


uria  can  have 
c  the  ('hinose 
My  not  more 
3  whence  the 


ng  one  north- 
to  the  Yellow 
eh  runs  west- 
regions  lying 
g  part  of  the 
gotation,  and 

seen  from  the 
rooted  in  the 
norly  stretch- 
nscly  wooded 
ise  also  above 
ver  with  now 
Nenier,  which  . 
ills  marks  the 
720,  followed 
onth.  These 
S  who  visited 
doubt  of  the 
ttle  over  half 
istance  across 
nto  an  exten- 
however,  the 
valley  arc  of 
ity  in  recent 
)uch  volcanic 
•oof  that  the 
underground 
it  ions. 

I  by  a  high- 
This  upland 
oute  between 
jte  a  Chinese 
o  worship  at 
«'ery  Laud," 
igerous  parts 
r  than  5,000 


feet,  is  continued  north-eastward  across  the  vast  semicircle  formed  by  the  Nonni 
and  Sungari,  and  beyond  the  Amur  by  the  Hureya  range  in  Siberia.  Hut  the 
Lagar-aul,  culminating  |)oint  of  this  section,  has  an  elevation  of  no  more  than 
;{,oOO  fcot. 

The  true  main  range  of  Manchuria  is  the  Shan-alin  (Shanyen-alin),  the  Chang- 
pei-shan,  or  "  Long  White  Mountain,"  of  the  Chinese,  so  named  both  from  its 
dazzling  limestone  rocks  and  snowy  crests ;  for  the  highest  peaks  about  the  sources 
of  the  Sungari  attain  elevations  of  10,000  and  1*2,000  feet,  thus  rising  considerably 
above  the  snow-line.  The  chain  runs  mainly  north-east  and  south-west  from  the 
Usuri-Amur  confluence  to  the  Liaoti-shan  headland  on  the  Yellow  Sea,  a  total 
distance  of  some  900  miles.  The  system  is  partly  of  volcanic  origin,  and  in  its 
central  section  an  old  crater  is  said  to  be  filled  by  a  lake  enchtsed  in  rocky  walls 
over  2,(»00  feet  high.  The  Manchu  poets  sing  of  the  Shan-alin  as  the  sacred  home 
of  their  forefathers,  and  in  their  eyes  it  is  the  fairest  land  in  the  world,  with  its 
woodlands,  sunny  glades,  and  sparkling  streams,  all  bathed  in  the  bright  atnu)- 
sphere  of  heaven. 

Other  ridges  running  between  and  parallel  with  the  Shan-alin  and  Ehingan 
traverse  the  central  plains,  and  one  of  them  follows  the  valley  of  the  Liao-ho,*  on 
the  west,  skirting  the  west  side  of  the  Gulf  of  Liaotung  as  far  as  the  promontory 
at  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  Great  Wall.  At  its  northern  end  this  coast  range 
is  known  as  the  Kwangning  chain,  from  a  city  of  that  name  lying  at  its  foot  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  some  extinct  volcanoes.  Like  the  Shan-alin,  the  Kwangning 
iVIountains  have  always  been  regarded  as  amongst  the  tutelar  deities  of  the  countrj', 
Mount  Wulin  being  from  a  remote  period  included  amongst  the  nine  guardians  of 
the  empire.  On  its  highest  peak  the  hermitage  is  still  shown  where  Yenhwang, 
one  of  the  most  renowned  Chinese  princes,  passed  most  of  his  days,  surrounded  by 
books  and  manuscripts. 

River  Systems — The  Sungari  and  Liao-he. 

Although  differing  greatly  in  size,  the  two  chief  Manchurian  rivers  resemble 
each  other  in  the  disposition  of  their  respective  valleys.  Both  flowing  in  opposite 
directions,  describe  semicircles  of  remarkable  regularity,  that  of  the  Upper  Nonni, 
or  main  branch  of  the  Sungari,  corresponding  with  that  of  the  Shara-muren,  or  Upper 
Liao-he,  while  the  Lower  Sungari  reproduces  the  bend  of  the  Lower  Liao-he. 
Between  the  two  the  Eastern  Gobi  plateau,  covered  with  "  yellow  earth  "  and 
dotted  over  with  closed  lat  trine  basins,  has  been  gradually  cut  up  into  divergent 
valleys  by  erosive  action. 

The  Sungari  is  regarded  both  by  the  Manchus  and  Chinese  as  the  main  stream 
of  the  common  basin  which  it  forms  with  the  Amur.  Yet  it  seems  to  be  inferior 
to  the  latter  both  in  length  and  volume,  except  in  summer,  when  its  discharge  is 
greater,  thanks  to  the  melting  of  the  snows  on  the  White  Mountains.  In  many 
places  it  is  considerably  over  a  mile  wide  between  its  muddy  banks,  which  are  alive 

*  Or  rather  Liao-he,  he  being  the  term  answering  to  ho,  "river,"  in  North  China. 


118 


EAST  ASIA. 


willi  niyriiuls  of  swallows.  Durinjjf  the  flood8  tlio  Sunj^nri  becomes  an  inland  sea 
dotted  with  islands,  the  resort  of  countless  flocks  of  wild  geese,  swans,  and  duck. 
As  an  historic  hi<j;hway  across  the  continent  it  has  been  eclipsed  by  the  Amur,  down 
which  the  Russians  reached  the  Pacific  seaboard,  liut  the  regions  watered  by  the 
Amur  are  little  better  than  wildernesses  compared  with  the  smiling  plains,  espe- 
cially of  the  Middle  Sungari.  Hero  also  the  river  traffic  is  far  more  extensive,  the 
channel  l)eing  often  completely  blocked  by  the  fleets  of  junks  lying  at,  anchor  near 
the  large  towns.  It  is  navigable  by  craft  drawing  40  inches  for  at  least  900  miles 
between  the  city  of  Girin  and  the  ford  of  the  Anmr.  The  Nonni,  or  Si-kiang,  its 
main  ui)per  branch,  is  also  accessible  for  boats  of  the  same  size  as  far  as  Tsitsikhar, 
while  the  Mutan-he,  or  Khurkha  River,  which  joins  the  Sungari  at  Sansing,  is 


Fig.  48. — Moi;th  op  thf  Liao-hb. 
Scale  1  :  700,000. 


122' 


EifG 


IQS'40 


0  to  33  Feet. 


15  Hilea. 


largely  available  for  inland  ^'affic.  Still  all  this  movement  by  water  can  never 
have  more  than  a  local  imiwrtance,  for  so  great  is  the  westward  sweep  of  the  main 
stream  between  Girin  and  Sansing  that  goods  in  transit  are  mostly  forwarded  by 
the  shorter  overland  route.  The  steamer  carrying  the  explorers  Usoltzev  and 
Kropotkin  was  the  first  to  ascend  the  Sungari. 

The  Shara-muron,  or  "  Yellow  River,"  which  has  its  source  on  the  Mongolian 
plateaux,  is  not  navigable  even  during  the  floods  above  the  point  where  it  enters 
the  province  of  Liaotung  under  the  name  of  the  Liao-he.  In  its  lower  course  it  is 
accessible  to  vessels  drawing  about  10  feet,  which  at  high  water  are  able  to  cross 
the  bar  and  ascend  to  the  port  of  Yinkoa.  The  alluvia  brought  down  by  the 
stream  have  encroached  to  such  an  extent  on  the  Gulf  uf  Liaotimg  that  the  city  of 


PI.ORA  AND  FAUNA. 


119 


an  inland  sea 
ns,  and  duck. 
3  Amur,  down 
iitered  by  the 
plains,  cspo- 
px tensive,  the 
.  anchor  near 
ast  900  miles 
'  Si-kiang,  its 
as  Tsitsikhar, 
it  Sansing,  is 


er  can  never 
of  the  main 
jrwarded  by 
Fsoltzev  and 

c  Mongolian 
ere  it  enters 
r  course  it  is 
able  to  cross 
lown  by  the 
t  the  city  of 


Niuchwnng,  said  to  have  formerly  stood  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  now  lies  mnnj' 
miles  inland.  From  century  to  eentury  the  ])orts  have  been  shifted  ueeording  as 
the  river  advanced  seawai'ds,  and  the  navigation  of  the  gulf  is  now  endangered  by 
banks  and  shallows,  which,  however,  may  be  partly  due  to  a  slow  ujihoaval  of  the 
land.  The  Liao-he  valley  was  at  all  times  an  important  historic  highway.  This 
route  led  the  jNIanehus  down  to  the  Yellow  Sea  when  llicy  advanced  to  the  conquest 
of  China,  and  it  was  also  followed  by  the  Chinese  military  expeditions  to  the 
Sungari  basin  and  the  Korean  frontier.  Hence  the  care  with  which  the  Liao-he 
valley  has  always  been  guaided  by  the  Iini)erial  Government,  as  shown  by  the 
remains  of  extensive  ramparts  and  fortifications  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Mukden. 
At  present  the  same  region  has  acquired  an  exceptional  political  impoi-tance,  as 
affording  to  ]\[anchuria  its  onh'  outlet  seawards,  liy  a  strange  lack  of  foresight,  or 
perhaps  because  at  the  time  too  weak  to  resist  Russian  pressure,  the  Chinese 
Government  has  dejirived  itself  of  all  its  seajjorts  north  of  Korea.  Hence  all  the 
foreign  trade  of  the  Sungari  basin  has  to  be  carried  on  either  through  the  Lower 
Liao-he  valley  or  across  Itussian  territory.  The  Russian  naval  station,  founded  to 
cripple  China  on  its  north-eastern  flank,  stands  on  the  Gulf  of  Peter  the  Great; 
that  is,  at  the  very  spot  where  North  Manchuria  formerly  enjoyed  most  direct 
access  to  the  Japanese  Avaters. 

The  surface  of  3Ianchuria  is  extremely  varied,  with  its  sandy  wastes,  its  grassy 
steppes,  rich  arable  lands,  and  dense  forest  tracts.  The  region,  some  40,000  square 
miles  in  extent,  stretching  east  of  the  Great  Khingan  from  the  Shara-muren  to  the 
foot  of  the  Dause-alin  range,  now  depends  on  Mongolia,  and  is  often  called  the 
Eastern  Gobi.  Here  the  monsoons  from  the  Pacific  are  arrested  by  the  lofty  Shan- 
alin  highlands,  which  receive  most  of  their  moisture.  L'^nder  the  influence  of 
these  atmospheric  currents,  thus  deprived  of  their  humidity  and  mingling  with  the 
still  drier  north-west  winds,  the  Eastern  Gobi  necessarily  remains  an  arid  region. 
But  proceeding  thence  eastwards  to  the  lands  affected  by  the  cloud-bearing  sea 
breezes,  every  transition  may  be  observed  in  soil  and  climate.  Along  the  Sungari 
valley  stretch  vast  prairies  like  those  of  the  Amur,  where  the  tall  grasses,  8  to  10 
feet  high,  are  interlaced  with  the  foliage  of  the  bushy  shrubs,  and  where  the  only 
tracks  are  those  formetl  by  wild  Iwasts.  Most  of  the  North  Manchurian  mountains 
are  green  to  their  summits,  while  in  the  intervening  valleys  the  solar  rays  are 
arrested  by  the  impenetrable  foliage  of  the  oak,  elm,  and  willow  forests.  From  the 
lofty  peaks  the  eye  sweeps  over  a  sea  of  verdure  stretching  from  hill  to  hill,  from 
valley  to  valley,  beyond  the  horizon.  The  vegetation  in  certain  parts  of  the 
Sungari  basin  rivals  in  exuberance  that  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago  itself.  Li 
South  Manchuria,  where  nearly  all  the  arable  lands  have  been  recluinied,  the  forest 
vegetation  is  less  dense,  and  most  of  the  headlands  on  the  Gulfs  of  Liaotung  and 
Korea  are  bare  or  treeless. 

Flora  and  Fauna. 

In  its  flora  and  fauna  Chinese  like  Russian  Manchuria  forms  a  connecting  link 
between  East  Siberia  and  China  proper.     Certain  species  of  trees  and  shrubs  give 


h: 


("I^WtSWiBSISSRtS 


12U 


EAST  ASIA. 


to  tlu>  country  an  almost  PiUropoaii  aHpect,  whit-li  in  enhanciHl  by  tho  fruit  trtt's, 
corrals,  veji^ctablcs,  and  other  cultivated  jilants  growing  round  tho  houses.  But 
wihl  animals  aro  still  numerous,  including  the  panther  and  the  tiger,  or  *'h)rd,"  as 
he  is  here  calleil.  The  royal  beust  fre(|uently  attacks  the  inhabitants,  even  in  the 
very  streets  of  their  villages,  and  almost  more  dangerous  are  the  wolves,  the  packs 
sometimes  sparing  tho  flock  and  falling  upon  the  shepherd.  The  wild  boar,  bear, 
fox,  polecat,  and  wild  cat  are  common  in  some  districts,  and  in  the  northern 
forests  the  squirrel  and  sablo  are  still  trapped  for  their  furs,  which  are  used  to 
adorn  the  head-dress  of  the  natives.  Notwithstanding  the  peaceful  invasion  of  the 
Chinese  immigrants,  Manchuria  continues,  as  of  old,  to  be  u  famous  hunting 
ground,  and  although  tho  attacks  of  wild  beasts  are  less  droadetl  than  formerly,  tlio 
chase  is  still  ccmsidered  as  a  sacred  pursuit  incumbent  on  all. 

Birds,  mostly  of  species  analogous  to  those  of  West  Europe,  nro  very  numerous, 
and  multitudes,  especially  of  singing  birds,  are  met  almost  everywhere.  The 
hamlets  are  visited  by  largo  flocks  of  ravens,  which  are  looked  upon  by  the  Manchus 
as  the  spirits  of  their  auoestors,  and  consequ6'ntly  supplied  with  daily  offerings. 
The  running  waters  abound  to  such  un  extent  in  animal  life  that  whole  conmiuni- 
ties  live  exclusively  on  a  tish  diet.  In  tho  Sungari  the  salmon  are  so  large  and 
plentiful  that  their  skins  form  a  not  unbecoming  article  of  summer  attire,  which  is 
elegantly  embroidered  by  the  women.  The  Ynpi-tatze,  or  "  Fish-skin  people,"  as 
the  Chinese  call  them,  are  all  Tunguses  of  tho  Gold  tribe,  like  those  of  the  Usuri 
lliver  and  the  Russian  maritime  province. 


Inhabitants — The  Manchi's. 

The  present  Mauchu  race  recognises  the  Ninchi  as  theii-  ancestors.  The  name 
now  applied  to  the  whole  nation  was  originally  restricted  to  a  single  tribe  occupy- 
ing an  upland  valley  in  the  White  Mountains.  Taitsu,  chief  of  this  tribe,  having 
subdued  all  his  neighbours,  proclaimed  the  perfect  equality  of  all  his  subjects,  to 
whom  he  extended  his  tribal  name  of  Manchu.  To  this  stroke  of  policy  he  was 
probably  indebted  for  his  victories  over  the  Chinese,  resulting  in  the  complete 
conquest  of  the  "  Middle  Kingdom  "  in  the  year  1644.  This  conquest,  however, 
hud  the  effect  of  transforming  the  Manchus  themselves.  With  tho  exception  of 
the  Solons,  Golds,  Manogrs,  Orochons,  who  still  wander  along  the  river  banks, 
there  are  in  Manchuria  no  longer  any  nomad  Manchus,  or  Tung-tatze ;  that  is, 
"  Eastern  Tatars,"  so  named  in  opposition  to  the  Si-tatze,  or  "  Western  Tatars." 
There  is  now  nothing  more  than  a  Chinese  province,  and  even  in  the  Upper  Nonni 
valley  the  natives  have,  under  Chinese  influence,  gradually  abandoned  their 
wandering  habits.  They  live  in  /(ttizai,,  like  the  immigrants  from  the  south,  and 
own  arable  lands,  which  they  usually  rent  to  the  Chinese  peasantry,  with  whose 
speech  they  have  also  become  familiar. 

Of  all  the  Manchus  the  Solons,  or  Salons,  have  best  preserved  tho  ancient 
national  usages.  They  reject  Buddha,  and  still  believe  in  the  Shaman  wizards, 
who  practise  their  magic  rites  round  about  certain  hallowed  eminences.     The  Solons 


WIU* 


the  fruit  trtt'8, 
)  houses.  But 
,  or  "  lord,"  as 
ts,  even  in  the 
Ives,  the  packs 
fild  boar,  bear, 
the  northern 
;h  are  used  to 
invasion  of  the 
mous  hunting 
I  formerly,  the 

'ery  numerous, 
ywhere.  The 
y  the  ManchuH 
aily  offerings, 
lole  communi- 
B  so  large  and 
if  tire,  which  is 
an  people,"  as 
3  of  the  Usuri 


•8.  The  name 
tribe  occupy- 
I  tribe,  having 
lis  subjects,  to 
policy  he  was 
the  complete 
lest,  however, 
3  exception  of 
!  river  banks, 
;atze ;  that  is, 
stern  Tatars." 
Upper  Nonni 
mdoned  their 
he  south,  and 
y,  with  whose 

1  the  ancient 
iman  wizards, 
.     The  Solons 


m 


fit 


iMANCHU   MINISTERS-CHIEFS  OK   BANNEH8. 


TiC] 


'tiltHil 


=:==--:l_„ 

:^.v 

v.— 

■"" 

-— 

----- 

"             -— r 

— -■-- 

—  ■ 

. — — . 

Mil-  :.. 

INHABITANTS— THE  MANCIIUS. 


121 


burn  their  dond,  plaoing  tho  hhIics  in  Ipiithor  sucks,  which  fhcy  attach  to  tho 
brunches  of  tho  trees.  On  the  other  bund,  tlie  Daurians,  altliou^'h  the  bruvest  nnd 
fiercest  of  all  tho  ruco,  hnvo  bocomo  zenU)us  Huddhists,  one  uieniber  nt  least  of  every 
family  bciuf?  a  lama. 

0\viii;j;  to  the  mi.xtnre  of  races,  which  has  produced  a  larger  and  more  vi{*orons 
population  than  that  of  Central  China,  it  luis  beconio  almost  im2)ossilil(>  to  distin- 
guish the  natives  from  tho  intrudinj^  Chinese.  Ibit  the  Munch  us  are  distinj^uished 
above  all  tho  northern  peoples  for  their  natural  politeiu'ss  and  courtesy  towards 
stranj^ers.  Although  descendants  of  the  conquerors  of  China,  they  havc^  the  good 
taste  to  avoid  any  reference  to  their  origin  in  the  presence  of  the  "  Sons  of  Heaven," 
in  this  respect  differing  greatly  from  their  kinsmen  in  China,  the  insolent 
mandarins,  wh(»  have  been  corrupted  by  the  enjoyment  of  po^-  r  and  jjrivileges. 
Tho  Solons,  Daftrs,  and  other  northern  tribes,  like  the  Siberian  Tunguses  of  tho 
same  original  stock,  are  brave,  cheerful,  good-natured,  and  resemble  the  Ja])anese 
in  their  aptitude  fn*  assimilating  foreign  ideas  and  adapting  themselves  to  tho 
altered  surroundings.  ITenco  in  Manchuria  religious  differences  have  at  present 
far  more  imjjortanco  than  those  of  race.  The  IMohammedans,  who  form  in  some 
districts  one-third  of  the  whole  population,  reside  mostly  in  villages  or  in  separate 
quarters,  where  they  constitute  quite  a  distinct  element,  holding  aloof  from  those 
of  other  religions,  although  themselves  of  Chinese  race  and  speech. 

For  military  purposes  the  Manchus  are  grouped  in  eight  banners,  whence  their 
name  of  Paki ;  that  is,  "  Eight  Flags."  But  tho  men,  whose  only  arms  till  1873 
were  tho  bow  and  arrow,  are  at  present  employed  more  frequently  on  himting  than 
on  Ktrategi<!al  oxjioditions.  They  aro  bound  to  pay  a  yearly  tax  of  2,400  deer  and 
a  certain  nmnber  of  sable-skins.  But  oven  into  this  organization  the  Chinese 
element  has  been  largely  introduced,  multitudes  of  inmiigrants  from  Shantung 
having  been  enrolled  at  the  time  of  the  conquest.  These  military  colonists  aro 
collectively  known  as  Tsi-jen,  or  Ki-jen  ;  that  is,  "  Banner-men." 

Altogether  the  Manehus  as  a  distinct  nationality  seem  to  be  threatened  with 
rapid  extinction.  The  children  mostly  attend  the  Chinese  schools,  where  they  study 
the  four  books  of  Confucius  and  the  "  Book  of  Ceremonies."  Most  of  the  native 
geographical  names  have  already  given  place  to  a  Chinese  nomenclature,  and  tho 
Manehu  speech  would  have  probably  already  disappeared  as  a  cultivated  language, 
had  it  not  been  specially  studied,  owing  to  the  Manehu  origin  of  the  reigning 
family.  This  circumstance  has  caused  it  to  become  one  of  the  classic  languages  of 
the  empire,  which  candidates  for  high  offices  of  State  are  obliged  to  learn,  and  a 
knowledge  of  this  idiom  has  become  almost  indispensable  to  savants  engaged  in  the 
study  of  Chinese  history  and  literature.  Since  tlu>  conquest  the  more  important 
Chinese  works  have  been  translated  into  tho  language  of  the  conquerors,  and  these 
translations  often  throw  great  light  on  tho  obscurities  of  the  original  texts. 
Manehu  is  a  sonorous  language,  easily  acquired,  thanks  to  the  regularity  of  its 
inflections  and  syntax.  Lik  all  Tungus  tongues,  it  consists  of  monosyllabic  or 
dissyllabic  roots,  whose  meaning  is  modified  by  agglutinated  suffixes.  The  Ninchi, 
ancestors  of  the  present  Manchus,  and  who  gave  to  China  the  Kin  dynasty, 
41 


\ 


•\»m'imim^f.>f'. 


isa 


KAST  ASIA. 


borrowrd  tlicir  wrilinjf  syslnn  from  th«<  (^liiiu'w  in  tiio  Iwolfth  confiiry.  liut  tho 
iHlcrs  i<ni|tliiyi'(l  liy  llicm  Niiirc  (he  cIum"  of  the  Mixtcnitli  «riitiiry  arc  of  .Moii^jol 
origin,  iiini  ire  t'iiiis(i|iu'iitly  dcrivt-d  frnin  ilic  Ariiinniii  systcin  intriHlinrtl  Ity  tho 
^I'rsloriims  into  Cciitriil  Asiii.  The  Miii|M'rnr  Kan^-lii  ciiusi^l  a  MaucliK  Icxicnn  to 
bo  conipilfd,  I'rom  wliicli  all  wonirt  of  ("hMU'S4>  ori^fiii  \v«'ro  cun'fully  oxfliKlrd. 
Atniot'M  wits  the  first  Maiu-hu  dictionary  ])ubli»4h«>d  hy  u  Kuro|HMin  towardH  the  end 
of  tho  hijit  ountury,  Hinco  when  Kovoral  others  have  uppoared  in  various  Kuropcan 
Iniif^'nap's. 

Ill  .Manchuria,  as  in  tiic  othtr  outer  |MmsossionH  of  the  enjpire,  Chinese  «-oIonisu- 
tion  bep;an  with  convict  stations  and  military  estahlishnients.  The  first  setllcnienta 
wcro  founded  innnodiately  boyund  tho  Urout  Wall ;  hut  at       esi'iit  most  of  the 

political  or  (;riininal  oxiicH  are  Imu- 


Fig.  40.— Manchl'  Woman. 


ished  to  the  forests  andstcpp(>  lands 
near    the    Jliissiaii    frontier.      Tsit- 
sikhar  has  bc<-ome  the  chief   place 
of  exile  for  hi;<h  functionaries,  and 
for  tho  ujorc  dangerous  niond)er8  of 
secret   societies,     AVhon  visited  by 
PalladiuH   in  1870,   this  place  con- 
tained ;{,000  exiles,  all  free  to  ply 
their  own    trades  and  choose  their 
o>vn  place  of  residence  on  tho  con- 
dition of  presenting  themselves  once 
or  twice  a  month  before  the  authori- 
ties.    A  great  number  of  Moham- 
medans are  also  interned  in  North 
Mongolia,   where   tht;y   have    their 
own   mosques  and    schools,    living 
altogether  a^Nirt   from   their  co-re- 
ligionists    who     have     voluntarily 
migrated  to  this  region.     All  these 
new  elements  contribute  to  modify 
the  local  population,  which  becomes  yearly  more  assimilated  to  the  Chinese  type. 
But  Ix-fore  settling  down  peacefully  by  the  side  of  the  natives,  the  exiles  and  free 
immigrants  often  combined  in  formidable  bands,  such  as  that  of  the  Hunhutze,  or 
"  lied  Beards,"  of  tho  I'pper  Usuri,  who  still  remain  hostile  to  all  the  peaceful 
settlers  of  tho  surrounding  districts.     By  means  of  the  improved  weapons  smuggled 
across  the  Kussian  frontier,  they  have  even  become  a  formidable  power,  and  have 
built  strongholds,  abjive  which  flies  their  red  flag  with  the  inscription,  "  Vengeance." 
The  Chinese  inhabitants  of  Liaotung  take  the  collective  name  of  Mandzi,  what- 
ever be  their  origin.     They  come  chiefly  from  Shansi,  Shantung,  and  Pechili ;  but 
in  North-west  Mancliuria  there  are  many  descendants  of  the  Yunnan  exiles  banished 
to  this  region  by  the  Emperor  Kang-hi  in  the  seventeenth  century.     Still  the 
immigrants  from  Shantung  are  the  most  numerous.     They  supply  the  agricultural 


y.     Hut  tho 

>  of  Molipil 
,in'»'<l  by  tho 
III  Irxitdii  to 
ly  i'Xc1u(1«mI. 
iinlH  tli<^  tnil 
us  KuiitiMiin 

1080  folonisa- 

<t  si'ttU-nu'iits 

most  of  the 

.ih's  an*  luiu- 

I  stcpiH'  hinds 
iitiir.  Tsit- 
j  chief  phico 
tioimrioH,  and 
s  monibcrs  of 
[>n  visited  by 
lis  phicc  fon- 

II  free  to  ply 
choose  their 

c  on  the  con- 
eniselvos  once 
e  the  authori- 
T  of  Moham- 
ue<l  in  North 
V   have   their 
hools,    living 
I   their  co-re- 
voluntarily 
n.     All  these 
itc  to  modify 
Chinese  type, 
■xiles  and  free 
Hunbutze,  or 
the  peaceful 
(Oils  smuggled 
wer,  and  have 
*  Vcngeinu'c." 
Mandzi,  what- 
Pcchili ;  but 
xiles  banished 
ry.     Still  the 
le  agricultural 


TOPOOHAPnY. 


123 


and  HetthHl  oli'mcMits,  and  their  dialort  is  now  current  throughoiif  llie  whole  of 
Mnnchiiriu.  Those  from  Shansi  ar(>  chiefly  itinerant  dealers,  hawkers,  hucksters, 
money-lenders,  and  l»ankcrs.  They  betray  a  rcniarkalile  talent  for  uc(|iiiring 
languages,  in  their  dealings  with  a  straiigi>r  always  conversing  in  his  language, 
unless  it  happens  to  be  Manilm.  This  tlu'V  alVect  greatly  to  d(>,xpiMc,  and  have 
the  less  n«'ed  to  ham  if  that  ("liinese  is  now  everywliere  understood  by  the  natives. 
These  Shansi  triulers  are  gradually  uc(|uiring  all  the  substance  of  the  land.  In  their 
flat-nM)f<-d  Maiichu  houses  the  place-  of  honour  is  taken  by  Laoyeh  and  Tsaikin,  tho 
gmls  (tf  wealth,  whom  they  worship  most  sedulously. 

Thanks  to  its  fertility  and  temperate  climate.  South  V  nchiiria  yields  a  groat 
variety  of  agricultural  ju'oduce.  The  Chinese  breed  swine  and  cultivate  wheat, 
barley,  niai/e,  millet,  besides  the  "yellow  pea"  (<S«//^f /</«/»>/</),  from  which  they 
extract  a  sweet  oil  used  as  a  condiment,  exporting  the  refuse  to  China  asi  manure. 
Notwithstanding  the  severe  winters,  the  hot  summers  enable  them  to  grow  a  species 
of  incKgo,  besides  cotton  and  tho  vine,  carefully  protecting  the  roots  with  straw 
and  earth  during  the  cold  season.  The  mulberry  and  oak  are  planted  for  the  sake 
of  the  silkworm,  of  which  there  are  several  varieties,  not  only  yiehling  the  precious 
fibre,  but  also  supplying  the  table  with  its  greatest  delicacy.  As  in  ^[ongolio,  the 
imperial  edicts  against  opium  are  a  dead  letter,  and  the  bright  bloom  of  tho  poppy 
is  everywhere  intermingled  with  the  other  crops.  liastly,  the  Manchu  tobacco, 
especially  that  grown  in  the  Ciirin  district,  is  famous  througluuit  the  empire.  The 
practice  of  tobacco-smoking  spread  originally  from  Manchuria  to  Japan,  and  thence 
to  China  alwut  the  time  of  the  conquest.  But  the  Manchus  still  remain  the 
greatest  smokers  in  the  empire.  Some  Chinese  peasants  in  the  Usuri  valley  also 
cultivate  ginseng,  which  the  Manchus  call  orotfia,  or  "  first  of  plants,"  and  which 
fetches  its  weight  in  gold  in  China.  Its  cultivation  was  formerly  reserved  as  a 
monopoly  by  the  Manchus,  and  the  line  of  willow  palisades  is  said  to  have  been 
originally  erected  in  order  to  prevent  tho  Mandzi  from  penetrating  into  tho  forests 
abounding  in  ginseng.  But  the  trade  has  now  passed  altogether  into  the  hands  of 
the  Mandzi,  who  either  cultivate  or  procure  it  in  the  wild  state.  The  latter  is  much 
preferred  to  the  garden  produce. 

Till  recently  the  only  important  local  industries  were  the  preparation  of  vegetable 
oils,  and  of  brandy  distilled  from  sorgho.  The  Manchus  of  both  sexes  drink  this 
spirit,  "  to  tbo  forgetf ulness  of  good  and  evil,"  as  they  express  it.  Thousands  are 
now  also  occupied  in  the  gold  mines,  and  according  to  the  official  returns,  over 
30,000  were  employed  about  the  middle  of  this  century  at  the  AVanlagu 
washings,  on  the  Upper  Suifun.  But  the  coal  and  iron  mines  of  South  IMunchuria 
promise  to  become  a  still  more  productive  source  of  national  wealth.  Thanks  to 
these  varied  resources,  Ijiaotung  has  already  become  much  richer  than  many 
provinces  in  the  interior  of  the  empire. 

TOPOGUAPHY. 

The  only  Manchurian  town  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Amur  is  Aigun  (Aikhun), 
which  is  by  far  the  most  populous  in  the  whole  valley  of  the  Helun-kiang,  or 


I ' 


'■»feM-^t,V/^'y'IWIS^kWit<t'j^'>ak»-W)fe;'iWWJ/SJL'''', 


"'Sp- 


.Jiki 


1S4 


KAST  ASIA. 


"  Ilivrr  of  th<'  lll;i»k  Drnjfon,"  us  ttii>('liin<>M(>  rail  tli«>  Amur,  proluiltly  frr»m  tluMliirk 
cnliMirnf  its  waters,  Aij^mi  <>tri't('lH'M,  with  itn  Nuhiirlmaiid  jjurflciiM,  tor  ovtT  l*  inili-s 
aloii;;  t\w  river,  aii<l  villn^fcs  fullciw  in  quick  Nucccssittn  all  the  way  to  Saklialin, 
nouir  'J  I  niiirs  mirth  of  Ai^uii,  over  ajfainst  tlu-  KiisHiiui  towu  of  IUapivii'>tli('licusk. 
Tliu  Cltiui'Hi)  city   is  not  only   llic  capital   of  all   tli**  Amur  dixtrict,   liut   i.s  also 

rc^;ar<lt'<l  as  tlicir  chief  town  hy  all 
Fiif.  ''lO.   CiiMri.i'KM.'i':    or  tiik  N'iinni    and  Mvmoaiii. 

ftoile  I  1  ,li«l,«OU. 


dkisl-  Temple 

Mninol  Village 


the  Darir.H,  Maiichus,  and  t'hincHO 
of  the  Siberian  si(h',  who  carefully 
avoid  their  Russian  masters,  and  still 
continue  to  \my  their  taxes  to  the 
Aij^un  authorities.  Hut  as  a  mili- 
tary station  this  place  is  tiM)  far 
removed  frtim  the  heart  of  the  empire 
to  he  aide  to  resist,  the  Russians, 
shoiddthoy  attack  it.  Itsenclosuro 
consists  of  a  simple  palisade  and 
the  remains  of  an  avenue,  while  its 
commuin'eations  with  the  rest  of  the 
coimtry  urn  ohstrut^ted  by  the  steep 
Khinan-alin  ran}];c.  AUitH  relations 
with  the  empire  are  curried  on 
throuffh  Mvytjcih  which  lies  in  u 
wooded  and  fertile  district  in  the 
LTpper  Nonni  basin.  Wlion  visited 
in  1870  by  Palladius,  this  place  had 
not  yet  been  reached  by  the  tide  of 
t'hineso  inunif^ration,  which  hud 
scarcely  got  much  lioyond  Tiiifsi/t/iui; 
(»r  Pukiilii'h,  capital  ol  North  Mun- 
churiu,  and  centre  of  administration 
for  uU  the  Itutkhans  or  Mnnchus 
still  in  ■  the  tribal  state.  These 
natives  assemble  hero  every  year  in 
the  month  of  Juno  to  pay  their 
tribute  of  />,500  sable-skins,  and 
on  this  occasion  n  great  fuir  is  lield, 
which  attracts  the  Chinese  dealers 
from  all  quarters. 

The  Upper  Sungari  valley,  lying 
further  south  ami  nearer  to  China,  is  much  more  densely  peopled  than  the  province 
of  Tsitsikhar,  and  Girin,  its  capital,  has  already  become  a  large  city.  It  occupies 
an  admirable  pjsition  in  the  mitlst  of  an  amphith(>atrc  of  wooded  hills  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Sungari,  which  is  here  about  1,000  feet  wide.  The  place  is  called 
Chuan-chang,  or  "  Boat-yard,"  by  the  Chinese,  from  the  number  of  river  craft 


EofG 


ilJb'lj 


.  6  MUe«. 


TOI'OOUAJirY. 


V2r, 


roin  tlu'diirk 
■  over  ^)  mil<'rt 
to  Siiklialiii, 
ivirNhclifiiiHk. 
,  but   is  al.HJi 
town  Ity  III! 
itiul    riiiin'sc 
vho  carefully 
hUth,  and  still 
tuxes  to   the 
lUt  as  a  mili- 
um   is   tiH>    far 
I  ol'tluM'inpiiv 
tho    Ilussians, 
TtH  onclosuro 
palisado   ond 
'Uiu',  while  its 
tli(>  rest  (»l'  the 
I  hy  the  steep 
Ulits  relations 
'o    carried    on 
|ieh    lien   in   u 
istriet  in   the 
Wlien  visited 
this  place  hud 
by  the  tide  of 
whieh    hud 
■on<l  Tsitsiklidf, 
l'  North  Mnn- 
adniinistration 
s  or  Manchus 
state.       These 
every  year  in 
to   pay  their 
■blc-skins,    and 
at  fair  is  held, 
'hin<>so  dealers 

ri  vaUey,  lying 
m  the  province 
It  occupies 
Is  on  the  right 
place  is  called 
of  river  craft 


which  are  here  built  for  the  navigation  of  the  Sungari.  The  streetH  are  entirely 
INived  with  N((uare  wtHidi'n  blocks  or  planks,  and  piles  of  luinbe"  obstriict  the  tratlic 
ushore,  while  the  Htreani  is  covered  with  rafts.  The  neighbouring  gold  inini'H 
are  the  scene  of  constant  violence  and  bluodsbcd,  which  tlie  Chinese  authorities 
endeavour  to  ''Up|»ri'ss  with  atrocious  cruelly.  When  I'alliidius  visited  (liriu  he 
had  to  pass  through  u  line  of  stakes,  <  ai-h  surmounted  by  a  gory  liunian  head. 

In  the  marshy  and  fever-stricken  plains  lying  about  the  \onni  and  Sungari 
coiiHueiice  the  only  place  of  any  si/e  is  lii'ihnirh  (I'etuna),  or  Sincheng,  which  has 
succeeded  another  town  of  the  same  name  lying  muirer  to  the  jun<'tion.  Mere 
converge  the  main  routes  of  the  two  valleys,  uiid  a  eon«i(leral)le  trade  is  done, 
especially  with  KinnnjchiiKj'tz  ,  oi'  S'KiiKjtn  ;  that  is,  "(Jreat  Ciipital."  'i'liistown 
lies  farther  s  lutli  ou  tiru  great  highway  to  Chinu,  and  is  the  natural  nuu't  of  all  the 
nomad  Mongol  tribes  of  the  Eastern  (iol)i  steppes.  Hut  in  this  district  the  main 
route  lends  directly  north  towards  the  Smigari.  Along  this  line  of  busy  trallic 
lie  the  towns  of  Kni/K-sIni,  L'l/lii,  and  y(.<(A('-//M  (Asher-ho).  (>))posite  the  conHuenco 
the  main  stream  is  joined  by  the  Ivhulan  and  on  a  blulf  cotiununding  this  triple 
junction  stands  the  town  of  Kluilitii-vlnii. 

The  most  northern  ('liineso  city  in  the  Sungari  basin  is  S(iiisiii(/,  which  lies  on 
the  right  bank  between  the  two  rivers,  Khurklia  (M  ;tan)  and  Kl.ung-ho,  and 
facing  the  mouth  of  a  third.  Sansing  is  the  .»ld  Islai,  iuda  of  'li;  JMaiuhus — that 
is,  the  city  of  the  "  Three  Families" — and  its  admirabh!  siluatin  .  it  the  junction  of 
four  river  valleys  coidd  not  fail,  in  a  nu)re  favourable  cli oiuie,  to  rnise  it  to  u 
connnercial  centre  of  the  first  rank.  Hut  Sansing  ii-  ^i.  is.d  to  the  fnl'  I'iry  of  the 
northern  blasts,  while  in  summer  it  is  drenched  by  v-e  heavy  rains  from  the 
monsoons,  which  change  the  river  banks  into  malarious  swamps,  flood  the  cultivnu'i! 
tracts,  and  drive  the  people  to  take  refuge  in  the  uplund  valleys.  Ilenco  Sansing 
has  remained  little  more  than  a  mart  for  the  peltries  brought  hither  by  the  IManchu 
himting  tril)os.  Higher  up  the  Khurkhu  valley  is  iM'opled  by  nunierous  colonists, 
and  here  was  foundixl  the  im])ortant  town  of  Nimjuta,  in  the  midst  of  the  fertile 
valleys  watered  by  the  streams  from  the  White  Mountains.  Ningutu  occupies  the 
most  convenient  site  in  Chinesp  Manchuria  for  the  lUissian  und  Japanese  trade  ; 
for  the  routes  converge  here,  which  run  over  easy  passes  across  the  Shun-ulin  range 
east  and  north-east  to  the  valleys  of  the  Suifun  and  Tumen  Rivers.  Thus  the  com- 
modious ports  on  the  Gulf  of  Peter  the  i>v;  -'t,  are  the  naturnl  outlets  of  the  Ninguta 
district.  But  since  the  Russian  occupauon  of  the  maritime  province  the  fiscal 
measures  of  its  new  nia.sters  have  residted  in  the  depoi)ulation  of  the  border-lands. 

The  main  highway  from  Girir.  ;o  ^lukdcu,  skirting  the  foot  of  the  volcanic 
Taku-shan  range,  traverses  srviral  large  places,  such  as  Kd/i-c/iiiiuj,  Kaii/ticn, 
and  Ti'/iiiff,  or  "  Iron  Mount,"  so  named  from  a  range  of  hills  abounding  in  ores, 
thanks  to  which  Ti'lfng  has  become  the  "Birmingham  and  Sheffield  of  Manchuria." 

In  the  southern  or  Liao-hc  basin  the  chief  place  is  Mukden,  the  Shinyang  or 
Fungtien  of  the  Chinese,  which  is  the  present  capital  of  the  three  Manchu 
provinces.  It  lies  in  the  midst  of  extremely  fertile  but  treeless  plains,  watered  by 
an  affluent  of  the  Liao-he  from  the  east,  and  it  is  regarded  as  a  holy  city,  becauso 


-ajgBBaai«scwKr 


«3aM.wsa»r.<p*!WWiWjJWt^^ 


126 


EAST  ASIA. 


it  was  the  former  residence  of  the  ancestors  of  the  reigning  imperial  family.  It  is 
surrounded  by  an  outer  earthen  rampart  11  miles  in  circuit,  within  which  is 
a  second  enclosure,  3  miles  round,  built  of  bricks  and  flanked  with  towers.  The 
streets  are  much  cleaner  thaa  tliose  of  Peking,  and  like  them  lined  with  shops  and 
crowded  with  busy  throngs  all  day  long.     Northwards  stretches  the  extensive  and 


|H  , 


Fig.  51. — Lower  Ti'm«n  Valley  and  Possikt  Bay. 

Scale  1 :  700,000. 


^ 


0  to  33  Feet. 


33  to  3,300. 


3,300  and  upwards. 
IS  MUeR. 


industrious  suburb  of  Pekuan,  or  "  Northern  Barrier,"  where  the  gold  from  Korea 
is  refined.  As  an  administrative  centre,  Mukden  enjoys  great  privileges,  holding, 
in  some  respects,  the  same  rank  as  the  imperial  capital  itself.  On  the  west  stands 
a  rich  Buddhist  temple,  built  in  honour  of  the  present  dynasty,  and  on  the  opposite 
side,  3  miles  from  the  outer  walls,  is  situated  the  sacred  enclosure  containing  the 


TOPOGRAPHY. 


127 


family.  It  is 
thin  which  is 
towers.  The 
ith  shops  and 
Gxtensive  and 


1 


lid  from  Korea 
leges,  holding, 
he  west  jtanda 
on  the  opposite 
containing  the 


tombs  of  the  ancestors  of  the  imperial  family,  access  to  which  is  forbidden  under 
pain  of  death.  Till  1804  the  reigning  emperors  never  failed  to  make  a  pilgrimage 
to  the  sacred  city  of  their  dynasty ;  but  since  then  the  "  holy  face  "  (the  portrait 
of  the  Emperor)  is  sent  every  ten  years  to  Mukden  witli  mxich  pomp  and  ceremony. 

South  of  Mukden  the  seaward  route  traverses  u  thickly  peopled  district,  in 
which  large  towns  such  as  LUioyang,  Haichung,  Niuchicaixj,  and  Tienchivang  follow 
in  quick  succession.  The  two  last  mentioned  have  been  succeeded  as  ports  of  the 
Liao-he  River  by  Yiukoa,  or  Yiiigtze,  which  lies  26  miles  south-west  of  Niuchwang. 
Although  ice-bound  for  four  or  five  months  in  the  year,  the  trade  of  this  place  has 
rapidly  increased  since  it  has  been  made  a  treaty  port.  It  exports  chiefly  cotton, 
raw  silk,  hemp,  pea  oil,  and  coal  to  a  total  yearly  value  of  about  £2,250,000. 

The  whole  of  South  Manchuria  abounds  in  coal,  and  the  mines  in  the  hills 
south-east  of  Mukden  already  supply  the  towns  and  metal  works  of  the  surround- 
ing districts.  It  is  also  used  by  the  steamers  plj'ing  in  the  Yellow  Sea,  and  is  said 
to  be  superior  to  that  of  Japan,  and  equal  to  the  best  Cardiff. 

On  the  west  coast  of  the  peninsula  projecting  seawards  between  the  Gulfs  of 
Liaotung  and  Korea  are  several  towns  and  ports,  of  which  Ka'khew  and  Kiitchew 
are  the  most  imiwrtant.  On  the  side  facing  the  Yellow  Sea  the  (shief  place  is 
Tai/ang-ho,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  of  like  name  on  the  Korean  frontier.  This 
river  is  navigable  by  light  craft  for  12  miles  to  the  busy  town  of  Td/iii-s/taii,  which 
is  the  outlet  for  the  trade  both  of  Siut/en,  an  old  Manchu  capital  famous  for  its 
marble  quarries,  and  of  Ftdigirang-shan,  the  frontier  bulwark  towards  Korea.  In 
the  latter  place  the  mandarins  of  the  two  states  meet  to  exchange  the  presents 
sent  by  their  respective  sovereigns. 

West  of  the  Liao-he  the  narrow  strip  of  land  between  the  west  frontier  and  the 
coast  contains  several  trading-places  and  other  towns,  of  which  the  most  important 
are  Singminfoii,  on  the  route  from  Mukden  to  I'eking;  Falu-miii,  on  the  East  Gobi 
frontier ;  Kwangning,  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains  to  which  it  has  given  its  name ; 
Kingcliew-fu,  12  miles  from  the  north-west  corner  of  the  Gulf  of  Liaotung,  impor- 
tant as  a  great  outlet  for  the  produce  of  Manchuria  towards  ('hina;  Ningijuen, 
42  miles  farther  south ;  lastly,  Slianghai-hwan,  the  largest  in  this  region,  on  theChinese 
frontier  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  Great  Wall,  consisting  of  three  distinct 
quarters  separated  from  each  other  by  walls  and  gates.  The  inner  town,  occupied 
with  trade,  is  the  most  populous ;  the  eastern  comprises  the  militarj'  and  adminis- 
trative departments ;  while  Ninghai,  lying  on  the  west  side,  is  occupied  chiefly  by 
Chinese  immigrants.  All  throe  are  enclosed  in  a  common  half-decayed  cincture 
connected  southwards  with  the  Great  Wall,  and  stretching  some  !{  miles  along  the 
coast,  where  it  is  commanded  by  a  citadel.  A  little  temple  near  a  breach  in  the 
wall  commemorates  a  legend  which  illustrates  the  sufferings  of  the  unfortunate 
wretches  engaged  by  the  Emperor  Tsin  on  the  construction  of  these  ramparts.  A 
woman,  finding  the  body  of  her  husband  amongst  those  who  had  perished  of  their 
hardships,  dashed  her  head  against  the  wall,  which  immediately  fell,  burying  her 
by  the  side  of  her  partner  in  sorrows.  "  This  woman  is  venerated,"  says  an 
inscription  on  the  temple,  "  but  the  Emperor  Tsin  is  for  ever  execrated." 


m 


CHAPTER  V. 

CHINA. 

General  Survey. 

HE  term  "  China,"  applied  by  Europeans  to  this  region,  is  iinkno\vn 
to  the  natives,  and  the  Tain  dynasty,  whence  probably  the  Hindu 
form  Cliina,  has  for  nearly  fifteen  hundred  years  ceased  to  rule 
over  the  plains  of  the  Hoang-ho  and  Yang-tze-kiang.  Nor  do 
they  recognise  the  epithet  "  Celestial,"  attributed  to  their  empire, 
the  expression  Tien-hia,  or  "  Under  the  Heavens,"  being  applied  by  their  poets  to 
the  whole  "  sublunary  "  world  in  general  as  well  as  to  China  itself.  In  ordinary 
language  the  usual  expression  is  Chung-kwo ;  that  is,  "  Middle  Kingdom,"  or 
"  Central  Empire,"  in  reference  either  to  the  preponderance  gradually  acquired  by 
the  central  plains  over  the  surrounding  states,  or  to  the  idea  common  to  so  many 
peoples,  that  China  was  reallj^  the  centre  of  the  world.  To  the  usual  four  points 
of  the  comjjass  the  Chinese  add  a  fifth — the  centre ;  that  is,  China.  Since  the 
Manchu  conquest  the  official  designation  is  Tatsing-kwo ;  that  is,  the  "  Great  and 
Pure  Empire,"  or,  perhaps,  Ta  Tsing-kwo,  the  "  Empire  of  the  Tsing,  or  Pure." 
Other  expressions  are  Se-hai,  or  "Four  Seas" — that  is,  the  Universe;  Nwi-ti,  or 
"  Inner  Land ;  "  Shipa-shang,  or  "  Eighteen  Provinces ;  "  Iloa-kwo,  or  '*  Flowery 
Land,"  a  poetic  form  synonymous  with  "Land  of  Culture  and  Courtesy."  The 
people  themselves  are  the  "  Children  of  Han,"  or  the  "  Men  of  Tsang,"  in  allusion 
to  two  famous  dynasties.  They  also  call  themselves  "  I^imin,"  an  enigmatical  term 
commonly  rendered  "Black-haired  llace.  But  there  is  no  precise  natural  term 
of  general  acceptance  either  for  the  country  or  the  people,  and  the  same  is  largely 
true  of  the  mountains,  rivers,  provinces,  and  inhabited  districts,  the  names  of  which 
are  mere  epithets,  descriptive,  historical,  military,  or  poetical,  changing  with  every 
dynasty,  or  replaced  by  other  epithets  of  an  equally  vague  character. 

The  natural  limits  of  China  proper  are  sufficiently  well  defined.  On  the  west 
the  eastern  extension  of  the  Tibetan  plateau,  here  separated  by  deep  river  valleys 
into  divergent  ranges,  forms  a  clear  frontier  between  the  Chinese  and  the  half- 
savage  Lolo,  Sifan,  and  other  hill  tribes.  Northwards  the  Great  "Wall  indicates 
throughout  most  of  its  course  the  parting-line  between  the  arable  lands  and  the 


,  is  unkno%vn 
f  the  Hindu 
jasod  to  rule 
ig.  Nor  do 
their  empire, 
heir  poets  to 
In  ordinary 
ingdoni,"  or 
'  uccpiircd  by 
n  to  so  many 
1  four  points 
I.  Since  the 
)  "  Great  and 
ig,  or  Pure." 
3 ;  Nwi-ti,  or 
or  "  Flowery 
rtesy."  The 
,"  in  allusion 
^matieal  term 
natural  term 
me  is  largely 
mes  of  which 
g  with  every 

On  the  west 
river  valleys 
and  the  half- 
''all  indicates 
Lands  and  the 


-  "JW!M.tai4j.  -ijenmrif-  -mststKus^m 


^_ 


J      a     V      *     " 


n- 


JH- 


3      e      » 


s*' ',      


o      a] 

O  o    ^ 


S  «  e     V;?; 


OWhl 


-V^ 


NFW  YOHK,  C 


CHINA 


IT  w  nroHzs 


"W5C 


APi   LKTON  8c  C9 


l'.\ 


^^j-'i-^.'^'-yiwy^.'-"?*,-?-- 


.--*a)fe«a%aM8WJt:tai>wia««a»^^ 


r"r ^..|  ^.-^--7- . ..  ■  |.|   ^'"ii"  -i.--^^-    .^.^,— .   ,^^1^^^^^ ,.       ^^^^^^j^     ^^  ■■■^^rPij 


*»''"'»*-' — -  'M  'I  iinw'»'»Jt<B.'a.>^ja 


?  -1/— T**«^«"»55^v. 


e 


,1 


L 


PROGRESS  OP  DISCOVERY. 


12i) 


stoppo  or  desert.  East  niul  Houth-oast wards  the  Tacitit!  Ocean  washes  the  seaboard, 
which  devehtps  a  setnicircular  coasl-lino  over  L\0()()  mih's  in  extent.  Lastly,  on 
the  south  iiiouutain  rungoH,  phiteaux,  marshy  tracts,  difficult  river  goijjes,  He])arate 
China  ironi  the  Trans-Gtingetic  peiiinsida.  Here,  however,  the  frontier-line  is  often 
purelj'  conventional,  and  in  this  direction  Chinu  merges  more  gradually  than  else- 
where witli  the  border-lands.  It  occupies  in  the  extreme  east  of  the  continent  a 
space  of  almost  circular  form,  with  one  semicircle  traced  on  the  mainland,  while  the 

Fig.  6i. — Thb  NtNB  PiioviNCEB  accoudino  to  the  Yukuno. 

Scale  1  :  22,000,(X)a 


wiiimiiTi.    u[onntains  mentioned  in  the  Tuknng. 
"'<«^**      Uivers  „  „ 

"'^i-*'         Manhea,  ttacta  tubject  to  inimdatu  ns. 
'J.<!^'>>        Bange  and  probable  density  of  Ihc  CliincBe  population. 
(^         Capital  of  the  Empire  under  Shun. 
(The  figures  I.  to  IX.  represent  the  decrensingr  fertility  of  the  land.) 

_.— ^^^_— ^^_-^-— i—  flOO  Miles. 

other  is  formed  by  the  Pacific  seaboard.  Thus  circumscribed,  China  represents 
about  one-half  of  the  empire,  and  comprises  the  eleventh  part  of  the  whole  main- 
land, with  a  population  estimated  at  about  400,000,000. 

Progress  of  Discovery. 

For  thousands  of  years  the  Chinese  have  been  making  observations  on  the 
form  and  relief  of  the  land,  at  least  in  its  general  features.     The  Shuking,  or 


■■.awiMi[)iiWii»Mm<W»»ri>ili»M»<iilWsii)ii<Bi 


MmiiUliiijuwi8in»'')>i|if^m 


piiirvi'cjiittJjKWiiajimi 


180 


EAST  ASIA. 


"  Book  of  AiuuiIh,"  relutos  how  tho  KiiiiK-ror  Yu,  twenty-two  conturit's  beforo  the 
vulj^ar  rru,  hud  u  coiimus  taken,  and  liad  nuips  of  the  nine  provinceH  engraved  on 
nine  bronze  vaseH.  These  vawH,  liaving  been  'leposited  in  a  lenipU',  were  supiWHed 
to  secure  the  crown  to  tlicir  posNcssor,  and  in  the  middle  of  the  thiril  century  H.c. 
an  enijuTor  liad  them  thrown  into  the  river  t«i  prevent  them  from  fallin;^  into  the 
hands  of  his  enemies.  The  series  of  works  executed  under  the  direction  of  Yu 
constitutes  probably  the  oldest  topographical  survey  in  the  world.  Mountains  and 
headlands,  lakes  and  rivers,  quality  and  prcnluets  of  the  soil,  are  all  indicated  in 
this  description  of  the  nine  provinces.  Legions  of  commentators,  native  and 
foreign,  have  8tudie<l  this  geography  of  China,  and  have  ideutitied  its  names ;  nor 
can  there  bo  any  doubt  that  at  this  remote  ej)och  the  hind  was  already  known  even 
in  detail  from  the  seaboard  to  the  Gobi  desert.     It  would  seem  to  have  been  even 

Fig,  53.— China  AcconuiHo  to  thb  Native  Okuuhaphim. 


fShmmef 


better  known  than  in  subsequent  epochs,  and  most  of  the  later  commentaries  had 
the  effect  rather  of  obscuring  the  original  text  of  the  Yukung,  which  was  not 
thoroughly  understood  till  subjected  to  the  critical  examination  of  recent  European 
sinologues. 

Under  the  Ilun  dynasty,  in  the  second  century  of  the  vulgar  era,  there  existed 
a  veritable  topographic  office,  the  so-called  Chifany-Hhi,  intrusted  with  the  survey 
of  the  land  and  the  preparation  of  maps.  Since  that  time  geographical  studies 
have  never  been  neglected,  but  in  all  the  native  works  there  is  an  utter  lack  of  the 
sense  of  proportion  analogous  to  that  betrayed  in  their  paintings.  An  isolated 
peak,  a  range  of  mountains,  and  a  whole  orographic  system  all  assume  in  their 
descriptions  an  equal  importance,  and  are  designated  by  the  same  name.  A  brook, 
river,  lake,  or  sea  is  traced  on  the  maps  with  equally  bold  touches  of  the  pencil, 
while  rivers,  highways,  towns,  mountains,  and  coast-lines  are  all  confused  in  the 


-i  i 


I 


rios  before  the 
.'H  enj^ruvod  on 
were  KH|)|)08t'd 
'd  century  H.c. 
iillin}^  into  the 
[ireetion  of  Yu 
Mountains  und 
11  indiruted  in 
•s,  nutive  and 
its  nuuK's ;  nor 
ly  known  even 
lavo  been  even 


omentaries  had 
which  was  not 
?cent  European 

a,  there  existed 
ith  the  survey 
raphical  studies 
Iter  lack  of  the 
8.  An  isolated 
ssume  in  their 
ime.  A  brook, 
B  of  the  pencil, 
onfused  in  the 


i 


rROORESS  OP  DISCO  VK II Y. 


nn 


general  tableau.  Tin;  nieaHurcinentH  luck  pnrisioii,  or  liave  uieri'Iy  a  goncnil  vabie, 
and  the  //,  or  unit  of  diNtanc«'H,  chanji^cN  accordinjr  to  finie  and  phire.  The  li  is 
usually  estimated  at  one-third  of  a  mile,  but  flicre  are  great  discrepancies,  and  1H5, 
192,  '200,  and  2'')0  are  variously  reckoned  to  the  degree. 

The  itineraries  of  the  tirst  FiUr()])ean  explorers  are  often  traced  in  a  somewhat 
vague  manner,  and  of  these  pioneers  of  discovery  very  few  have  left  a  name  in 
history.  Marco  Polo,  who  spent  seventeen  years  in  the  country,  was  followed  by 
other  traders  or  missiimaries,  such  as  Pegolotti,  Montecorvino,  Odorico  di  Pordenone, 

Fig.  64. — KiAMu-HU,  ACcoKCiNO  TO  Mahtini. 


/J^  Scptrnino  ^*       /^^T  /^O 


J  NANKING;^ 

i  KIANG-NAN.  \  . 

y  IMPEKIISINARVM  \^^ 
y  PROVINCIA  NONA.  V 

-wi       'M       '/ts\ 


MarignoUi.  In  his  description  of  the  splendours  of  Cansai,  the  modern  Ilangchew-fu, 
Odorico  appeals  to  the  testimony  of  many  Venetians,  who  had  also  visited  the 
place.  But  exploration  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  terra,  together  with  the  direction 
or  improvement  of  the  native  maps,  did  not  begin  till  the  time  of  the  missionaries. 
In  the  seventeenth  century  Martino  Martini,  of  Trent,  reproduced  the  Chinese 
maps,  modified  by  himself  from  his  own  observations,  and  accompanied  by  critical 
documents.  At  the  end  of  the  same  century  the  French  missionaries,  having 
become  the  official  astronomers  and  mathematicians  of  the  empire  while  retaining 
their  relations  with  the  geographers  of  the  West,  were  able  to  explore  the  country 


-'  'iiMMij'MmiiiiWWiiiiiiiwiM 


T^wnwri-inijai 


iiiWuataBttii 


irrtii)im>Yfiit'iiaMtwM»i»im»wiW^MMW 


188 


EAST  ASIA. 


under  fiivouraulo  conditions,  rurcfuUy  prquirin^  their  itincniripaand  iiHtrononiicidly 
determining  several  places  on  their  maps.  In  l(i^!M-!)  Cierhili«in  was  even  recpicsted 
to  co-operate  in  determining  the  new  frontier- line  between  lUissia  and  the  Chineso 
Kmpire,  an<l  until  (piile  recently  his  menu»irs  remained  our  chief  source  of  know- 
le(ly;e  for  some  of  the  nortliern  regions.  Later  on  llouvet,  Itegis,  and  .lartoux 
received  orders  from  Kang-hi  to  construct  the  intperial  nuipof  China,  which  is  still 
tlie  standard  to  which  modi'rn  explorers  have  to  refer  their  obHcrvations.  This 
general  fusicm  of  the  old  Chinese  maps  was  completed  in  ten  years,  and  hy  its 
means  D'Anville  was  enaltled  to  prepare  the  atlas,  of  which  all  subsequent  maps  of 
China  are  merely  more  or  less  faithful  reproduetictns. 

At  the  sjime  time  recent  scrientitic  research  in  various  parts  of  the  empire  has 
supplied  copious  materials  for  a  more  accurate  map,  especially  in  respect  of  the 
position  of  the  town.s,  the  river  systems,  and  the  relief  of  the  land.  Most  of  the 
seaboard,  estuaries,  islands,  and  sand-banks  have  already  been  carefully  surveyed  by 
European  and  American  hydrographers.  Hhikiston,  amongst  others,  has  traced  the 
meanderings  of  the  Yang-t/e,  thus  supplying  a  solid  basis  across  the  empire  for 
future  chartographic  work.  Fritsche,  So^-novsky,  and  al)ove  all  liichthofen,  have 
connected  their  itineraries  with  tho.se  of  Siberia  and  Central  Asia  by  a  series  of 
valuable  astronomic  observations,  and  the  native  geographers  have  now  begun  to 
take  part  in  these  labours.  Some  of  the  maps  recenjtly  published  by  them  show 
that  fancy  and  Mysticism  have  already  given  place  to  u  more  careful  study  of 
nature. 


Physical  Features — Climate. 

Within  its  natural  limits  China  proper  enjoys  a  fair  degree  of  geographic 
unity.  The  mountain  systems  run  mainly  in  the  direction  from  west  to  east,  thus 
everywhere  opening  easy  routes  from  the  coast  inland.  The  plains  on  either  side 
of  the  main  ranges  are  also  connected  by  means  of  frequent  gaps  and  easy  passes, 
so  that  the  few  isolated  plateaux  are  nowhere  extensive  enough  to  prevent  the 
fusion  of  the  surromiding  populations.  The  national  unity  has  been  promoted  in  a 
special  manner  by  the  disjKJsition  of  the  two  great  river  systems.  Both  the  Yellow 
and  lilue  Rivers  flow  mainly  parallel  with  the  equator,  and  although  their  middle 
courses  are  widely  deflected  north  and  south,  the  intervening  uplands  are  almost 
everywhere  crossed  by  accessible  routes.  The  first  serious  obstacle  is  presented  by 
the  rugged  upland  region  between  the  Yang-tze  and  its  great  tributary,  the  Min  ; 
but  even  here  more  than  one  practicable  track  has  been  followed  from  the  remotest 
times.  A  still  more  easy  approach  is  offered  by  the  valley  of  the  Eialing,  while 
farther  east  the  Ilan-kiang  flows  through  a  broad  depression  obliquely  connecting 
the  two  streams.  Lower  down  their  alluvial  plains  are  merged  in  one  vast  lowland 
region,  where  the  shifting  course  of  the  Iloang-ho  has  at  different  epochs  reached 
an  estuary  communicating  through  two  side  branches  with  ihe  Iloai  and  the 
Yang-tze.  The  two  great  fluvial  basins,  comprising  in  Tibet,  Kuku-nor,  Mongolia, 
and  China  an  area  of  over  1,360,000  square  miles,  may  even  be  regarded  as  forming 
a  common  hydrographic  system.     The  section  of  this  vast  area  lying  south  of  the 


:»Htrnnotniciilly 
•veil  ri'(|ui'Mtf<l 
1(1  the  CliiiiutM) 
iirco  of  know- 
I,  iiiul  •lartoux 
,  which  is  Ntill 
vatioiiH.  Tliis 
lis,  iiiid  hy  itis 
queiil  iniips  uf 

the  empire  has 

rospoct  of  the 

.     Mo8t  of  the 

ly  surveyed  by 

has  traced  the 

the  empire  for 

chthofen,  have 

by  u  series  of 

now  beji^im  to 

by  them  show 

ireful  study  of 


of  geographic 
;8t  to  cast,  thus 

on  either  side 
,nd  easy  passes, 

to  prevent  the 
1  promoted  in  a 
oth  the  Yellow 
jh  their  middle 
ids  are  almost 
is  presented  by 
ary,  the  Min ; 
ira  the  remotest 

Kialing,  while 
lely  connecting 
ae  vast  lowland 
epochs  readied 

Iloai  and  the 
-nor,  Mongolia, 
•ded  as  forming 
g  south  of  the 


lilYHICAL  FKATUKKH— CLIMAIE. 


las 


Fig.  1)6.  -Imitmrkmalh  ov  fiiivA. 
Sod*  t :  4A,Oiii),uuo. 


Mongolian  stoppcH  and  east  nf  the  Tilietan  plateaux  has  naturally  berunio  the 
domain  uf  u  united  a^^ricultural  nation. 

Tlie  soutliern  lands  south  of  tlie  two  grr'iit  twin  rivers  are  liss  solidlv  united 
with  till' rest  of  the  empire.  Ili're  the  moiinfains  are  nioro  elevated  than  in  the 
heart  of  the  rountry,  and  are  grouped  in  a  greater  nuinlier  of  indepeiuleiit  ridges, 
ruiining,  not  west  and  east,  but  mainly  south-west  and  north-east.  Nor  can  the 
Si-kiang,  the  chief  river  of  this  region,  he  compared  with  the  two  main  streams  of 
China,  either  in  extent  or  in  the  facilities  alfonled  by  its  lateral  valleys  for  free 
inland  roniniuiiii-atioii.  Hence  this  portion  of  the  empire  constitutes  a  ilislinct 
territory,  more  neiiily  allied  physi- 
cally and  ethnically  with  Further 
India  than  with  ( 'hina  proper.  The 
Southern  Chinese  differ  widely  from 
those  of  the  central  and  northern 
regions,  Initli  in  speech  and  customs, 
and  have  within  the  historii;  period 
frequently  formed  distinct  political 
systems. 

In  the  eastern  In misphere  China 
corresponds  with  West  Kurope  in  its 
climate,  products,  and  historic  de- 
velopment. The  mass  of  the  land 
doubtless  lies  much  nearer  to  the 
equator,  for  its  northern  frontier  at 
the  eastern  extremity  of  the  Great 
Wall  is  crossed  by  the  40th  parallel, 
like  Mount  Athos,  Minorco,  and 
South  Spain,  while  the  whole  coost 
south  of  the  Canton  estuary  lies 
within  the  tropics.  Hut  the  iso- 
thermal lines,  so  to  say,  deflect  China 
proper  northwards,  imparting  to  it  a 
relatively  cold  climate.  Thus  the 
mean  temperature  of  South  England 
and  North  France,  about  50°  Fahr., 

answers  to  that  of  Peking  and  the  Pei-ho  valley.  Shanghai  corresponds  in  the  same 
way  with  Marseilles  and  Genoa,  while  the  isothermal  of  68°  Fahr.  intersects  the 
South  Chinese  seaboard,  Andalusia,  and  the  south  of  Portugal.  The  extremes, 
however,  are  greater  in  China,  which  in  this  respect  is  thus  at  once  a  more 
northern  and  a  more  southern  region  than  temperate  Europe.  In  the  Old 
as  in  the  New  World  the  climate  of  the  east  is  severer  than  that  of  the  west 
coast,  a  fact  due  to  the  disposition  of  the  oceanic  basins,  and  to  the  rotation  of  the 
earth  from  west  to  east.  In  Europe  the  conflicting  atmospheric  currents  are  those 
of  the  pole  and  the  tropical  trade  winds,  which  are  deflected  by  the  earth's  motion, 


aooMiiu. 


IHl 


EAST  ASIA. 


thn  furmcT  to  fli«>  iiortli-ciiMt,  tho  lutt«'r  to  the  xoulh-wi'Ht.  On  tho  KoNt  ANiutio 
N(<iil)oiinl  till*  viiHt  lNi>>iii  nf  the  I'uritic  (livcrts  tlwHr  curnMitn  from  tlirir  norinnl 
(linMlioii,  tv>  tliiif  the  pdiir  winds  jmssiiif^  over  Sihcri'ii  drvliil  iJn,  Noiitli   iiiul 

Hoijlli-rust  in  onliT  to  replace  the  wiinner  iitnioNphere  (lil'iij,  i  'roin  the  tropicul 
waters  towards  tho  {H)le.     On  thn  otiier  hand,  the  marine  l»n  i>  outtruetcd  in 

Mininier  liy  the  "Yellow  liatids"  of  the  lloaiiy:-ho  and  tlio  liarren  Hte|)pei4  and 
winds  i>f  Mongolia,  tli«'  I'aeitie  trade  wiiitN  hein^  tlins  often  dellected  towards  tho 
interior  of  riiiiia.  Farther  south  the  opiiosite  enrreiilH  from  the  Itay  of  Ileii^^al 
mid  the  I'aeitie  pnMlnce  .in  nnstaltle  e(|iiililirium,  often  sueeeeded  hy  those  territiu 
typhoons  (/(/;/»;///,  or  "  Ureut  Windn"),  h«»  drcudod  by  mariners  in  those 
water>i. 

Tli;inks  to  the  regular  south-west  winds  and  tlu*  niarino  monHTKmN,  (Utinii 
roceives  u  lur<»er  average  <piantity  of  moisture  than  West  i'lurope.  Alonj^;  tho 
«'oast  the  mean  rainfall  is  rather  more  than  40  iiiehes,  and  the  j^reater  rej^ularity  of 
the  seasons  iias  aNo  !arjj;ely  cuiitrihuted  to  the  early  (h'velopmeiit  of  agriculture  in 
the  Yaiijj^-t/e  and  IIoan>?-ho  basins.  Nevertheless  this  advantaj^e  over  Europe  iH 
rounterhalunced  by  extensive  inundations,  and  occuHionally  by  long  periods  of 
drought,  followed  ini'vitably  l)y  widespread  famiiu*. 

Fi-oKA  AND  Fauna. 

Tluinks  to  its  normally  temporute,  and  in  tho  south  almost  tropical  climate, 
China  possesses  an  extremely  Tich  flora,  in  which  both  In<lian  and  Kuropean  types 
are  mingled  together.  In  some  intermediate  southern  tracts  tho  same  lands  will 
grow  the  sugar-cane  and  potato,  while  the  oak  and  bamboo  flourish  side  by  side  in 
tlie  neighbouring  thickets.  Proceeding  northwards,  there  is  a  gradual  transition 
from  the  Indian  to  tho  Manchurian  flora.  The  spread  of  tropical  varieties  has 
been  stimulated  by  the  inclination  of  numerous  valleys  towards  the  Malay  peninsula. 
Hence  a  largo  number  of  Indian  plants  are  found  as  far  north  as  (Janton,  and  even 
Amoy,  under  tho  24th  parallel.  Of  these  one  of  tho  most  valuable  is  the  indis- 
pensable bamboo,  which  is  used  for  building  purposes,  and  even  for  food,  tho 
young  sprouts  being  regarded  as  one  of  the  choice  delicacies  of  the  Chinese 
cuisine. 

A  great  contrast  between  the  European  and  Chinese  floras  is  presented  by  their 
respective  foiest  specii-s,  which  are  more  varied  and  of  a  more  tropical  character 
in  (vhina,  although  the  woodlands  have  here  largely  disappeared.  Even  in  tho 
Peking  district,  and  throughout  the  northern  provinces,  where  for  a  portion  of  the 
year  the  climate  is  almost  Siberian,  fully  one-fifth  of  all  the  plants  belong  to  the 
arborescent  orders.  The  evergreens  especially  are  very  numerous,  the  resinous 
species  presenting  more  varied  types  even  than  those  of  North  America  itself.  The 
laurel  is  a  characteristic  feature  of  the  Chinese  landscape,  and  the  sycamore,  ash, 
linden,  maple,  and  many  other  forest  trees  belong  to  the  same  genera  as  those  of 
Europe.  But  China  is  especially  noted  for  the  great  number  and  beauty  of  its 
flowering  shrubs.     From  the  "  Flowery  Land  "  come  the  camellia,  azalea,  jasmine, 


!!i 


•1^' 


KoHt  Asiafic 
tlw'ir  iii/rinal 

W     IHOIltll     1111(1 

tiic  ti'i)|>ical 
I  uttmctofl  in 
I  Hti'pjH'K  and 
i  towarilii  tiio 
ay  of  IK'ngul 
tlumi<  tcrriHc 
'vn    in    thoae 

MxmH,  China 
.  Alon^  the 
rc'f^uliirity  «if 
i^i'iculturo  in 
vvr  Kiiropo  in 
g  pcriuUa  uf 


»ical  climate, 
iroponn  types 
me  landH  will 
le  by  side  in 
iial  transition 
varieties  has 
ay  i)en  insula, 
on,  and  even 

is  the  indis- 
:or  food,  the 

the   Chinese 

nted  by  their 
leal  character 

Even  in  the 
ortion  of  the 
©long  to  the 

the  resinous 
a  itself.  The 
ircaniore,  ash, 
ra  as  those  of 
beauty  of  its 
ilea,  jasmine, 


FLOllA  AND  FAUNA, 


1H.J 


and  so  many  other  lovely  plants,  whirli  form  the  pride  of  our  gardens  and  conser- 
vatories. 

Notwithstanding  tlie  labours  of  nuuiy  zoalouH  naturalists,  the  fainia  of  Cliina  id 
still  far  from  being  tlioroughly  known,  and  every  su(Tt'ssiv«>  exphtrer  lier«' disi'overs 
new  species.     Many  huve  also  probably  disappeared  Ix'foro  the  eucroachnienls  of 

Fig.  56.—  Kanor  of  the  Thijiem  Fauna. 
Scale  I  :  'JO,(iui),0UU. 


i 


•  300  Miles. 


agriculture  during  the  historic  period.  Thus  the  old  accounts  speak  of  the 
rhinoceros,  elephant,  and  tapir  as  still  surviving  in  China  proper ;  nor  is  it  now 
possible  to  say  when  they  became  extinct.  But  what  remains  is  nevertheless  far 
more  varied  than  that  of  Europe,  although  wild  animals  have  become  very  rare  in 
the  cultivated  districts.  As  with  the  flora,  there  is  an  insensible  transition  from 
the  Indian  to  the  Manchurian  fauna.     Monkeys,  which  may  be  regarded  as  here 


iiiWiiiiiaiirti|i«i'<Sl>ii'iiiMtlil<iiiViii'Mffl^^^^ 


'''» 


Rii 


j^^ 


186 


EAST  ASIA. 


representing  the  tropical  world,  occur  in  small  numbers  in  the  thickets  and  rocky 
caverns  as  far  north  as  the  neighbourhood  of  Peking.  At  least  nine  simian  species 
are  found  in  Cliina  and  Tibet,  and  as  many  as  a  dozen  of  the  feline  order,  including 
the  tiger  and  pantlier,  infest  the  leas  pojjulous  districts  of  China  proper.  Of  two 
hundred  niauimaliaus  not  more  than  ten  are  common  to  China  and  lairope,  and 
even  these  present  certain  differences  sufficient  to  constitute,  according  to  some 
naturalists,  distinct  varieties.  Relatively  more  numerous  are  the  European  birds, 
of  which  as  many  as  146  species  in  a  total  of  764  are  found  in  China,  which  has  also 
about  60  in  common  with  America.  The  numerous  Chinese  varieties  of  the  lizard, 
snake,  salamander,  and  turtle  arc  altogether  unrepresented  in  Europe,  and,  with  the 
single  exception  of  the  eel,  all  the  fresh-water  fish  differ  from  those  of  the  West, 
betraying,  on  the  whole,  a  more  general  resemblance  to  those  of  North  America. 


Hi 


rj 


Inhahitants — ^The  Chinese  Race. 

The  Chinese  people  constitute  one  of  the  most  distinct  varieties  of  mankind. 
They  are  commonly  regarded  as  a  branch  of  the  so-called  Mongol  type,  although 
presenting  a  marked  contrast  to  the  nomad  tribes  of  this  name.  The  very  expres- 
sion ^longol,  to  which  a  more  precise  meaning  was  formerly  assigned,  denotes  at 
present  little  more  than  the  relationship  of  contact  or  proximity  between  the  East 
Asiatic  nation.i.  The  Chinese  are  evidently  a  very  mixed  race,  presenting  a  great 
variety  of  tj'pes  in  the  vast  region  stretching  from  Canton  to  the  Great  Wall,  from 
the  Pacific  seaboard  to  Tibet.  But  of  these  types  the  Mongol  is  perhaps  the  least 
common  amongst  the  "  Children  of  Han."  The  average  Chinaman,  considered  as 
belonging  to  this  assumed  Mongolic  type,  is  represented  as  of  low  stature,  somewhat 
symmetrical  form,  although  occasionally  inclined  to  obesity,  especially  in  the  north, 
with  round  face,  high  cheek  bones,  broad  flat  features,  small  nose,  small  oblique 
and  black  eyes,  coarse  black  hair,  scant  beard,  yellow,  brown,  or  even  light 
complexion,  according  to  the  climate.  The  head  is  mostly  long  or  sub-dolicho- 
cephalous,  whereas  that  of  the  Mongolians  is  rather  round  or  brachycephalous. 

The  old  Chinese  writings,  including  those  of  Confucius,  already  speak  of  the 
contrasts  presented  by  the  physical  traits  and  moral  character  of  the  different 
peoples  in  the  empire.  Those  of  the  north  are  spoken  of  as  brave,  the  southerners 
as  endowed  with  wisdom,  the  men  of  the  east  as  kind  and  friendly,  those  of  the 
Avest  as  more  upright  and  honest.  But  however  this  be,  it  is  certain  that  the 
nntives  of  the  various  provinces  present  the  sharpest  contrasts  with  each  other. 
The  true  national  link  is  their  common  culture  ralher  than  any  connnon  racial 
type.  For  the  aboriginal  elements  have  been  diversely  modified  by  mixture  with 
Tibetans,  Tatars,  Mongols,  Manchus,  Burmese,  Shana,  Malays,  besides  the  Si-fan, 
Miaotze,  and  other  still  half-savage  hill  tribes,  M-hich  have  no  collective  ethnical  desig- 
nation. For  thousands  of  years  the  agricultural  populations  of  diverse  origin  settled 
in  the  Hoang-ho  and  Yang-tze-kiang  bosins  have  had  the  same  historic  destinies, 
speak  dialects  of  »he  same  language,  and  have  become  one  nation.  !Many  differences 
between  the  primitive  stocks  have  been  gradually  effaced  ;  but  the  differences  are 


''IWiimil  jiPjpp»«niWVJJI»tf*H  i'M"'  "if  Nil 


THE  CHINESE  LANGUAGE. 


137 


cets  and  rocky 
simian  species 
'der,  including 
Dper.  Of  two 
d  Europe,  and 
rding  to  some 
uropean  birds, 
which  has  also 
i  of  the  lizard, 
,  and,  with  the 
3  of  the  West, 
■th  America. 


!S  of  mankind, 
type,  although 
le  very  expros- 
;ied,  denotes  at 
tween  the  East 
enting  a  great 
eat  Wall,  from 
rhaps  the  least 
L,  considered  as 
ture,  somewhat 
ly  in  the  north, 
,  small  oblique 
or  even  light 
or  sub-dolicho- 
cephalous. 
y  speak  of  the 
f  the  different 
the  southerners 
y,  those  of  the 
3rtain  that  the 
ith  each  other, 
common  racial 
y  mixture  with 
ies  the  Si-fan, 
!  ethnical  desig- 
se  origin  settled 
storic  destinies, 
[any  differences 
differences  are 


still  conspicuous  in  some  of  the  southern  provinces,  notably  in  Fokion  and 
Kwangtung,  the  natives  of  which  seem  to  form  two  races  not  yet  thorougiily  fused. 

But  whence  came  that  primitive  stock,  which,  blending  with  diverse  elements, 
resulted  in  the  great  Chinese  nation  ?  The  people  formerly  called  themselves  the 
"  Hundred  Families,"  and  pointed  to  the  north-west  beyond  the  Iloang-ho  as  the 
region  whence  the  migrating  groups  descended  to  the  fluvial  plains,  where  they 
either  expelled  or  subdued  and  absorbed  the  loss  civilised  aborigines,  Nor  is  it  at 
all  unlikely  that  the  vast  and  fertile  region  of  the  "  Yellow  Lands,"  lying  mainly 
north  of  the  Tloang-ho,  played  a  leading  part  in  the  early  history  of  the  Chinese 
people.  Here  was  room  for  millions  of  agriculturists,  who  may  have  gradually 
migrated  eastwards  according  as  the  lacustrine  basins  dried  up  and  the  sands  of  the 
desert  encroached  upon  the  cultivated  plains  of  Central  Asia,  where  the  forefathers 
of  the  Chinese  had  dwelt  in  close  proximity  with  those  of  the  Turki,  Hindu,  and 
Iranian  races.  Every  river  valley  became  a  highway  of  migration,  and  conse- 
(|uently  of  dispersion  for  the  peoples  of  higher  culture,  and  the  arts,  manners,  and 
speech  of  the  early  settlers  may  have  thus  been  gradually  diffused  from  north  to 
south  throughout  the  empire. 

Tiike  those  of  Europe;,  the  peoples  of  China  have  had  their  stone  age,  and  the 
collections  of  the  extreme  East  include  implements  and  objects  of  all  kinds  similar 
to  those  of  the  palax)lithic  and  neolithic  periods  in  the  West,  Sladen  has  brought 
from  Yunnan  a  number  of  jade  hatchets,  which,  as  in  Europe,  were  formerly 
supposed  to  bo  "  thunder  stones,"  bolts  hurled  to  the  earth  by  the  god  of  thunder. 
The  Chinese  have  divided  the  prehistoric  ages  into  three  periods  corresponding  with 
those  of  the  Western  archaeologists.  "  Fu-hi,"  they  say,  "  made  weapons  of  wood ; 
Thin-ming,  of  stone ;  Shi-yu,  of  metal,"  But  after  the  introduction  of  iron  imple- 
ments the  stone  arrow-heads  were  still  credited  with  a  symbolic  virtue,  and  in  the 
hand  of  the  sovereign  regarded  as  emblems  of  royalty,  Down  to  the  twelfth 
century  n,c,  the  Chinese  emperors  received  in  tribute  stone  arrow-heads,  and  long 
after  that  time  these  arras  continued  in  use  amongst  the  wild  tribes  of  the  western 
highlands.  Amongst  the  Chinese  ideographic  characters  there  is  still  a  particular 
sign  to  indicate  a  stone  used  in  manufacturing  arrow  or  dart  heads. 

The  Chinese  nation  has  thus  passed  through  successive  stages  of  progress 
answering  to  those  of  other  civilised  peoples,  only  in  China  the  early  evolutions 
were  brought  sooner  to  a  close  than  elsewhere.  The  European  races  were  still  rude 
barbarians  when  the  Chinese  were  writing  their  history  some  four  thousand  years 
ago.  In  spite  of  all  their  shortcomings,  the  Chinese  annals  constitute  the  most 
authentic  and  complete  historical  record  possessed  by  mankind.  Here  are  faithfully 
registered  the  political  vicissitudes  of  the  land,  as  well  as  the  natural  phenomena 
and  astronomic  observations  by  means  of  which  the  dates  of  historic  events  may  be 
tested  or  determined. 

The  Chinese  Language. 

But  notwithstanding  their  ancient  culture,  the  Chinese  are  distinguished 
amongst  all  civilised  peoples  for  the  still  primitive  form  of  their  speech.     In  this 

42 


»iiirWM<iw#i»-wfcii'ii  limiiWiiiwiwimnwaWilw 


RMP 


Jl»^ 


I 


138 


EAST  ASIA. 


Hi 


ill 

h 
Pii 


' } 


il 

f 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 
1 

1 

i 

1 
1 

1 

respect  tlioy  have  rcrauiued  in  a  stage  of  development  answering  amongst  the 
Aryans  and  Semites  to  the  prehistoric  epoch.  Their  dialects  contain  nothing  but  a 
small  immber  of  monosyllabic  roots  expressing  merely  general  ideas,  and  conveying 
a  definite  notion  oidy  in  the  sentence.  In  virtue  of  their  i)osition  alone  they 
become  nouns,  adjectives,  verbs,  or  particles,  and  gi-ammar  is  thus  reduced  to  a 
question  of  syntax.  And,  strange  to  say,  of  all  the  dialects,  the  so-called  "  ^landa- 
rin,"  or  Kwan-hoa,  current  in  Peking,  is  the  poorest,  containing,  according  to 
Williams,  no  more  than  460  distinct  monosyllables.  Those  of  Shanghai  and 
Ningpi)  are  not  much  richer ;  but  that  of  Swatow,  in  the  south-east  of  Kwangtung, 
has  074,  and  that  of  Canton  as  many  as  707.  But  the  richest  of  all  is  that  of 
Changehew,  near  Amoy,  whose  846  roots  yield,  according  to  Medhurst  and  Douglas, 
as  manj'  as  2,500  different  sounds,  thanks  to  the  variety  of  its  intonations ;  for 
the  poverty  of  sounds  obliges  the  Chinese,  like  other  peoples  of  monosyllabic 
speeeli,  to  vary  the  sense  by  means  of  the  tones  with  which  they  are  uttered. 
Hence  the  vague  and  undecided  character  of  Chinese  pronunciation,  which,  more- 
over, varies  immensely  from  province  to  province  and  from  city  to  city.  Thus  the 
sign  rendered  into  English  by  the  word  "  child,"  and  found  in  a  vast  number  of 
geographical  names,  is  pronounced  ts  in  the  north ;  tz  or  dz  in  Canton ;  clii  in 
Macao.  So  also  the  sign  for  two  is  diversely  pronounced  cut,  oil',  id,  ur/i,  r/i,  htr, 
iif/p,  tif/i,  zhc,  zlii,  c,  and  /. 

This  variety  in  the  pronunciation,  combined  with  the  poverty  of  words,  gives 
all  the  more  importance  to  the  nhing,  or  tour,  which  plays  a  greater  part  than  the 
mere  phonetic  utterance  of  the  sounds.  Thus  the  sign  for  water  may  be  indif- 
ferently pronounced  sui,  shiii,  sh'tii,  or  even  chvui,  and  will  be  intelligible  to  all, 
provided  it  be  uttered  with  its  proper  ascending  tone :  uttered  with  the  descending 
tone,  none  will  understand  it.  The  number  of  tones  varies  considerably,  some 
dialects  containing  four,  others  five,  six,  or  even  seven,  and  that  of  Fokien  possibly 
more  than  twelve,  if  account  be  taken  of  all  the  delicate  shades  of  intonation 
characteristic  of  that  dialect. 

Thanks  to  these  intonations,  thousands  of  meanings  may  be  evolved  from  the 
few  hundred  phonetic  roots.  Kang-hi's  dictionary  contains  44,449  signs,  each 
representing  a  grcp  of  distinct  meanings,  but  a  great  number  of  which  will  be 
pronounced  alike.  Thus  over  a  hundred  and  fifty  different  characters,  each  denot- 
ing a  particular  series  of  ideas,  are  all  pronoimced  i.  The  philosophic  writings 
can  only  be  understood  by  readers  with  the  text  before  their  eyes,  and  whenever 
the  conversation  rises  above  the  usual  current  of  ideas,  recourse  must  be  had  to  the 
pencil  to  make  the  subject  intelligible.  This  astonishing  poverty  of  phonetic 
sounds  is  commonly  attributed  to  the  premature  culture  of  the  people,  whoso  speech 
became  fixed  by  the  oificial  scribes  and  academicians  at  too  early  a  date.  The 
nation  has  never  since  beon  able  to  overcome  the  artificial  obstruction  thus  opposed 
to  the  free  evolution  of  their  language. 

The  Buddhist  missionaries  often  vainly  attempted  to  introduce  one  or  other  of 
the  syllabic  alphabets  of  India,  based  on  the  Devanagari.  The  Christian  mission- 
aries tdso  have  employed  the  Latin  alphabet  for  prayers  and  hymns,  which  the 


eSb. 


»  amongst  the 
I  nothing  but  a 
and  conveying 
ion  alone  they 
s  reduced  to  a 
called  "  !Munda- 
r,  according  to 
Shanghai  and 
of  Kwangtung, 
I  all  is  that  of 
st  and  Douglas, 
iitonations ;  for 
if  monosyllabic 
By  are  uttered. 
1,  which,  more- 
sity.  Thus  the 
vast  number  of 
Canton;  ehi  in 
ul,  ui'li,  rh,  /ut; 

of  words,  gives 
sr  part  than  the 
r  may  be  indif- 
elligible  to  all, 
the  descending 
siderably,  some 
Fokien  possibly 
)s  of  intonation 

v^olved  from  the 
449  signs,  each 
af  which  will  be 
;ers,  each  denot- 
ssophic  writings 
s,  and  whenever 
st  be  had  to  the 
rty  of  phonetic 
le,  whose  speech 
ly  a  date.  The 
on  thus  opposed 

5  one  or  other  of 
dristian  mission- 
ymns,  which  the 


THE  CHINESE  LANGTJAGE. 


189 


converts  learn  by  heart  after  the  sense  has  been  explained  to  them.  But  to  be  of 
any  value  for  literary  puiposcs  these  letters  require  to  be  burdened  with  so  many 
diacritical  marks  that  they  become  more  difficult  than  the  Chinese  ideographs 
themselves. 

But  under  the  influence  of  Western  ideas  a  gradiuil  transfoi-uiation  is  taking 
place.     Many  polysyllabic  words,  detested  by  the  purists,  have  already  acquired  the 

Fig.  57. — Chinese  Dialects. 
Boale  1  :  20,000,000. 


M^NiiAnix  (Kwamhoa). 


Ckntbal. 


F=5 

Patois  of 

the  North. 


Patois  of 
the  Sotitb. 


Patflio  of 
Seohnen. 


Hakka. 


Old  Chinese. 


PatoiB  i)f 
Kweichew. 


Cavtok. 

fir        nzT] 

Punti.  Patois  of 

Hweichew. 


PfttriK  of 
Fuehow. 


FoKIBN. 

Effll 

Patois  of  Patois  of 

Amoy.  Swatow. 


right  of  citizenship,  and  have  a  natural  tendency  to  modify  the  Chinese  method  of 
thought,  and  assimilate  it  to  that  of  the  Europeans.  Hundreds  of  strange  fonns  have 
also  been  introduced  in  the  treaty  ports  to  express  foreign  notions.  Such  are  "  steam- 
air-carriage,"  "  steam-air-boat,"  "  air-swim-steam,"  meaning  locomotive,  steamer, 


I 


140 


EAST  ASIA. 


und  balloon  respectively.  The  jo  compounds,  so  alien  to  the  genius  of  the  national 
speech,  are  already  current  not  only  in  the  spoken  language,  but  even  in  jjopular 
writings.  The  changes  that  hiive  taken  place  in  the  Aryan  linguistic  fauiily  during 
the  historic  period  are  now  going  on  under  our  very  eyes  in  the  Chinese  language. 
The  natives  of  the  various  provinces  would  have  long  ceased  to  be  able  to  com- 
municate together  but  for  the  common  ideographic  writing  system,  which  can  be  read 
not  only  in  China,  but  also  in  Korea,  Japan,  Annam,  and  Siam.  The  most  marked 
dialectic  varieties  are  the  "  Mandarin,"  or  Court  language,  current  throughout  the 
northern  and  many  of  the  central  provinces,  the  Kwaugtong,  Fokien,  and  Chekiang 
in  the  south-eastern  provincos,  which  are  quitu  unintelligible  to  the  inhabitants  of 
the  rest  of  the  empire.  The  Xanking  dialect  is  a  form  of  the  Mandarin,  ajjproach- 
ing  nearest  to  the  Chekiang,  which,  according  to  Edkins,  best  preserves  the  primi- 
tive elements  of  the  common  national  speech. 


II  5^ 


1   vi 


Religion. 

In  religion  there  arc  no  such  marked  differences  as  in  language  between  the 
natives  of  the  northern  and  southern  provinces.  In  the  various  districts  divers 
rites  are  practised,  which,  luAvever,  meige  so  imperceptibly  together,  that  it  seems 
impossible  to  draw  any  sharp  line  between  them.  The  same  individuals  may  even 
be  at  once  IJuddhists,  Taoists,  or  disciples  of  Confucius.  In  virtue  of  his  position 
the  Emperor  himself  belongs  to  all  three  religions,  and  scrupulously  fulfils  their 
observances.  There  is,  in  fact,  more  fundamental  resemblance  between  them  than 
might  be  supposed  from  the  ceremonies  and  religious  treatises.  The  ju  kiao, 
commonly  referred  to  Confucius  and  conformed  to  by  the  lettered  classes,  is  based 
on  the  old  national  worship.  The  tan  kiao,  or  Taoism,  completely  forgetful  of  its 
founder's  elevated  teaching,  has  returned  to  the  ancient  superstitions,  and  is  now 
little  more  than  a  system  of  magic.  Lap*';',  the  foieign  origin  of  the  fu  kiao,  or 
Buddhism,  has  not  prevented  it  from  having  also  become  thoroughly  imbued  with 
the  national  ideas,  or  from  accepting  the  outward  national  observances. 

At  the  dawn  of  history,  some  four  thousand  years  ago,  the  national  cult  consisted 
in  the  worship  of  natural  objects.  All  the  phenomena  of  the  outer  world  were 
supposed  to  be  the  work  of  good  or  evil  spirits,  to  be  propitiated  by  prayer  and 
sacrifice.  Trees,  rocks,  running  waters,  the  whole  land,  the  seas,  and  the  world 
itself,  were  all  equally  animated  by  some  special  deity,  while  above  this  lower 
nature,  thus  peopled  by  invisible  beings,  the  boundless  regions  of  the  heavens  were 
themselves  full  of  angels  or  demons.  Man,  product  of  all  the  natural  forces,  was 
himself  a  god,  although  one  of  the  feeblest ;  hence  obliged  by  supplications  and 
conjurings  to  guard  himself  agauist  so  many  other  beings  in  league  against  him. 
In  tlus  multiplicity  of  spirits  a  certain  hierarchy  was  gradually  estr.blished.  First 
came  Tien,  or  "  Heaven,"  enveloping  the  earth,  encompassing  all  nature,  illumining 
it  with  its  rays,  and  thus  merging  in  the  Shanyti,  or  "  Supreme  Lord,"  the  active 
principle  of  universal  nature,  as  opposed  to  Ti,  or  the  "  Earth,"  which  receives  and 
matures  the  germs.      For  three  hundred  years  European  scholars  have  been 


•f  the  national 
vvn  in  popular 
fainilj'  (luring 
iiesc  language, 
le  able  to  com- 
ich  can  be  read 
B  most  marked 
hrougliout  tbo 
and  Chekiang 
inbabitaiits  of 
irin,  approach- 
ves  the  primi- 


;e  between  the 
listricts  divers 
p,  thiit  it  seems 
iuals  may  even 
of  his  position 
sly  fulfils  their 
ecn  them  than 
The  j'u  kino, 
lasses,  is  based 
forgetful  of  its 
ms,  and  is  now 
the  /«  liiao,  or 
y  imbued  with 
es. 

il  cult  consisted 
:er  world  were 
by  prayer  and 
and  the  world 
ove  this  lower 
e  heavens  were 
iral  forces,  was 
jplications  and 
le  against  him. 
blished.  First 
ure,  illumining 
>rd,"  the  active 
ch  receives  and 
ars  have  been 


EELIOION. 


141 


wrangling  about  the  true  moanmg  of  this  term  or  attribute  "  Shangti  "  applied  to 
heaven,  and  they  ask  whether  it  may  be  translated  by  the  word  "  God,"  taken  in 
the  theological  sense.  Abel  Ileniusat  supposed  he  had  even  discovered  the  name  of 
Jehovah  in  the  "Taote  King,"  or  "JJook  of  the  Way  and  of  Virtue,"  where  the 
three  syllables  I,  Hi,  Wei,  each  taken  from  a  different  sentence,  might  represent 
the  sacred  name  of  the  Jewish  God.  But  modern  critics  generally  reject  all  such 
subtle  proofs  of  relationship  between  the  religions  of  the  East  and  West.     Before 

Fig.  58.— Thb  Nine  Sacred  Mountains.— Tub  Chew  Epoch. 
Boale  1  :  21,000,000. 


,300  Miles. 


the  introduction  of  Buddhism  the  evolution  of  religious  thought  in  China  seems  to 
have  been  spontaneous,  starting  directly  from  the  basis  of  spirit  worship. 

Fancying  themselves  encompassed  by  genii,  the  Chinese  supposed  that  their 
favour  was  to  be  secured,  like  that  of  men  more  powerful  than  themselves,  by 
prayer  and  petitions,  which  required  neither  a  priesthood  nor  a  regular  liturgy. 
Hence  the  head  of  each  patriardial  family  olfered  food  and  perfumes  on  behalf  of 
his  kith  and  kin,  while  the  head  of  each  clan  or  commune  did  the  same  foi*  all  its 
members.  In  these  rites  there  was  no  place  for  a  sacerdotal  class,  and  priests  arc 
even  formally  excludcfl  from  the  religious  feasts  in  which  the  Emperor  ajipears. 


—'T.^-v~  .-"**-< 


mm^ 


.J^hM 


142 


Ei  ST  ASIA. 


No  rcvplation  having  boon  matlo  from  ubovo,  no  intorproters  of  the  divine  word 
were  needed  ;  but  a  liiorarchy  correspondinn;  with  that  of  the  spirits  themselves  was 
naturally  developed  in  the  social  body.  'I'lius  to  the  Emperor  was  reserved  the 
privilege  of  presenting  offerings  to  licaven  and  earth,  to  the  chief  river.s  and  to  the 
sacred  mountains  of  the  empire,  which  from  age  to  age  varied  in  number  from  five 
to  nine.  The  feudal  lords  sacrificed  to  the  secondary  deities,  while  the  devotions  of 
private  persons  were  restricted  to  trees,  rocks,  and  streams.  Worship  having 
become  one  of  the  functions  of  the  State,  its  minutest  details  were  regulated  by 
ceremonial  codes.  Between  the  speech  and  religion  of  the  Chinese  there  has  thus 
been  maintained  a  remarkable  analogy.  Both  have  been  refined  to  the  utmost,  but 
both  still  remain  at  one  of  the  lowest  stages  of  human  culture. 

The  propitiatory  sacrifices  form  an  element  which  has  been  attributed  rather  to 
the  surrounding  populations  than  to  the  Chinese  themselves.  From  the  nomad 
Mongol  tribes  the  "  Sons  of  llan  "  are  supposed  to  have  adopted  the  sanguinary 
rites  formerly  practised  on  a  largo  scale.  Hundreds  of  courtiers  have  at  times 
€ : used  themselves  to  be  buried  alivv^  in  order  to  aecoiupany  their  master  to  the 
r.ther  world.  At  the  death  of  Iloangti,  about  two  Icmdred  years  before  the 
Christian  era,  several  of  his  wives  and  body-guard  followed  him  to  the  grave,  and 
ten  thousand  working-men  were  buried  alive  aiound  his  funeral  mound.  Traces 
of  these  savage  rites  still  survive  in  remote  districts,  where  the  people  often  seek  to 
yaard  against  witchcraft  by  throwing  their  new-born  babes  into  the  running 
waters.  Wishing  to  put  a  stop  to  those  abominations,  a  mandarin  on  one  occasion 
caused  several  of  the  infanticide;^  to  be  cast  into  the  Kiang,  charging  them  to 
convey  his  compliments  to  the  water  gods. 

To  Confucius  and  his  disciples  is  usually  attributed  the  cessation  of  human 
sacrifices  in  China.  Yet  long  before  that  time  religiou.s  sacrifices  had  ceased  to  be 
offered,  while  long  after  it  such  rites  continued  to  be  occasionally  practised. 
Confucius  deserves  none  the  less  to  be  regarded  as  the  true  founder  of  the  national 
religion,  as  regulated  by  the  book  of  ceremonies.  lie  aimed  especially  at  the 
revival  of  the  ancient  practices  associated  with  ancestral  worship,  the  glorification 
of  the  past,  as  handed  down  by  tradition  being,  according  to  him,  the  best  means  of 
insuring  the  permanent  prosperity  of  the  empire.  The  supernatural  element,  which 
plays  sirch  a  large  part  in  other  systems,  he  almost  excludes  altogether.  "  How," 
he  ask.-*,  "  shoidd  I  pretend  to  know  anything  about  heaven,  since  it  is  so  difficult 
to  clearly  understand  w^ut  take"'  place  on  earth  ?  "  "You  have  not  yet  learnt  to 
live,"  he  said  to  one  of  his  disciples,  "and  you  already  ra\'e  about  what  may 
happen  to  you  after  dcnh."  The  duties  ol  man  to  his  superiors,  to  his  neighbour, 
to  the  State,  were  what  he  was  most  concerned  with,  and  religion  in  the  strict  sense 
of  the  term  was  dealt  with  only  so  far  as  it  formed  an  element  in  the  general  system 
of  government.  Well  balanced  by  nature  and  habit,  without  religious  zeal,  and 
ever  striving  to  observe  the  golden  mean,  the  Chinese  have  recognised  themselves 
in  the  sage  of  Shantung,  who  has  gradually  tiiken  the  foremost  rank  in  the  memory 
of  his  people.  The  accurate  historic  records  left  bj'  his  disciples,  as  well  as  his  own 
simple  life,  have  prevented  his  name  from  being  obscured  by  myths  and  miracles. 


jlivino  word 
cmselvcs  was 
reserved  the 
rs  and  to  the 
bcr  from  five 
devotions  of 
[•ship  having 
rcguhiled  by 
liere  has  thus 
0  utmost,  but 

ted  rather  to 
n  the  nomad 

0  sanguinary 

lave  at  times 

naster  to  the 

s  before   the 

le  grave,  and 

und.     Traces 

often  seek  to 

the  running 

one  occasitm 

jing  them  to 

ion  of  human 

1  ceased  to  be 
lly  practised, 
f  the  national 
?cially  at  the 
e  glorification 
best  means  of 
lement,  which 
er.  "  How," 
is  so  difficult 

yet  learnt  to 
ut  what  may 
lis  neighbour, 
be  strict  sense 
general  system 
^ious  zeal,  and 
lod  themselves 
n  the  memory 
'ell  as  his  own 

and  miracles. 


THE  FENO-SIIUI. 


143 


-The  Taiki,  on  Magic  Lookino- 
or.Ass. 


But  although  he  lias  escaped  deification,  his  moral  influence  has  increased  from  age  to 
age.  Four  hundred  years  after  his  death  his  only  title  still  was  Kung,  or  "  leader ; " 
eight  centuries  later  on  he  became  "  the  first  saint,"  after  which  his  statue  was 
clothed  in  a  royal  robe  and  crowned  with  a  diadem.  During  the  Ming,  or  last 
native  dynasty,  ho  was  declared  "  the  most  holy,  the  wisest,  and  most  virtuous  of 
teachers."  After  his  death  a  colony  of  disciples  settled  roinul  his  grave  as  vassals 
of  his  family,  sixteen  hundred  temples  were  raised  to  his  honour,  and  he  was 
solemnly  recognised  as  the  "  teacher  of  the  nation."  Except  those  who  have 
received  divine  worship,  no  other  mortal  has  ever  been  the  object  of  so  much 
veneration.  "When  the  Emperor  Iloangti  ordered  the  destruction  of  the  old  books, 
and  r>specially  of  the  Shuking,  or  "  IJook  of  Annals,"  composed  by  Confucius, 
four  hundred  and  sixty  of  the  lettered  class 
perished  in  the  flames  with  the  writings  of  ^^^'  ^^'' 
their  master. 

The  Feng-shpi. 

But  a  public  cult,  however  well  regulated 
by  official  ceremonies,  could  not  embrace  all 
the  popular  superstitions,  or  conjure  all  the 
invisible  demons  hostile  to  mankind.  Hence 
there  remained  a  considerable  number  of  un- 
official practices  embodied  in  the  fcuff-shui — 
that  is,  "wind  and  watc" — a  system  which, 
by  a  play  of  words,  is  said  to  be  "  invisible  as 
the  wind,  untenable  as  the  water."  It  may, 
however,  be  described  as  the  collective  body 
of  ceremonies,  by  means  of  which  we  pro- 
pitiate the  spirits  of  air  and  water—that  is,  all  nature  from  the  stars  of  the 
firmament  to-  the  wandering  ghosts  of  the  dead.  Two  principles  govern  the  uni- 
verse—the 1/aiig,  or  male  principle,  represented  by  the  sun,  and  the  pin,  or  female 
principle,  represented  by  the  moon,  the  former  vivifying  and  propitious,  the  latter 
hostile  and  deadly.  Yet  nothing  could  exist  but  for  this  mingling  of  the  two  prin- 
ciples, through  whose  union  everything  is  born  and  flourishes,  and  the  perfect 
understanding  of  which  confers  immortality.  In  every  house  is  seen  the  image  of 
a  tiger  bearing  the  taiki,  on  which  are  represented  the  yang  and  yhi  interpenetrat- 
ing each  other  in  a  magic  circle,  and  surrounded  by  lines  of  various  lengths  indi- 
cating the  cardinal  points  and  all  nature.  These  lines  are  the  famous  diagrams 
which  have  served  to  compose  the  Yi-king,  or  "  Book  of  Transformations,"  attri- 
buted to  Fohi,  and  the  sense  of  which  so  many  native  and  European  scholars  have 
vainly  endeavoured  to  fathom. 

The  faithful  observers  of  the  feng-shui  are  bound  to  be  guided  in  all  things  by 
the  magic  arts,  which  substantially  resemble  those  practised  elsewhere.  The 
shades  of  their  forefathers  arc  amongst  the  beings  who  fill  the  earth  and  circum- 
ambient spacos,  and  who  exercise  a  good  or  baneful  influence  over  the  destinies  of 


M»^R»»Wwriiil»aiiBirf»ir  i.^M»-rtMW»*i^»t»-*<»*»'*-«»-^ 


uii^cim    M  -r^(M«uA*     Jw^^ok 


•^^tHkn-tj'  w^i--  -i-e.'--- v«  - 


114 


EAST  ASIA. 


I    >."! 


tho  living.  Tho  (^hlni'so  recognise  in  the  individual  tliroc  diHtinct  /iiicii,  or  soulo — 
the  rational  rosidirjg  in  the  head,  the  sensuous  in  the  breast,  the  material  in  tho 
stomach.  0{  thesi'  the  first  two  may  after  deatli  be  fixed,  one  in  tho  memorial 
tablets,  the  other  in  the  tomb ;  but  the  third  escapes  into  space,  seeking  to  enter 
some  other  ImkIv,  and  its  influence  may  become  hostile  to  the  family  if  they  neglect 
their  religious  observances.  The  huen  of  children  are  most  to  bo  feared,  because 
they  were  still  impei-fect  at  tho  moment  of  death,  and  unappcased  by  a  regular  cult. 
The  incense  sticks  burning  at  the  entrance  of  the  houses  and  shops  are  to  prevent 
these  and  all  other  nuilignant  spirits  from  entering. 

The  choice  of  a  grave  is  of  the  last  importance.  Should  the  soul  of  the  deceased 
he  e.\i)osed  to  baneful  influences,  it  will  certainly  endeavour  to  avenge  itself,  and 
its  anger  will  bo  shown  in  the  endless  disasters  that  may  fall  on  the  family.  The 
good  and  evil  genii,  who  "come  in  the  cloud  and  vanish  in  the  fog,"  are  eternally 
wandering  over  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  the  essential  point  is  to  build  the 
houses,  erect  monuments,  lay  down  roads,  construct  canals,  and  sink  wells  in  such 
a  waj'  as  to  obstruct  tho  flight  of  the  hostile  and  favour  that  of  the  beneficent 
spirits.  Hint  the  knowledge  of  all  this  is  extremely  diflieult,  and  all  calamities  are 
attributed  to  tho  carelessness  or  ignorance  of  tho  professor  of  feng-shui.  In  every 
part  of  tho  country  mines  and  quarries  have  been  filled  by  tho  local  authorities, 
because  the  inhabitants  have  com2)lained  that  they  have  caused  bad  harvests  by 
allowing  tho  demons  to  pass  by.  Lawsuits  often  occur  between  neighbours  accusing 
each  other  of  having  made  changes  on  their  lands,  turning  the  good  spirits  aside. 
A  single  tree  planted  on  the  right  spot,  or  u  tower  raised  on  an  eminence,  will  at 
times  suffice  to  place  tho  whole  district  under  a  hajipy  conjunction  of  the  elements. 
From  tho  north  came  the  bad,  from  the  south  the  good  spirits,  and  in  general 
winding  streams  or  gently  rounded  hills  promote  prosperity,  while  sharp  turnings 
and  steep  bluffs  are  dangerous  to  the  surrounding  populations.  Hence  straight 
lines  must  be  avoided,  and  all  the  roofs  of  the  buildings  are  curved  upwards,  so  that 
the  evil  influences  may  be  turned  aside. 

In  some  respects  tho  feng-shui  constitutes  the  rudiments  of  natural  science. 
According  to  its  professors  it  embraces  tho  study  of  the  general  order  of  things, 
their  numerical  proportions,  their  inner  life  and  outward  forms.  When  the 
European  engineer  digs  straight  trenches  in  the  ground,  throws  bridges  athwart 
the  torrent,  tunnels  the  hills  obliquely,  lays  down  iron  rails  across  the  graves  of  the 
dead,  the  people  look  on  with  a  feeling  of  downright  dismay.  The  great  opposition 
to  railways  is  due  not  only  to  the  fear  entertained  by  the  Govc^rnment  that  Euro- 
peans may  gradually  make  themselves  masters  of  the  land,  but  also  to  the 
traditional  respect  of  the  people  for  the  earth  that  bears  and  nourishes  them. 

The  religious  system  founded  by  Lao-tze,  and  which  originally  differed 
essentially  from  the  national  religion  represented  by  Confucius,  has  gradually 
reverted  to  tho  old  superstitions,  and  now  differs  little,  if  at  all,  from  the  practices 
of  feng-shui.  Lao-tze  did  not,  like  Confucius,  look  to  the  past  to  discover  a  model 
of  conduct  for  the  future.  He  sought  for  absolute  truth,  without  troubling  himself 
with  precedents  drawn  from  the  history  of  the  emperors.     Heedless  of  good  or  evil 


I 


en,  or  souln — 
iiitcrial  in  tho 
the  monioriiil 
king  to  onttr 
E  they  neglect 
pun'tl,  boeuuso 
I  regular  cult, 
urc  to  prevent 

f  the  (leccuHcd 
igo  itself,  and 

family.  The 
'  are  eternally 
s  to  build  tho 

wells  in  such 
the  beneficent 

calamities  are 
mi.  In  every 
;al  authorities, 
lid  harvests  by 
hours  accusing 
:l  spirits  aside. 

inence,  will  at 
i  the  elements, 
ind  in  general 
sharp  turnings 
Flencc  straight 

jwards,  so  that 

atural  science, 
•der  of  things, 
When  the 
ridges  athwart 
e  graves  of  the 
■reat  opposition 
lent  that  Euro- 
it  also  to  the 
es  them, 
inally   differed 

has  gradually 
m  the  practices 
iscover  a  model 
)ubling  himself 

of  good  or  evil 


BUDDHISM. 


146 


Fig.  60.  — UrindiisT  I'iukst. 


spirits,  or  of  ancestral  shades,  ho  studied  tho  first  causes  of  things,  and  his  language, 
us  far  as  it  can  be  u.scertuined  from  the  obscure  text  of  the  Taote-king,  recalls  ihat 
of  tho  Western  philosophers.  For  him  "  matter  and  the  visible  \v«»rld  are  merely 
manifestations  of  a  sublime,  eternal,  incomprehensible  principle,"  M-hich  he  calls 
l)io ;  that  is,  the  "way  of  salvation."  Whoso  controls  his  passions  may  escape 
successive  transmigrations,  and  through  contemplation  pass  directly  to  everlasting 
bliss.  Such  was  the  doctrine  of  the  great  mystic  and  his  immediate  succes-sors. 
But  tho  Taoist  priests  soon  claimed  to  have  discovered  immortality  even  in  this 
world,  and  sought  the  favour  of  emperors  by  means  of  elixirs  and  nostrums.  Thus 
was  Taoism  gradually  confounded  with  magic,  and  of  tho  teai^hings  of  liao-tzc 
nothing  remained  but  an  empty  nume.  The  Taoist  priests,  most  of  whom,  like  tho 
Buddhist  lamas,  take  vows  of  celibacy,  are  the  magicians,  wizards,  "  table-turners," 
and  '"mediums"  of  China.  Without  any 
connnon  body  of  doctrine,  some  aro  more  Sha- 
manist.s,  others  astndogers  and  fortune-tellers. 
The  learned  generally  affect  to  despise  Taoism, 
although  some  of  its  practices  are  imposed  on 
the  mandarins,  or  introduced  into  the  national 
cult,  as  observed  in  presence  of  the  Emperor. 
The  Taoist  high  priest,  or  '*  heavenly  doctor," 
who  claims  direct  descent  from  Lao-tze,  receives 
a  subvention  from  tho  State  in  exchange  for 
the  amulets,  holy  objects,  and  instructions  on 
red  or  green  paper  which  he  distributes  through- 
out China. 

Buddhism. 

The  Buddhist  religion,  more  faithful  than 
Taoism  to  its  original  doctrines,  has  secured 
the  adherence  of  the  great  majority  of  the  popu- 
lation. Although  of  foreign  origin,  it  has 
become  at  least  outwardly  the  national  religion, 

but  in  a  form  which  closely  assimilates  it  to  the  primitive  spirit  worship.  It  was  intro- 
duced twenty-two  centuries  ago,  and  three  hundred  years  afterwards  received  official 
recognition.  Yet  it  had  to  struggle  both  against  the  disciples  of  Confucius  and  the 
Taoists,  and  did  not  reach  the  regions  south  of  the  Yang-tze  till  the  sixth  century. 
At  this  time  thirteen  thousand  Buddhist  temples  had  been  erected,  but  the  alliance 
had  already  begun  with  the  old  national  cult.  The  spirits  of  wind  and  water,  the 
shades  of  the  great,  all  the  members  of  the  Chinese  pantheon  were  easily  introduced 
into  the  multitude  of  Boddhisavtas,  and  other  more  or  less  incomplete  incarnations  of 
Buddha.  To  make  room  for  all,  new  degrees  of  holiness  and  beatitude  were  added 
to  those  already  in  existence.  The  domestic  gods  remained  under  other  names  by 
the  side  of  those  worshipped  by  the  community,  and  the  number  of  ceremonies  was 
increased  without  exciting  the  suspicion  of  the  people.     To  the  cultivated  classes 


A 


Jb 


1 

-r 


146 


EAST  ASIA. 


Ihiddhism  ofPorcd  its  rnotnpliVHicnl  Huhtlctios,  while  it  p^.'iiiicd  thr>  ndlirrcnco  of  tho 
lowly  and  wretched  by  admit tiiijif  them  to  its  pompous  ('(Temoiiiul,  and  proniisinjj; 
redemption  from  their  Hull'erinfj;s  in  tho  nfter-life.  The  most  widespread  Iluddliist 
work  in  China  is  tho  "  White  Nenuphar,"  a  collection  of  consolatory  und  loving 


Fipf.    CI.— TlIK   OoilDKSB  KWANTIW. 


(s'-^-'ct,s. 


tli 


words  and  j)romises.  Of  all  the  Buddhist  sects  the  most  popular  is  that  which 
worships  Kwanyin,  the  only  woman  included  in  the  number  of  Buddha's 
disciples.  She  is  the  goddess  of  mercy,  the  patroness  of  childless  women,  of 
mariners  threatened  by  shipwreck.  She  is  often  represented  with  a  child  in  her 
arms,  and  many  of  her  images  are  exactly  like  those  of  the  Madonna,  whose 


m^ 


w 


THE  JEWS  AND  MOIIAMMKDANS. 


147 


nrcncc  of  tho 
11(1  promising 
[•lul  HuddliiMt 
y  und  luviug 


s  that  which 
of  Buddha's 
38  women,  of 
child  in  her 
ionna,  whose 


worship  was  contomporanoouMly  dcnolopod  at  the  opposite  extremity  of  IIk  Old 
World. 

The  Hourishinj?  poriod  of  lluddhi.sm  in  Hiina  is  comprisod  hotwcon  iho  sixth 
and  clcvcuth  fcnturv,  when  tiio  monks,  fired  by  tln'ir  zeal  for  tho  propa^^'nfioii  of 
the  faith,  traversod  all  China  and  tho  noiffhhouring  lands.  Thon  were  made  thoso 
important  cxplorationH,  not  all  tho  records  of  which  have  yet  been  tritnsliited.  Then 
also  were  made  tho  Chinese  translations  of  nearly  fifteen  Imndred  Sanskrit  works, 
most  of  which  no  lonj^er  exist  in  tho  orij^inal,  and  which  contain  the  most  valiiiiblo 
documents  on  the  history  of  Buddhism,  During  this  period  of  early  fervour  tho 
country  was  covered  with  those  countless  /«,  or  paginlas,  without  which  Europeans 
can  hardly  imagine  a  Chhu'so  landscape.  In  these  temples  the  rites  consist  of 
hymns,  ofT(>ritig8,  prostrations,  processions,  and  eternal  repetitions  of  the  syllables 
O,  mi,  to,  to,  tho  Chinese  phonetic  transcription  of  Amitabha,  one  of  the  Hindu 
names  of  lluddhu. 

The  multitude  of  monasteries  attests  tho  former  pn  ponderance  of  the  religion 
of  Fo,  or  Buddha.  Like  tho  pagod.i  aost  of  the  larger  ones  date  from  at  least 
several  hundred  years  ogo,  and  are  lostly  in  ruins,  overgrown  with  shrubs  und 

rank  vegetation.  The  decline  of  lUuidiiism  is  evident,  and  in  many  districts  it  has 
already  l)ecn  reduced  to  an  empty  ritual  left  to  the  monks.  Emperors  and  high 
functionaries  have  often  issued  edicts  against  superstitious  practices  not  recognised 
in  tho  official  ceremonials,  and  warning  the  people  against  the  priestly  "impostors 
who  rob  tho  beehive."  But  although  the  public  arc  daily  forsaking  the  bonzes, 
they  continue  none  the  less  their  religious  practices,  Tho  scepticism  of  the  lettered 
classes  has  create<l  a  false  impression  as  to  the  real  sentiments  of  the  peojjle,  whose 
worship  of  their  household  gods,  prostrations,  pilgrimages,  bear  witness  to  the 
vitality  of  their  belief.  They  arc  not  even  satisfied  with  one,  but  practise  all  three 
of  the  national  religions,  worshipping  their  ancestors  with  Confucius,  conjuring  the 
genii  with  the  Tuoists,  communing  with  the  saints  in  conformity  with  the  Buddhist 
doctrine.  In  other  respects  the  three  cults  harmonize  perfectly,  the  first  appealing 
to  the  moral  side  of  man,  the  second  to  his  sense  of  self-preservation,  the  third 
raising  him  to  the  higher  world  of  thought  and  imagination.  Thus  the  three,  as 
the  Chinese  themselves  say,  "make  but  one  religion."  The  priests  of  all  the  rites 
frequently  officiate  at  funerals. 

The  Jews  and  Mohammedans. 

Amongst  the  foreign  religions  introduced  at  various  times  is  the  worship  of 
Jehovah,  which,  however,  has  almost  become  extinct.  The  Jews,  who  are  often 
called  "Blue  Mohammedans,"  from  the  colour  of  their  rabbis'  head-dress  and 
shoes,  are  regarded  by  many  Chinese  as  forming  a  sect  of  Islam.  They  are  also 
called  Lehtze-kin,  or  "Cutters  of  Veins,"  and  TaA-kin-kedu,  or  "Extractors 
of  Sinews,"  in  reference  to  their  manner  of  killing  and  dressing  the  animals  eaten 
by  them.  They  were  formerly  far  more  numerous,  and  many  rose  to  high  rank  in 
the  State ;  but  they  are  now  reduced  to  a  few  hundred  souls,  nearly  all  settled  at 
Kaifung-fu,  capital  of  Honau.     The  old  Jewish  colonies  of  Nanking,  Peking, 


.-*P^' 


!| 


148 


EAST  ASIA. 


Niiif^IM),  Imvo  all  (lii'd  (tut,  and  tlio  ronvorwiniiM  to  Muliiiinr  '  Milium  iiml  the  riiincM- 
niitiniuil  ri'liKioiH  liavi*  fjradiially  n'dufiMl  tlic  St'initic;  imn  i^rantH  tua  iiicicluiiidl'id. 
Even  tlu'Mo  «iK'ak  (.'liiiicw  only,  and  their  present  ralilds,  tlio  "AroniNtM,"  or 
"Aoniles,"aH  they  an>  ealh'd,  read  the  Ilehn'W  texts  aceordiiij;  to  tlie  ChineH*' 
proniineiation.  Tlius  the  name  tif  iNniel  Ixroines  in  tlieir  mouth  Ye-(H'-h)-ni. 
Aeeordinjj;  to  their  unaninioiiH  tradition  they  heh>n^  to  thu  tribe  of  AHher,  and 
entered  China  during  the   Han  dynaHty  (202  n.c. — ii(J4  .\.i».).     They  call  their 

Fig.  62.— DoMBRTii;  Altai*.— Thr  Nmilino  Dvddha. 


'  *ii4 


country  Tionchew,  which  is  the  Chinese  name  for  Ceylon,  and  when  the  European 
Jow.s  recently  succeeded  in  opening  relations  with  them,  it  was  found  that  they 
had  lost  all  8on.se  of  national  cohesion.  The  synagogue  was  in  ruins,  no  one  could 
read  the  Pentateuch,  and  rewards  were  even  offered  to  any  persons  capable  of 
interpreting  it.  They  supposed  that  Mecca  and  Medina  were  their  holy  cities,  and 
arrangements  were  being  made  for  definitely  changing  their  religicm. 

On  the   other  hand,  the  Mohammedans  have  acquired  great  influence,  and 
according  to  the  lowest  estimates  number  at  present  at  least  20,000,000.     They  are 


11(1  tlu'  riiiiu'MO 
I  tiit'i'c  Iwiiidful. 
'  AroniHtM,"  or 
lo  the  CliinoHc 
ill  Yf-w-ht-iii, 
of  ANlier,  uiiil 
'hi'v  cull  tlioir 


e:^§ 


n  the  European 
ouiid  that  they 
18,  no  one  could 
sons  capable  of 
holy  cities,  and 

n. 

influence,  and 
000.     They  are 


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IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


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1.0 


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14^  IM    |2.5 

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Photographic 

Sciences 

Corporation 


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(716)872-4503 


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CIHM/ICMH 

Microfiche 

Series. 


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Collection  de 
microfiches. 


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yn-/  rT  'jW**''* 


THE  JEWS  AND  MOHAMMEDANS. 


149 


said  to  form  a  majority  of  the  population  in  Kansu,  and  ono-tliird  in  several 
districts  of  China  proper.  To  these  must  he  added  the  Dunp^ans  and  the  other 
Mussidniuns  of  Zunj^aria,  Kulja,  and  Eastern  Turkestan,  in  order  to  form  an 
udecjuate  idea  of  their  power  and  influence  in  the  empire. 

All  the  Chinese  Mohammedans  are  collectively  knt)\vn  as  Ilwei-lnvei,  a  term 
formerly  applied  to  the  Uigurs,  while  they  cull  themselves  Kiao-nuui,  or  "  Ileligious 
jjcople,"  in  contradistinction  to  the  other  Chinese,  regarded  hj'  them  as  Unhelievers. 
The  Mongolian  epithet  Dungan,  usually  explained  to  mean  "  outcasts  "  or  "  loafers," 
is  restricted  to  those  of  the  north  and  north-west,  who  hold  no  direct  intercourse 
with  their  co-religionists  the  "  Panthays "  of  Yunnan.  Nor  do  the  Chinese 
Mussulmans  anywhere  form  a  homogeneous  ethnical  group.  Descended  from  the 
Uigurs,  Tanguts,  and  Tatars,  they  are  intermingled  in  the  north  and  west  with 
Chinese  proselytes,  while  in  Yunnan  the  Turki  and  ^Mongol  elements  are  represented 
only  by  the  descendants  of  the  soldiers  settled  here  by  Kublai  Khan.  Since  the 
accession  of  the  present  Manchu  dynasty  all  are  obliged  to  wear  the  })igtail,  and 
their  women  have  even  been  compelled  to  conform  to  the  barbarous  Chinese  fashion 
of  preventing  the  natural  growth  of  their  feet.  Nevertheless,  !^^olulmmedans  can 
always  be  distinguished  from  the  other  natives  by  their  haughty  bearing,  frank 
expression,  and  in  the  west  by  the  practice  of  carrying  anns.  Abstaining  from 
alcoholic  drinks,  tobacco,  and  opium,  they  are  generally  more  healthy  than  their 
neighbours,  while  their  spirit  of  clanship  insures  for  them  a  material  prosperity  far 
superior  to  that  of  the  surrounding  populations. 

According  to  the  unanimous  tradition  Islam  first  reached  the  northern  ])rovince8 
during  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Taitsung  in  the  seventh  century,  when  Ibn  Ilamsa, 
related  to  the  Prophet,  settled  with  three  thousand  immigrants  in  Shangan,  the 
present  Singan-fu.  Being  well  received,  they  freely  raised  their  mosques,  and 
their  ministers  were  invested  by  the  Government  with  a  certain  civil  authority 
over  their  congregations.  About  the  same  epoch  others  entered  Yunnan,  and  the 
Chinese  annals  of  the  year  758  speak  of  Arab  pirates  who  sacked  the  suburbs  of 
Canton  and  plundered  the  imperial  granaries.  The  communications  between  the 
Yunnan  Mohammedans  and  the  rest  of  Islam  have  at  all  times  been  maintained 
either  through  Canton  or  more  directly  through  Bhamo  and  Burmah.  The  standard 
of  education  being  higher  in  this  province,  natives  are  always  found  capable  of 
interpreting  the  Koran  and  the  Arabic  prayers  recited  in  the  mosques. 

At  present  the  northern  Hwei-hwci  keep  up  their  relations  with  their  western 
brethren  through  Zungaria.  Here  the  Uigurs  as  well  as  the  Tanguts  of  Kansu, 
formerly  Buddhists  or  Nestorians,  were  converted  to  Islam  when  this  religion  was 
adopted  by  their  fellow-countrymen  in  the  Jagatai  State.  Their  numbers  were 
increased  by  immigrants  from  East  Turkestan,  and  by  the  Moslem  Mongolians  left 
in  Zungaria  by  Tamerlane.  Thus  they  gradually  acquired  the  ascendancy  in  this 
part  of  the  empire,  where  are  situated  the  two  cities  of  Salar  (Iluchew)  and 
Kinkipao,  the  Mecca  and  Medina  of  the  Chinese  Empire.  Some  of  the  Kansu 
towns  have  hundreds  of  mosques,  and  their  Mohammedan  inhabitants  have 
monopolized  the  whole  trade  of  the  country. 


J— 


160 


EAST  ASIA. 


Compared  with  their  co-roligionists  elsewhere,  tlio  ITwcu-hwci  arc  free  from 
un;gre8!sive  fanaticisin,  many  subinittin<j;  to  the  public  examinations  in  the  moral 
precepts  of  Confucius,  and  practising  the  rites  of  the  State  religion.  As  Mandarins 
they  even  offer  the  pr'.'scribed  sacrihces  in  honour  of  the  local  divinities.  Neverthe- 
less they  have  by  no  means  lost  the  spirit  of  proselytisni,  and  they  keep  carefully 
aloof  from  the  surrounding  "  pagan  "  populations.  All  are  Sunnites,  divided  into 
the  two  sects  of  the  Shafieh  and  Azemi.     Ijut  in  the  presence  of  the  common  enemy 


rig.  6U. — UEU1UN8   WASTED    BY   TUB    MOUAMMKUAN    InBUHUECTIONB. 

Scale  1 :  45,000,000. 


40' 


Centres  of  Aluhammedon 
Revolt. 


mm 

Trnot»  wasted  by  the 
Insarrection  of  1870—76. 


Ranee  of  the 
Miaotze  Inauireation. 


I,a00  MUei. 


f*- 


t 


all  diffei-ences  are  forgotten,  rich  and  poor  bringing  their  offerings  to  the  imams  of 
both  rites. 

In  Yunnan  also  the  Panthays  made  common  cause  with  several  of  the  Miaotze 
hill  tribes  against  the  hated  Manchu.  Here  the  first  rising  was  caused  by  rival 
interests  in  a  mining  district,  where  Chinese  and  Mussulmans  were  working  in 
separate  groups.  In  the  early  conflicts  the  advantage  generally  lay  with  the  latter, 
and  to  put  an  end  to  the  disorders  the  Mandarins  planned  a  scheme  of  wholesale 
extermination.  A  day  in  the  month  of  May,  1856,  was  chosen  for  the  massacre, 
and  in  the  districts  M-here  they  were  in  a  minority  most  of  the  Panthays  were 
butchered.  But  elsewhere  they  held  out  successfully,  and  even  seized  the  rich  city 
of  Tali-fu,  a  stronghold  of  the  first  order,  through  which  they  procured  arms  and 
supplies  from  Burmah.  In  1860,  Yunnan-fu,  capital  of  the  province,  fell  into  their 
hands;    but  many  of   the  chiefs    were  bought    over,  and  turned  against   their 


aiirt^. 


nitlT^ti  T^    ^  iSi 


;  free  from 
II  the  inorul 
s  Maiuliii'iua 
Nf  vert  be- 
ep carefully 
divided  into 
imon  enemy 


^"k 


I 


he  imams  of 

the  Miaotze 
sed  hy  rival 
working  in 
th  the  latter, 
ii  wholesale 
he  massacre, 
nthays  were 
the  rich  city 
ed  arms  and 
?11  into  their 
gainst   their 


THE  CHRISTIANS. 


151 


co-religionists 


Nevertheless  the  civil  war  raged  for  thirteen  years  longer,  when 
it  was  concluded  by  the  slaughter  of  30,000  Pant  buys  in  the  streets  of 
Tali-fu. 

In  Xortb  China  the  insurrection  began  in  ISGOwith  the  massacre  of  the  Chinese 
of  lloachew,  east  of  Singan-fu.  At  fiist  the  Chinese  and  ^longolians  everywhere 
escaped  to  the  mountains  or  deserts,  or  even  allowed  tlicmselves  to  be  killed  without 
resistance.  In  Shensi  and  Kunsu  the  work  of  destruction  was  carried  out  with 
pitiless  fury,  and  here  the  heads  of  families  were  seen  to  slay  their  women  and 
children  in  order  to  devote  themselves  entirely  to  the  holy  war.  In  the  valley  of 
the  Wei  not  a  single  village  remained  standing.  With  the  exception  of  the 
Christians,  all  the  inhabitants  who  could  not  escape  were  put  to  the  sword ;  the 
prisoners  were  burnt  alive ;  old  and  young  alike  were  murdered ;  and  the  dead  were 
numbered  by  the  million.  In  certain  districts  a  few  solitary  buildings  still  stand- 
ing excite  the  wonder  of  strangers,  and  but  for  the  impregnable  works  of  a  few 
large  cities,  the  northern  and  western  provinces  would  have  been  entirely  freed 
from  their  Chinese  inhabitants.  The  country  seemed  finally  lost  to  the  empire, 
when  the  lack  of  cohesion  and  a  common  plan  of  operations  proved  fatal  to  the 
Dungan  rebels.  After  fifteen  years  of  strife  victory  remained  with  those  who 
commanded  the  best-disciplined  troops.  The  Chinese  generals  successively 
recovered  Shensi  and  Eansu,  and  after  seizing  the  military  stations  in  the  Tian- 
shan  they  were  able  to  scatter  the  last  embers  of  revolt  in  the  Zungarian  steppes. 
But  although  thus  vanquished  at  both  extremities  of  the  empire,  the  worshippers 
of  Allah  still  constitute  a  power  in  the  State,  and  certain  writers,  perhaps  some- 
what prematurely,  foresee  the  time  when  they  will  become  the  ruling  element  in 
the  extreme  East. 

The  Christians. 

Although  they  entered  China  contemporaneously  with  the  Mohammedans,  the 
Christians  are  far  less  numerous,  and  their  influence  may,  relatively  speaking,  be 
regarded  as  of  no  account.  But  it  was  not  always  so,  for  the  Nestorians  from 
Mesopotamia  and  Baktria  had  at  one  time  developed  flourishing  communities  in 
the  empire.  Besides  the  evidence  of  the  native  records,  there  existed  till  recently 
a  rock  inscription  commemorating  the  entry  of  the  Christian  missionaries  into 
China.  Discovered  near  Singan-fu  in  1620,  and  since  frequently  visited  by  Euro- 
peans, this  stone  was  probably  destroyed  during  the  Taiping  rebellion.  It  was 
seen  so  recently  as  1867  by  Williamson,  but  it  had  already  disappeared  when 
Richthofen  visited  Shensi  in  1872.  About  its  authenticity  there  can  be  no  doubt, 
the  inscription  having  been  frequently  reproduced,  and  a  correct  copy  deposited  in 
the  National  Library.  According  to  this  document  the  Syrian  missionary,  Olo- 
pcunn,  reached  China  in  635  with  the  sacred  writings  and  images,  and  three  years 
afterwards  obtained  permission  to  build  a  church  in  Singan.  The  new  belief 
spread  rapidly,  and  in  spite  of  subsequent  persecutions,  especially  in  the  ninth 
century.  Christian  communities  were  found  in  all  the  provinces  when  Marco  Polo 
traversed  the  country.     To  these  communities  is  probably  due  the  legend  of 


A 


.  ■mtf^'Ti'v^^m.f^ 


152 


EAST  ASIA. 


II..- 


"  Prostor  John,"  which  haunted  the  imagination  of  tho  Western  peoples  during 
the  Middle  Ages. 

(-'hristiiinity  is  no  longer  represented  in  China  by  the  \estoriun  sect.  Tho 
Uigurs,  Tatars,  and  other  northern  races,  wlio  had  confonned  to  this  religion,  were 
converted  to  Islam  probably  about  tho  time  of  Tamerlane.  It  was  these  very 
descendants  of  tho  Nestoriaus  who,  under  the  name  of  Dunguns,  recently  threatened 
the  integrity  of  tho  empire.  The  Nestorians  were  succeeded  by  the  lloman 
Catholic  missionaries,  and  towards  the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century  Montecorvino 
founded  churches  in  China  and  became  IJishop  of  Peking.  Later  on  these  prose- 
lyti/ors  were  received  with  less  favour,  and  were  even  opposed  by  their  own  country- 
men, the  European  traders  of  Macao,  who  feared  to  be  banished  from  the  empire  if 
they  favoured  tho  Christian  propaganda.  But  in  1581  the  Italian  Jesuit,  llug- 
giero,  penetrated  to  Canton  disguised  as  a  native,  and  he  was  followed  the  next 
year  by  tlie  celebrated  Ricci,  a  shrewd  man  of  the  world,  who  secured  the  favour 
of  tlio  great  by  his  vast  learning,  and  who  at  last  became  a  court  pensioner.  The 
Jesuit  missionai'ies,  who  continued  the  work  of  Ricci,  pursued  the  siune  policy,  and 
made  many  converts  amongst  the  higher  functionaries.  They  were  careful  not  to 
condemn  absolutely  tho  national  rites,  and  especially  those  associated  with  ances- 
tral worship.  They  even  tolerated  tho  offerings  of  fruits  and  flowers,  and  the 
sacrifices  in  honour  of  the  dead,  regarding  these  ceremonies  merely  as  evidences  of 
filiid  devotion.  But  the  Dominican  friars,  who  arrived  towards  the  end  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  denounced  all  these  acts  as  idolatrous,  and,  as  in  South 
America,  an  open  rupture  took  place  between  the  two  religious  orders.  A  bull 
issued  by  Clement  XI.  in  1715  condemned  the  Jesuits,  and  ever  since  the  native 
neophytes  have  been  required  to  renounce  the  traditional  rites  of  their  country. 
Ilence  conversions  have  become  rare,  and  mostly  restricted  to  tho  poorer  classes, 
whom  poverty  exempts  from  performing  the  funeral  ceremonies.  Infants  also  rescued 
during  times  of  war  or  distress,  or  even  purchased  from  the  famine-stricken,  are 
brought  up  in  tho  Catholic  faith,  and  thus  aro  recruited  the  Christian  communities 
of  the  empire.  "  For  a  hundred  francs,"  says  Bishop  Perrocheau,  "  we  arc  able  to 
regenerate  at  least  300  or  400  infants,  of  whom  two-thirds  go  straight  to  heaven." 
In  1876  there  were  about  300  European  missionaries,  besides  hundreds  of  native 
priests  and  catechists,  ministering  to  from  400,000  to  600,000  faithful,  with  a 
yearly  increase  of  about  2,000. 

The  Protestant  missions  were  first  opened  in  1842,  after  the  treaty  of  Nanking, 
and  were  for  a  time  restricted  to  the  five  treaty  ports.  Since  1860  they  have  been 
gradually  diffused  throughout  every  part  of  the  empire  except  Tibet  and  Eastern 
Turkestan.  Numbering  about  250,  nearly  all  English  and  Americans,  and  assisted 
by  over  600  natives,  the  missionaries  have  founded  over  20  hospitals  and 
nearly  350  schools,  attended  by  7,500  pupils.  In  1878  the  Chinese  Protestants 
numbered  about  50,000,  chiefly  centred  in^  Fokien.  Most  of  the  converts  are 
drawn  from  the  Buddhist  sect  of  the  Ningpo  district,  which  abstains  from  eating 
flesh.  To  the  opium  trade,  imposed  by  Great  Britain  on  China,  is  largely  due  the 
failure  of  the  Protestant  missions,  the  natives  naturally  asking  themselves  whether 


k  -.        , 


les  during 

Hcct.     The 
jrioii,  were 
tlu'se  very 
tbroateiied 
lie   lloman 
Hitccorvino 
hese  prosc- 
n\  couiitry- 
0  empire  if 
•suit,  llug- 
;d  the  next 
tlie  favour 
oner.     Tlio 
policy,  and 
reful  not  to 
with  ances- 
rs,  and  the 
3vidence8  of 
end  of  the 
,8   in  South 
rs.     A  bxdl 
D  the  native 
eir  country, 
orer  classes, 
also  rescued 
tricken,  are 
lommunitiea 
arc  able  to 
to  heaven." 
8  of  native 
ul,  with  a 

'  Nanking, 
have  been 
,nd  Eastern 
and  assisted 
spitals  and 
Protestants 
onverts  are 
from  eating 
;ely  due  the 
ves  whether 


II A  HITS  AND  Cr  STOMS. 


158 


the  nation  poisoning  them  with  its  drugs  is  likely  to  improve  them  with  its  teach- 
ings, lint  Protestant  and  ('atholic  missions  alike  suH'or  from  contact  with  the 
European  eleiiuMit  in  tlic  seaports.  The  ('atholit-  priests  teach  tlie  faithful  Latin 
only  to  prevent  them  from  being  perverted  by  the  "  p(>rnieious  literature*"  of  the 
West,  while  tlu;  Protestants  take  care  not  to  teach  their  converts  Kiiglish  to  pre- 
vent them  from  going  to  seek  a  living  as  interpreters  in  the  treaty  ports. 

IIaHITS   and   CtSTOMS. 

It  is  difficult  to  pronounce  a  general  judgment  on  the  Chinese  moral  standard, 
and  assign  their  true  place  amongst  civilised  peoples  to  the  "  Sous  of  Han."     Most 

Fig.  64,— A  CiiTNF.sE  Savant. 


^  <•■■.-;<^:^;f 


travellers  have  a  tendency  to  treat  them  with  ridicule,  and  some  seem  incapable 
of  speaking  in  a  serious  tone  of  the  "  Celestials,"  as  they  ignorantly  call  them. 
With  the  missionaries  the  case  is  different ;  but  they,  on  the  other  hand,  see  in 
everj'thing  the  consequences  of  original  sin,  and  usually  describe  the  "  Heathen 
Chinese  "  as  a  degraded  being,  a  prey  to  every  vice.  Others  again,  and  these  would 
seem  to  be  the  most  uimierous,  grow  accustomed  to  the  new  siu-roundings  and 
become  naturalised  Chinese.  Some  of  the  missionaries,  while  preserving  their 
Western  culture,  become  prejudiced  in  favour  of  the  natives,  and  feel  inclined  to 
48 


I 


Ui 


EAST  ASIA. 


rccopniso  in  tlicin  ii  oorfain  moral  superiority.  Thun  in  fho  lust  contiirv  tho  onthu- 
siustic  descriptions  sent  to  Europe^  by  tho  Jesuits  eonferred  a  halo  of  virtue  und 
wisdom  on  tho  natives,  which  was  by  no  moans  justiKed  by  their  liistory.  Authors 
delif^hted  in  choosing  their  examples  from  this  new  world  of  the  remote  East, 
comparing  tho  Chiucse,  taken  as  their  models,  with  tho  inferior  civilised  ueoples  of 
tho  West. 

Tho  Chinese  on  their  part,  comparing  themselves  with  tho  *'  Western  Bar- 
barians," naturally  claim  the  superiority,  if  not  in  industry,  at  least  in  true  culture, 
and  appearances  certainly  often  lend  a  colour  to  their  pretensions.  Nowhere  else 
are  courtesy  and  kindly  feelings  more  general.  The  people  arc  naturally  reserved, 
earnest,  good-natured.  "Tho  men  of  tho  Four  Seas  arc  all  brothers,"  says  tho 
national  proverb,  and  even  strangers  have  travelled  from  one  extremity  of  the  land 

Fig.  66.— Chikese  Ciulpbex. 


to  the  other  without  even  meeting  with  a  rudeness  or  incivility.  In  Yunnan, 
Himan,  Kiangsi,  and  some  other  provinces  the  crowds  are  doubtless  somewhat 
importunate,  but  even  here  the  protection  of  any  aged  person  always  insures 
respect.  No  drimkards  are  seen  in  the  crowded  streets,  and  scenes  of  violence  are 
seldom  witnessed  beyond  the  limits  of  the  European  "  concessions  "  in  tho  treaty 
ports.  But  the  national  character  shows  perhaps  to  the  best  advantage  in  the 
schoolroom.  None  of  tho  children  ever  dream  of  causing  a  disturbance  or  neglect- 
ing their  tasks.  Here  they  show  themselves  such  as  they  will  continue  to  be 
throughout  life — docile,  thoughtful,  painstaking,  ond  persevering.  Grave  beyond 
their  years,  they  are  none  the  less  bright  and  merry,  neither  choleric  nor  given  to 
boisterous  laughter  like  the  Mongolian  children.  From  their  early  years  they 
seem  already  fully  conscious  of  their  dignity  as  civilised  beings. 


^  onthu- 
rtuo  und 
Authors 
)to  Eust, 
.'oplcH  of 

tm  Bar- 
)  culture, 
hero  else 
reserved, 
Hoys  the 
the  land 


Yunnan, 
somewhat 
l^s  insures 
olence  are 
the  treaty 
^e  in  the 
»r  neglect- 
nue  to  be 
ve  beyond 
r  given  to 
rears  they 


"^*Wl Willi    *  "Jt^i 


IIAIUTS  AND  CUSTOMS. 


155 


A  feebly  developed  Hpirit  of  enterprise  is  perhiips  tho  feutur(>  in  wliieli  the 
Chinese  betray  their  real  inferiority  to  Kuropeiins,  Tli(>y  niiiy  doubllcHH  show 
themselves  as  ingenious  as  others  in  the  struggh<  i'or  existence,  but  tliey  also  remain 
enslaved  to  routine  and  tradition,  relying  more  on  passive  resistance  than  on  per- 
sonal energy  and  daring  to  ovorooine  their  ditliculties.  As  a  rule  they  are  free 
from  "  vaulting  and)ition,"  as  shown  by  tho  popular  sayings  and  the  ])recepts  of 
their  moral  codes.  They  slirink  from  adventures,  speculation,  and  sudden  changes 
of  life,  and  no  other  nation  has  fewer  warlike  songs  or  more  enthusiastic  enco- 
niiuniH  of  the  arts  of  peace.  "  When  we  departinl  the  plants  were  already  sj)rout- 
ing ;  when  wc  returned  they  were  withered.  The  journey  is  h)r>g,  meagre  tho 
diet !  What  undeserved  miseries,  since  I  have  had  to  bear  arms,  ceasing  to  follow 
the  plough !  "  Such  is  the  md  song  of  the  Chinese  peasant  recruit,  so  different  from 
the  fiery  hymns  sung  in  chorus  by  the  Western  conscripts.  A  strange  spectacle  is 
presented  by  this  national  poetry,  celebrating  above  all  things  tho  praises  of  peace, 
sobriety,  regular  toil,  the  calmer  affections  of  the  heart.  Yet  it  lacks  neither 
dignity  nor  depth,  and  vivid  thoughts  and  sentiments  are  often  embodied  in  a  few 
striking  strophes.  But  it  is  a  poetry  seldom  inspired  by  personal  enthusiasm,  w  bile 
the  meaning  is  often  hopelessly  clouded  by  the  exigencies  of  conventional  forms 
and  stereotyped  syndwlisms.  During  the  natural  evolution  of  the  national  intel- 
lect tho  Chinese  writers  have  even  at  last  confomided  poetry  with  a  rhyme<l  code 
of  ethics,  tho  Chinese  bard  lacking  all  lyricol  sentiment,  and  appearing  always  to 
speak  in  the  name  of  a  family  or  a  comnmnity. 

In  Chinese  society  tho  family  group  is  in  any  case  far  more  solidly  constituted 
than  in  the  West.  Tho  whole  nation,  which  formerly  bore  the  name  of  the  "  Hun- 
dred Families,"  is  regarded  as  forming  one  family,  in  which  the  social  duties 
resolve  themselves  into  those  of  the  child  towards  the  parent.  The  whole  moral 
system  is  based  on  filial  respect,  and  the  Government  itself  is  merely  an  extension 
of  the  paternal  authority.  As  laid  down  in  the  Hiao-king  of  Confucius,  filial  piety 
is  the  foundation  of  society.  The  "  five  immutable  laws  "  are  the  relations  of  father 
and  children,  of  king  and  subjects,  of  man  and  wife,  of  age  and  youth,  of  friend 
and  friend.  All  flows  from  the  natural  authoritj'  of  the  father  and  obedience  of 
the  son,  cemented  and  sanctified  by  tradition  and  the  laws.  Such  is  the  principle 
which  has  for  ages  held  together  the  various  elements  of  Chinese  society,  constituting 
it  a  lasting  hierarchical  system.  Social  changes  have  accordingly  become  more 
difficult  to  realise,  and  have  been  attended  by  more  sanguinary  struggles  than 
elsewhere.  The  Chinese  have  a  fainter  conception  than  Europeans  of  morality  and 
freedom,  of  whatever  gives  to  the  individual  his  personal  worth,  independent  of  the 
community  of  which  ho  is  a  member.  The  family  alone  is  considered  as  possessing 
any  political  power  in  the  State,  and  in  former  times,  when  the  people  were 
consulted,  votes  were  taken  by  the  family.  Even  now  in  municipal  matters  the 
head  of  the  household  alone  has  a  voice,  the  father  being  considered  as  the 
depositary  of  the  sentiments  of  all  his  kindred.  He  is  honoured  and  rewarded  for 
their  virtues,  but  also  responsible,  and  even  punished,  for  their  faults.  The  great 
deeds  of  the  son  ennoble  the  father  and  the  whole  line  of  his  ancestry  ;  his  crimes 


,Jta 


150 


EAST  ASIA. 


(lis;^nirc  nil  pr.  vioiis  j^cnonitioiis.  Siu-li  is  llic  pnwcr  <»f  ihvso  pafrinrclia'  idona 
that  a  Miii<>|i'  lilow  uiiiu'd  liy  tlio  scin  aj!;aiiist  latlit«r  ami  iiiollior  is  n-j^ardi'd 
(IS  panicidil,  and  ])iiiiisli('d  l»y  dcafli.  In  limes  of  distress  the  yoiiiifj;  (d'teii 
eurii  u  few  liiuidicd  pounds  for  tlieir  Htarviiij;  J'aniilies  h\  olferinfj^  t«)  take  the 
plmio  of  wealtliy  criminals  condemned  by  tho  magistrate.  Tor  the  law  Heekn 
oidy  the  expiation  of  crime,  and  as  lon>if  as  justice  is  satisfied,  it  iiiatterH 
little  what  head  falls.      Pious  hous  thus  dyiiiff  with  iheir  parents'   l)le.ssinj^  uro 

V\f(.  Ofl.    -Tl'.HUACE    WITH     KlNKItAl,    I'ltNH    NFAll    AmOY, 


filled   with    the    ineffable  joy   of  having  fulfilled  their  filial   duty  in   all  its 
sublimity. 

In  tho  funeral  ceremonies,  especially  of  the  father,  custom  requires  the  children 
to  give  public  expression  to  their  grief.  The  oldest  son,  chief  heir  and  head  of  the 
family,  or,  he  failing,  his  first-born  or  adopted  son,  has  to  fix  one  of  the  three  souls 
of  the  dead  in  the  commemorative  tablet  of  his  virtues,  bum  incense  to  his  shade, 
render  his  journey  easy  by  supplying  him  with  fictitious  money  in  paper,  as  well 


i: 


l%^|  iii'ii' 


IIAltlTH  AND  CUSTOMH. 


ir.7 


ha'  idoan 
vegan  li'd 

dig  ((I'teii 
take  the 

law  wcUh 
inatterH 

ssiug  uro 


■f* 


in   all  its 

10  (.■biidrcn 
load,  of  the 
three  souls 
bis  shade, 
jer,  as  well 


as  <'lt)lhoK,  horst'M,  Hcrvaiits,  IjoatH,  also  III"  papir,  rcprcsciiting  rvcrytliiiig  tlml  llic 
»lt'|»att»'d  may  iT(|uiro  in  thi'  olhtT  world.  Mourning  hisls  lor  iIiith  ycarK,  and  lor 
tlu>  whole  of  this  time  the  mourners  nnint  abstain  from  meat  and  wine,  and  keep 
from  |)ul)lie  gatherings.  Custom  also  requii'(s  (hat  the  remains  of  lh(>  dead  lie 
brought  to  their  native  plae(>s,  and  as  the  eaniage  of  a  single  liody  would  often  lie 
expensive,  they  generally  wait  until  a  sullieient  number  ean  be  pit  together  to  form 
a  large  convoy.  Ileneo  the  numerous  temporary  eemeteries  and  mortuary  villages, 
with  their  funeral  urns  and  eolllns,  all  tastefully  (heorati-d  with  emblematic 
paintings,  representing  flowers,  birds,  or  musieal  instrumeutH.  Vessels  are  also 
freighted  by  the  friendly  societies  to  bring  back  tlie  renniins  of  those  dying  in 
foreign  lands.  Kvery  year  the  people  clothed  in  white,  tlie  colour  of  (b-ep  mourn- 
ing, resort  in  the  monlh  of  May  to  the  graves  and  mortuary  temples  with  fiuits, 
flowers,  and  other  offerings,  whicli  are 

soon  i>iekcd  up  by  the  birds  nesting  in  pig.  o".  -  Manchu  I.ady. 

the   surrounding   thickets.      In    these 
hallowed  places  tluu-e  is  no  distinction 
of  rank,  age  alone  taking  precedence. 
The  simple  peasants  and  day  labourers 
generally   know  the   history  of   their 
families   for   many  generations   back,    ; 
and   uro  able   to   repeat  not  only  the 
names,  but  even    the   great   deeds  of    ~ 
their  forefathers.    Tlie  ccmtempt  enter-  _ 
tained  for  the  bonzes  is  due  mainly  to  ' 
the  fact  that  they  have  renounced  the  v  X  ^v 
family  ties,  or  have  become  outcasts  \    ;^^ 
by  being  sold  in  their  youth  to  the     ^    X'  ^I 
monasteries. 

Long  funeral  rites  are  not  usual  in 
the  caseof  children,  bachelors,  spinsters, 
illegitimate  women,  or  slaves.  The 
bwlies  of  infants  are  often  even  left  by 

the  Imnks  of  streams,  a  custom  which  has  led  many  travellers  to  attribute  the  general 
practice,  especially  of  female  infanticide,  to  the  Chinese  people.  But  this  crime 
has  never  been  sanctioned  by  public  opinion,  or  authorised  by  the  Government,  as 
has  often  been  asserted.  Nevertheless  it  is  certain  that  in  some  provinces  the 
poor  are  in  the  habit  of  exposing  their  children,  while  female  infanticide  is  common, 
especially  in  the  Amoy  and  other  overpeoplwl  districts  of  Fokien.  Extreme 
poverty  is  the  sole  cause  of  the  practice,  which  the  ^[andarins  content  themselves 
with  denouncing  in  proclamations  read  by  nobody.  The  impossibility  of  provid- 
ing a  dower  for  girls  condemns  them  to  a  life  of  hardship  or  dishonour,  from  which 
their  parents  rescue  them  by  an  early  death,  unless  they  succeed  in  selling  them 
as  slaves  or  the  future  brides  of  some  village  youth.  In  these  cases  the  price 
runs  at  the  rate  of  eight  or  ten  shillings  for  every  year  of  their  age.     Many 


^ 


158 


EAST  AHIA. 


iiro  iiImo  liiiii^^ht  hy  tho  nu-tHiotmrit'H,  wIiomo  con^ro^iitioiiH  nro  tliiw  ftcllfiouNly 
iiicri'iiNrd. 

Hut  wliilo  infanticide  in  citluT  ccnsiinMl,  <»r  iil  most  tulcriitcd,  in  ccrtiiin  <lis»ri('t«, 
tlif  ul)Niiliit(>  ri^lit  of  thf  i'lithrr  to  hcII  iiis  olfsprin^  into  l)onda^i'  is  fully  it'co^'niNrd 
by  tlu>  liiw.  Yt't  thf  practice  in  rare,  altliouj^h  alaij^o  nmnlx-r  of  girls  are  dcHtincd 
to  a  life  of  slavery'  l'i<'l>  families  often  own  them  by  the  do/en,  and  most  faniilien 
ill  easy  circumstances  havu  at  leaHt  one  slave  amongst  their  Mcrvants.  However,  thu 
Bhivi)  Htat«'  is  for  women  only  temporary,  their  masterH  Ix-ing  obliged  to  provide 
them  with  a  husband  when  their  condition  is  altered.  Mah'  slaves  also  may 
before  their  thirtieth  year  re(|uire  their  owners  to  tind  them  wives,  and  as  heads  of 
families  they  transmit  the  slave  Htuto  to  the  male  issm^  only  down  to  the  iourth 
{feneration.  In  other  respeetH  tho  slaveH  are  mostly  treated  like  tho  other 
servants,  receiving  instruction  in  tho  BchcMtls,  competing  at  the  pid>lic  examination.^, 
und  obtaining  ofHcial  appointments.  In  the  latter  case  the  owner  is  bound  to  allow 
them  to  redeem  themselves  and  famili(>s.  Married  women  also  may  be  sold  by  their 
husbands,  but  only  as  wives,  never  as  slaves. 

A  material  proof  of  the  inferiority  of  wonuin  in  Chinese  society  is  the  practice 
of  deforming  the  feet,  to  which  countless  millions  aro  subjected,  even  amongst  tho 
poorer  classes.  Lockhart  refers  the  introduction  of  this  custom  to  tho  year  926  ; 
but  it  must  have  spread  very  slowly,  for  no  allusion  is  made  to  it  either  by  Marco 
Polo  or  the  other  mediicval  travellers.  Now  it  is  so  rigorously  enforced  that  every- 
where throughout  the  northern  provinces,  except  in  Peking,  all  the  women  submit 
to  the  torture,  from  which  the  peasantry  in  the  south  und  in  Sechuen  aro  completely 
emancipated.  The  Manchu  ladies  also,  as  belonging  to  tho  conquering  race,  aro 
not  required  to  conform  in  this  respect  to  tho  national  custom,  although  they 
imitate  it  by  confining  their  feet  in  such  small  shoes  that  they  are  obliged  to  walk 
tiptoe,  Avhenco  numerous  accidents  and  serious  complaints.  In  general  the 
artificial  defonnity  has  become  in  China  tho  distinctive  mark  of  "  good  society," 
so  that  oven  those  who  condemn  the  practice  as  barbarous  aro  fain  to  inflict  i(  on 
their  daughters,  in  order  to  save  them  from  a  life  of  celibacy.  The  feet  are  usually 
bandaged  up  according  to  various  methods  at  the  ago  of  five  or  six,  and  when  once 
crippled  in  this  way  tho  unfortunate  victim  of  fashion  becomes  almost  absolutely 
helpless.  She  can  lift  no  heavy  weight,  apply  herself  to  no  useful  work,  nor  even 
walk  straight,  but  is  obliged  to  totter  along  with  short  quick  step,  balancing 
herself  with  her  outstretched  arms.  And  this  is  the  motion  compared  by  the  poets 
to  the  waving  of  tho  willow  in  the  zephyr  !  Yet  the  rustic  women  seem  to  take 
their  share  of  the  field  operations  without  opparent  distress. 

Remote  traditions  point  to  the  exis'  ce  of  the  "  Matriarchal  "  state  in  China. 
"Before  the  time  of  Fohi,"  say  the  old  books,  "men  could  tell  their  mother,  but 
not  their  father."  But  since  the  constitution  of  the  modem  family,  law  and 
custom  establish  the  absolute  inferiority  of  woman  as  wife  end  daughter.  After 
venerating  her  parents  she  must  venerate  her  husband.  "  If  I  wed  a  bird,"  says 
tho  proverb,  "  I  must  fly  after  him ;  if  a  dog,  I  must  follow  him  to  the  hunt ;  if  a  clod 
of  earth,  I  must  sit  by  its  side  and  watch  over  it."     All  the  symbolic  acts  of  the 


-rf 


SKCUKT  HOCIiyrilvS— TIIH  TAIl'INCJH. 


160 


utitlniiMly 

(lis'rii'tH, 
[•»(ij;iiiHC(l 
•  (U'Hliufd 
t  I'aniilii'H 
vxviT,  the 
»  |)r<» villi) 
also  nmy 
I  Ih-uiIh  of 
hi«  fourth 
tlio  other 
niiuitioiiM, 
il  to  allow 
Id  by  their 

le  i)raetico 
iiongHt  the 
year  925; 
by  ^lurco 
hat  cvery- 
len  submit 
completely 
J  race,  are 
Dugh  they 
ed  to  wulk 
neral    the 
society," 
iflict  il  on 
are  usually 
when  once 
absolutely 
,  nor  even 
balancing 
y  the  poets 
em  to  take 

in  China, 
nother,  but 
y,  law  and 
tcr.  After 
bird,"  says 
it ;  if  a  clod 
acts  of  the 


lM»trothi'd  reminti  her  that  MubmiNNJon  in  for  the  wile  the  virtue  of  virtues. 
Wliiitever  be  tlic  liusbaiid'H  eoiiiliii't,  nIh'  must  iicids  Nulmiit  and  obey  in  hilt  lue. 
She  may  appeal  iieitiur  to  parents  nor  magistrate,  and  may  at  most  sii>peiid  in  tlie 
temple  a  paper  ima^'e  of  her  lord,  and  ank  the  "  (ioddi'ss  of  Merey  "  to  change  his 
heart,  I'anhwei-pan,  the  most  iilustriouMof  learned  Chinese  women,  who  flourished 
in  the  iirst  century  of  the  new  era,  has  laid  down  all  the  duty  of  woman  in  the 
classic  memoir  of  fill'  "Seven  Articli's."  She  tells  us  that  tin*  old  custom  was  at 
the  birth  of  a  dauj,'hter  to  offer  tc  the  father  bricks  and  tiU-s,  "  bricks  itecaiise  we 
tread  them  under  foot,  tiles  because  they  are  exposed  to  the  incK'nu-ncy  of  the 
weather."  "The  wife  must  be  a  nu're  shadow,  a  simple  echo."  When  her 
husband  selects  one  or  more  eoncubiues,  generally  from  amongst  his  slaves,  she  is 
bound  to  welcome  and  live  in  peace  with  them.  The  husband  alone  has  the  right 
of  divorce,  and  witlumt  arbitration  he  may  dismiss  his  wife,  even  though  her  only 
fault  be  bodily  ailments  or  a  love  of  gossip.  l)ut  when  she  displfases  him  he 
usually  prefers  to  get  rid  of  her  by  sale,  entering  into  a  formal  contract  with  the 
purchaser,  which  is  regarded  as  a  purely  personal  matter.  Nor  has  the  self- 
immolation  of  the  widow  on  her  husband's  grave  entirely  disappeared,  the  usual 
methods  being  by  drowning,  hanging,  or  poisoning  themselves,  never  by  fire,  as  in 
India.  Their  resolutiojj  is  announced  beforehand,  when  relatives,  friends,  and  thn 
curious  assemble  from  all  parts  to  encourage  and  a])plaud.  When  the  Anglo- 
Frcuch  army  entered  the  province  of  Pechili  in  18(50,  thousands  of  women 
committed  suicide  to  avoid  falling  into  the  hands  of  strangers.  Thus  the  wife  is 
taught  to  consider  that  she  has  no  existence  apart  from  her  husband,  and  for 
whatever  liberty  she  may  enjoy  she  is  indebted  to  the  general  mildness  of  the 
national  character.  Virtuous  maidens  and  widows  are  also  honoured  after  death 
with  numerous  triumphal  arches  outside  the  large  cities. 

Like  all  other  social  acts,  marriage  is  accompanied  by  endless  ceremonies,  the 
symbolism  of  which  is  little  understood.  "Heaven  itself,"  says  the  Shaking, 
"  has  made  the  distinction  of  ecroraonios,  which  are  for  us  immutable  laws."  The 
li,  or  "  ceremonial,"  however,  comprises  manners  and  etiquette,  as  well  as  every- 
thing that  distinguishes  cultured  from  barbarous  peoples.  Whoever  respects 
tradition  finds  his  line  of  conduct  already  laid  down  for  him  in  every  civil  or 
religious  ceremony,  in  his  visits,  receptions,  and  other  social  duties.  He  knows 
the  prescribed  number  of  salutations  and  knec-bendings ;  calculates  to  u  nicety  the 
length  of  his  stride,  his  "  bowing  end  scraping,"  the  pitch  of  his  voice,  the  extent 
of  his  smile.  In  his  tender  years  the  greatest  delight  of  Confucius,  the  typical 
Chinaman,  was  to  salute  his  ployfellows  with  all  the  ceremony  of  his  elders, 
inviting  them  to  be  seated,  yielding  them  the  first  place,  imitating  the  rites 
associated  with  ancestral  worshij).  "  All  virtues  have  their  source  in  etiquette  "  is 
a  sentiment  attributed  to  him. 

Secret  Societies — The  TaYpings. 

Nevertheless  the  numerous  revolutions  which  have  shaken  the  Ohiuese  social 
system  to  its  foundations  show  that,  beneath  all  this  formal  parade,  the  pulse  of  the 


^■F^a— afcottijtoJi 


160 


EAST  ASIA. 


nation  is  quickened  more  by  the  pressing  interests  of  life  thnn  by  the  rigorous 
perfonmince  of  a  symbolic  ceremonial.  The  struggle  for  existence  prevents  the 
masses  from  seeking  a  sanction  for  their  acts  in  the  conduct  of  the  Emperors  Yao, 
Shun,  and  Yu.  "  The  son,"  says  the  national  proverb,  "  resembles  the  times  more 
than  he  does  his  father  and  mother;  "  and  the  times  bring  about  constant  changes, 


Fig.  08.— Lands  wasted  hy  the  Taipino  Inbukkection. 

Boole  1  :  22,500,000. 


Ori^na]  Seat  of  the  Tnsorreotion.  ^^^^i 


Zone  of  the  Greatest  Devastation. 


Zones  of  the  Spread  of  the  Insaneotlon. 


SCO  Miles. 


if  not  iu  the  moral  code,  at  all  events  in  the  real  life  of  the  people.  The  oft- 
repeated  statement  that  China  has  been  exhausted  by  its  precocious  development  is 
false,  for  no  other  race  recovers  more  rapidly  from  apparently  overwhelming 
disasters.  The  distinctive  features  of  the  national  character  are  none  the  less 
faithfully  reflected  in  the  profound  changes  continually  taking  place.  In  Europe 
the  initiative  comes  mostly  from   the    individual ;    in    China   from   the   hui,  or 


*^ffvimnMivi 


'ibimiii^ili'Al^mimim^^       i  jliii  jj 


^Si'ijWKyiilii'iiiwii  WiF'ait'iiiMiii, 


.Xam 


SECRET  SOCIETIES -THE  TAlfriNOS. 


161 


Hocictioa,  wLich  are  maintuinod  from  generation  to  generation.  For  licrc  nearly 
the  wl'.ole  nation  is  influenced  and  guided  by  the  action  of  these  social  unions.  In 
all  the  towns  nearly  every  person,  rich  or  poor,  belongs  to  one  or  other  of  the 
numerous  brotherhoods,  which  are  either  publicly  constituted,  or  else  secretlj'^ 
organized.      The  very  mendicants,  or  "  children  of   the   flowers,"   as   they   are 


Fig.  69. — SOUTBB   OF   TH8   ClIIEP   MoDEKN    EXFLOKEHS   IN    ClIINA. 
Boole  1  :  25,000,000. 


[  oFG.    100' 


eno  Miles. 


called,   have  their  associations,   with    their    statutes,   special   code,   feasts,   and 
gatherings. 

The  late  civil  war  has  shown  the  great  influence  of  the  secret  societies,  and  has 
also  made  it  evident  that  the  "  sons  of  Han  "  are  by  no  means  a  stagnant  people 
hopelessly  wedded  to  the  old  ideas,  as  is  so  often  asserted.  The  common  error  of 
confounding  the  Chinaman  and  the  Mandarin  has  been  rudely  dispelled  by  recent 
events,  and  Confucius  himself  had  long  ago  said  that  the  "  Law  of  the  Great 
Philosophy  is  to  renovate  mankind."  The  Taipings  represented  a  fresh  departure 
in  the  national  development,  and  if  they  were  not  upheld  to  the  end  by  public 


' 


162 


EAST  ASIA. 


opinion,  it  wus  probably  becuuse  they  plunged  too  daringly  into  the  new  religious 
and  political  career.  Too  indifferent  to  the  claims  of  the  old  national  Ming 
dynasty,  they  had  not  sought  in  the  past  history  of  the  country  a  stand-point  of 
connnou  action  against  the  Manchu  usurpers.  In  1848  began  the  great  revolt, 
arising  at  first  out  of  a  petty  quarrel  about  some  idle  ceremony,  but  soon  assuming 
the  proportions  of  a  general  outbreak,  in  which  religious  passion,  class  interests, 
and  hatred  took  part.  From  the  Kwangsi  valley  the  flames  spread  raj)idly 
throughout  the  southern  provinces,  whence  they  gradually  reached  the  Yang-tze 
basin,  the  Iloang-ho,  and  the  very  gates  of  Tientsin.  The  kingdom  of  the 
"  Taiping  " — that  is,  the  "  Great  Peace" — was  proclaimed  in  1851,  and  in  1853  Nan- 
king was  chosen  as  the  capital,  under  the  name  of  Tienking,  or  "  Heavenly  Abode." 

llistrcss  of  the  fertile  central  provinces,  of  all  the  Lower  Yang-tze  valley,  and 
even  of  Ningpo  and  other  seaports,  the  insurrection  had  every  chance,  if  not  of 
ultimate  success,  at  least  of  ])rofoundly  modifying  the  whole  political  and  social 
system.  But  now  came  the  European  intervention  in  favour  of  the  Manchu 
dynasty,  first  with  volunteers,  and  then  with  regular  Anglo-French  forces. 
Although  mingling  Christian  rites  with  their  worship,  using  in  their  edicts  a 
language  borrowed  from  the  missionaries,  including  the  Bible  amongst  their  sacred 
writings,  and  even  offering  official  positions  to  foreign  Christians,  the  Taipings 
failed  to  secure  the  sympathy  of  the  European  residents,  who  preferred  their 
commercial  to  their  religious  interests.  By  their  means  the  Imperialists  saved 
Shanghai  in  18G'2,  and  soon  after  rapidly  recovered  all  the  more  important  stra- 
tegical i)oints.  Then  followed  the  usual  wholesale  butcheries,  to  escape  from  which 
the  rebels  banded  together  as  brigands,  still  wasting  the  open  country,  but  without 
further  political  aim.  The  empire  was  preserved,  but  the  restoration  of  the  old 
order  of  things  is  only  apparent.  The  various  secret  societies  of  the  "  Nenuphar," 
the  "  Three  Precious,  Heaven,  Earth,  and  Man,"  and  so  many  others,  all  aiming  at 
the  political  and  social  renovation  of  the  land,  are  still  at  work.  The  old 
machinery  of  the  laws,  formularies,  official  practices,  also  become  daily  more  out 
of  joint  with  the  times,  while  the  growing  relations  with  foreign  countries  are 
exercising  a  profound  influence,  and  hastening  the  ruin  of  effete  institutions. 

The  few  European  colonies  settled  on  the  coast  and  along  the  banks  of  the 
Yang-tze,  although  a  mere  handful  compared  with  the  surrounding  multitudes,  are 
the  real  starting-point  of  a  new  epoch  in  the  national  life  of  China.  Henceforth 
East  and  West  are  united  in  the  great  movements  of  history,  while  the  empire  is 
bo(!oming  yearly  better  known  to  the  outer  world  by  geographical  exploration. 
European  travellers  have  already  traversed  the  land  in  every  direction,  and  fresh 
itineraries  are  thus  constantly  added  to  the  network  of  previous  research.  Nothing 
now  remains  to  be  done  except  the  methodic  exploration  of  the  several  provinces. 

Basin  of  the  Pei-ho — Pkovincb  of  Pechili. 

The  region  of  China  proper,  in  which  the  capital  is  situated,  forms  the 
northernmost  of  the  eighteen  provinces.     It  even  lies  at  some  distance  from  the 


i'jiaHeerj<BjF»a<w 


I  ^iiJh»i—n'wrtnjti<wjNUiiwiw 


HdHMrfMiiMMilMiHftAMlMilfil^^ 


BASIN  OF  THE  PEI-HO— PROVINCE  OF  I>ECUILI. 


168 


•  religioua 
nul  Ming 
l-point  of 
at  revolt, 
assuming 
interests, 

i  raj)idly 
Yang-tze 
m  of  the 
853  Nan- 
y  Abode." 
alley,  and 
if  not  of 
ind  social 
)  Mauchu 
;li  forces. 

•  edicts  a 
icir  sacred 

Taipings 
•red  their 
ists  saved 
'tant  stra- 
om  which 
it  without 
}f  the  old 
enuphar," 
aiming  at 

The  old 
more  out 
ntries  are 

ks  of  the 
itudes,  are 
[enceforth 
empire  is 
;ploration. 
and  fresh 
Nothing 
'ovinces. 


Porms   the 
from  the 


heart  of  the  land,  which  is  comprised  between  the  two  great  rivers,  Yang-tzc-kiang 
and  Iloang-ho.  During  the  long  epochs  of  internal  peace  the  seat  of  cnii)ire  was 
naturally  established  in  a  central  city  like  Nanking,  but  the  Government  was 
necessarily  removed  to  a  more  northern  position  when  the  Mongol  and  Mancliu 
nomuds  began  to  threaten  the  land  through  the  valley  of  the  I'ei-ho.  The 
invaders,  when  successful,  also  willingly  fixed  their  head-quarters  in  the  same  region, 
whence  they  could  receive  help  from  the  kindred  tribes,  and  whither  they  could 
take  refuge  in  case  of  disaster.  From  these  causes  IVking  has,  with  little 
interrui)tion,  remaincnl  the  imperial  residence  since  the  tenth  century.  It  lies,  in 
any  case,  in  the  same  natural  region  as  the  southern  cities,  being  separated  by  no 

Fig.  70. — Banob  of  the  Floodinob  of  thb  Lower  Pecuili. 
Roiile  1 : 3.ono,ooo. 


erj  Miles. 


bills  or  uplands  from  the  plains  watered  by  the  Yellow  River.  From  Pechili  to 
Honan,  Kiangsu,  and  Nganhwei,  the  changes  of  climate,  vegetation,  and  inhabit- 
ants are  very  gradual,  and  in  the  density  of  its  population  Pechili  itself  rivals  the 
more  central  provinces.  According  to  the  official  census  taken  previous  to  the 
Taiping  invasion,  the  change  in  the  course  of  the  Iloang-ho,  and  the  great  famine, 
it  contained  37,000,000  souls  in  an  area  of  little  over  49,000  square  miles. 

Washed  on  the  east  by  the  Yellow  Sea,  Pechili  is  limited  north  and  west  by 
the  scarp  of  the  Mongolian  plateaux.  Here  the  ranges  run  mainly  south-west  and 
north-east,  parallel  with  those  of  the  Liaotimg  peninsula  and  Shantung.  Their 
streams,  after  following  for  some  distance  the  line  of  the  upland  valleys,  force  their 


iriv^^-' 


164 


EAST  ASIA. 


way  somewhat  abruptly  thiough  side  fissures  down  to  tbo  plains.  In  the  high- 
lands comprised  between  the  gorges  of  the  Pei-ho  and  Wen-ho,  which  water  the 
Peking  district,  scarcely  any  summits  reach  an  elevation  of  6,700  feet,  but  south 
of  the  Wen  several  rise  to  8,000  and  upwards,  while  according  to  liretschneider 
the  snowy  peaks  of  the  Siao-Utai-Shan  ("  Little  Five-crested  Mountain  ")  attain 
an  altitude  of  12,000  feet. 

The  coast-line,  which  stretches  for  about  300  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Liao-he  to  that  of  the  rei-ho,  formerly  ran  parallel  with  the  inland  ranges,  but 
has  gradually  been  modified  by  alluvial  deposits.  An  extensive  semicircle  of 
new  lands  has  even  been  formed  at  some  distance  from  the  coast  by  the  Laonm-ho, 
which  collects  all  the  streams  from  the  south-east  corner  of  Mongolia.  The  whole 
region  of  the  Lower  Pei-ho  was  at  one  time  u  marine  basin,  which  has  scarcely  yet 
been  completely  filled  in  by  the  sedimentary  matter  washed  down  from  the  interior. 
Numerous  lagoons  or  swamps  still  cover  large  tracts,  and  the  slope  of  the  land  is 
so  slight  that  at  times  the  whole  country,  for  a  space  of  0,000  square  miles,  is 
converted  into  a  vast  lake  from  2  to  6  feet  deep.  On  these  occasions  the  crops  are 
destroyed,  the  land  wasted  by  famine,  the  rivers  and  canals  diverted  from  their 
course.  Thus  the  Wen-ho,  which  formerly  formed  the  northern  section  of  the 
Grand  Canal  between  Tientsin  and  the  Yang-tze,  has  recently  ceased  to  be  navigable. 
Nearly  all  the  names  of  the  villages  bear  evidence  to  the  constant  shifting  of  the 
streams  in  this  low-lying  region. 

The  inhabitants  refer  the  inundations  to  the  anger  of  a  black  and  green  dragon, 
who  must  be  propitiated  by  offerings,  while  the  Europeans  attribute  them,  on 
insufficient  grounds,  to  a  subsidence  of  the  land.  But  the  direct  cause  of  the  evil 
must  be  traced  to  the  destruction  of  the  forests  on  the  highlands  where  the  streams 
take  their  rise.  The  heavy  summer  rains,  being  no  longer  retained  by  the  vegetation, 
sweep  in  foaming  torrents  down  the  slopes  to  the  Tientsin  depression,  where  they 
are  collected  too  rapidly  to  be  discharged  through  the  single  channel  of  the  Pei-ho. 
To  the  disappearance  of  the  woods  is  also  due  the  increased  violence  of  the  hua- 
fung,  or  "  dust  storms,"  so  destructive  to  the  crops  and  injurious  to  tht  health  of 
the  people.  All  these  evils  have  driven  the  natives  to  emigrate  in  hundreds  of 
thousands  to  Mongolia  and  Manchuria,  where  they  have  formed  many  flourishing 
settlements. 

Topography — Peking. 

The  chief  city  in  the  province  is  the  imperial  capital,  Peking,  pronounced 
Peting  or  Betzing  in  the  Mandarin  dialect.  The  term  means  "Northern 
Residence,"  in  opposition  to  Nanking,  the  former  "  Southern  Residence."  It  was 
80  named  at  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century  by  an  emperor  of  the  Ming 
dynasty,  but  the  name  is  known  in  China  only  to  the  learned.  The  people  call  it 
simply  Kingcheng,  or  "  Residence,"  which  is  also  the  meaning  of  the  official  name 
Kingtu.  Amongst  its  numerous  other  designations  was  the  Mongolian  Khan-balik 
(Cambaluc),  or  "  City  of  the  Khans,"  imposed  upon  it  by  the  northern  conquerors, 
and  introduced  into  Europe  by  Marco  Polo. 


«    I 


miiiiiMfi'WftWIWBiaiJMIir 


iB8Pii>#»aift<MliwaiMia>liii>iiM  «n  i  in  nil  <*  w  '^jmmm  w>iw>iWijili<»4Bit  i«numm 


WW*^' 


Jim. 


■»«(?W^WP«»W^*««PiWIW* 


In  the  high- 
ich  water  tho 
f'ot,  but  south 

irctscbncidor 
tuin  ")  uttuin 

uuuth  of  the 
cl  ranges,  but 

semicircle  of 
lie  Laoniu-ho, 
The  whole 
8  scarcely  yet 
1  the  interior. 
)f  the  land  is 
uare  miles,  is 

the  crops  are 
d  from  their 
icction  of  the 

be  navigable, 
bif  ting  of  the 

green  dragon, 
»ute  them,  on 
ise  of  the  evil 
re  the  streams 
;he  vegetation, 
11,  where  they 
of  the  Pei-ho. 
ce  of  the  kua- 
» tht  health  of 
a  hundreds  of 
ny  flourishing 


J,  pronounced 
IS  "  Northern 
tnce."  It  was 
'  of  the  Ming 
i  people  call  it 
e  official  name 
an  Khan-balik 
ru  conquerors, 


VI£W  TAKEN  FBOM  THB  SUMMER  PALACE,  PEKIXO. 


^ 


JtM 


■'^4J,iUllaUimlW|l'>IWlMIW»llWWWl'lHJWl»uW)Wt'"«IJW<'W'M''«W 


imiiiB— I  I'     •"" 


Jtm, 


L. 


-    t|llilfWlU''^'"t'i^ff*^''^y.'* 


i-I^IHj!^"'" 


h 


PEKING  AND  NEIGHI 


I 


iuMManimiw" 


Aoeordmjf  to  Br«>tacilmaid«r.  MoUi 
Is  400000 

NEW  YORK,  D.  API-LET 


*  • 


lKing  and  neighbourhood 


'ordintf  to  Bretsclmeider.  HioUendacff  and.  fintacilw 
1)400000 

Q  «  1« 

NEW  YORK.  D.  APPI.ETON  ScC-J 

I...       .NIIWIIII— 111'    '''^feltfHt  "  " 


:-« 


■'w.i!i'»aM'i''iH;t*»ia«»A#'w»>Jw.«iK^.i,^",  M!'!«iiwi*''>W''WMi         ■«"'wwaiti«ii^itii'iiJ)'iiiwi!i!ii.!>imttii«iiBi)i>.ii»ii»iii«MaiLw«ijwAuiw^ 


TOI'OOHAI'IIY-IMIKINO. 


105 


Pckiti}?  HtandN  in  the  middle  of  a  plain  wwircj-ly  I'^O  ftM«t  ul«iv«>  H(>a-l(>vcl,  and  a 
little  Koiith-ciiMt  of  tlio  liiNt  NpupH  of  tli(>  Moii^rolimi  «>Ncarpni<Mit.  It  is  iiiterMrctcd 
by  two  rividrtH,  which  flow  thonco  for  I'i  uiilos  ««aHtwardM  to  tho  iN'i-ho.  The  slill 
more  copious  Won-ho,  which  at  ono  time  flowed  almost  under  the  wuIIh  of  the  city, 


Fig.   71.  — SuCtKMIVR    DlMPl.ACEMKNTM    OF    rf.KINO. 
Boiln  1  :  l3A,noo. 


D 


LI 


□ 


Alodem  City  Yewohew,  oapital  of  Capital  of  the  Kin  Khambnllk.  capibil 

the  ToD^lS'h  ana  Utii  Cent.)        niid  nf  th«  Uao.        of  the  Munirol  I  lynnaty. 


Remnin*  of  the  Rampiirts  of  Remninii  nf  the  Rnmpitrts   Remains  of  the  Rimparts 
Chantu,  capital  of  the  Kiu.  of  Klutmbitlik.  of  doubtf^  date. 


8  Miles. 


is  now  9  miles  farther  west,  where  a  strong  embankment  prevents  it  from 
flooding  the  plains  of  Peking.  The  Wen-ho  has  frequently  shifted  its  bed,  and  in 
the  plains  numerous  marble  bridges  still  cross  its  old  channels,  now  flushed  only  in 
the  rainy  season. 

Peking  covers  an  area  of  some  16,000  acres,  or  about  four-fifths  of  Paris  within 


Jka 


166 


KAHT  ASIA. 


ll»'  forfiliciilioiiM.  Iliit  fluH  »pac(>  in  fur  from  Immiij?  complrfj'ly  iMTupifd.  Tlio 
ini|M'rial  (luartor  and  tlio  n'sitlt'iiccM  of  tlm  priiicrM  an>  Hurrdiindrd  Ity  rxtciiMivo 
giirdciiH,  ki«mkM,  and  a!)anduii('d  Imildiiiffs,  and  I'vvn  tlit>  Chiiicwi  (niar(«T  '\h  ocupiHl 
l)V  IiouMCM  for  a  diHtiinrc  of  little  over  a  iiiil(>  in  tlic  dirrction  from  j'ast.  tv)  ivost. 
KlMrwhcn- tlic  (Micloscd  Hpaci'  in  covered  by  exteiiNive  waste  j^roiiiidH,  iiitrrsptn-Mwi 
with  Hwainpy  traetn,  old  jfraveyardu,  and  tields.  Hero  arc  uIho  the  parks  ^,(  the 
Tt'inples  of  Heaven  and  Afi;ricuIturo,  while  ruined  MtruetureH  alHO  tuLi'  «p  much 

Fig.  72.— TlIK   Illdll   SlIlKKT,    I'kkino. 


space.  Hence  Peking  would  seem  to  be  inferior  in  population,  not  only  to  ihe 
large  cities  of  the  central  provinces,  but  even  to  its  own  seaport  of  Tientsin. 
Bretschneider  thinks  it  can  scarcely  have  more  than  500,000  inhabitants,  so  that 
instead  of  rivalling  London,  as  was  formerly  supposed,  it  would  seem  to  be  eight 
times  smaller  than  the  British  metropolis.  Hitherto  the  Government  has  declined 
to  publish  the  statistics  of  the  place,  although  all  the  materials  are  available. 

Peking  consists  of  two  cities,  separated  from  each  other  by  a  lofty  inner  wall. 


itf!gXi.'Y^iff?f^y''^^*iW£sg^''S*^^' 


mtmm 


TOPOOIf.M'MY— rKKINO. 


167 


Mi'»l.    The 
i>.\t('n(*ivo 

»t  t<,>  woM. 

♦orsptM'Hwl 

ikH  of    <llP 

up  much 


'M^^^ 


inly  to  ihe 
f  Tientsin, 
nts,  so  that 
o  be  eight 
as  declined 
able, 
inner  wall. 


10 


Tlio  northern,  which  forniH  ii  r.-^ular  Hr|ilar«',  in  the  "Tatar"  or  •'  Mutichii;"  t| 
Hoiithcrii,  the  Chiiu'No  town.  This  «iu(irter  was  forinorly  a  in<>re  Mabiiri>,  wlii.h  in 
the  Hixteenlh  century  wm  enclrwd  by  an  iniposinjf  earthcti  rampart  facc.1  with 
bricliM,  :>(>  feet  hi^h.  tlimkcd  by  H<piare  t..wer.s  at  intervals  ,,1'  'joo  yanls,  and  hroad 
enough  on  t..p  for  carriage  trafJic.  Th(>  walls  are  Mcparated  l)y'a  moat  from  the 
outer  gardens   und   somo  wretched  suhurbs   straggling  into   the  country.      The 

Mur.  73— Th«  TrMn.d  or  Hkavrw,  Pkhiko. 


Chinese  town,  which,  if  not  the  more  populous,  is  the  more  industrious  of  the  two, 
resembles  u  largo  camping  ground  or  market-place  rather  than  a  city  properly  so 
called.  The  irregular  open  spaces  are  obstructed  with  carts  and  tents,  while  the 
thoroughfares  are  bordered  by  hollow  footpaths  Uttle  better  than  muddy  quag- 
mires in  wet,  and  sand-heaps  in  dry  weather.  The  foul  liquid  of  some  open 
drams  is  used  to  water  the  streets,  and  at  one  of  the  most  crowded  cross-roads 


r" 


1G8 


EAST  ASIA. 


the  lieadsiuun  and  his  assistants  are  constantly  occupied  with  their  sanguinary 

office. 

Although  more  regularly  laid  out,  the  Manchu  town  is  scarcely  superior  to  the 
Chin(>sc  except  in  the  neighhourhood  of  the  foreign  emhassics  and  along  the 
trimnphal  avenues,  where  the  canals  are  crossed  hy  niarhle  hridges  adorned  with 
symbolic  animals.  Formerly  the  inhabitants  of  the  two  quarters  lived  quite  apart, 
but  the  races  have  gradually  become  intermingled,  while  the  trade  of  the  Manchu 
town  is  now  largely  monopolized  by  the  Chinese  jjroper.  Several  thousand 
Mohammedans,  mostly  artisans  and  workers  in  metal,  arc  distributed  amongst 
both  communities,  and  there  are  also  some  native  Christians,  largely  engaged  in 
the   clock  and  watch  trade,  taught   them  by  the  missionaries  during   the  last 

century. 

In  the  heart  of  the  Manchu  city  is  the  so-called  "  Yellow  "  quarter,  also  within 
an  enclosure  with  four  gates  facing  the  cardinal  points.  This  is  the  sacred  city,  in 
which  stands  the  imperial  palace,  the  only  building  in  China  faced  with  yellow 
porcelain.  Most  of  the  space,  from  which  the  public  are  rigorously  excluded,  is 
occupied  with  an  artificial  lake,  groves,  and  shady  avenues.  Of  almost  equal 
extent  are  the  two  famous  Temples  of  Heaven  and  Agriculture,  both  situated  in  the 
midst  of  extensive  groiinds  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Chinese  quarter.  The 
Temple  of  Heaven,  with  its  double  roof,  stands  on  a  terrace  approached  by  marble 
steps,  and  is  decorated  with  enamelled  porcelains  and  woodwork,  whose  bright  red, 
blue,  and  golden  tints  contrast  agreeably  with  the  surrounding  green  vegetation. 
The  Temple  of  Agriculture,  of  smaller  size,  but  more  elevated,  and  surmounted  by 
three  superimposed  roofs,  is  encircled  by  a  forest  of  carved  pilasters  ornamenting 
the  balconies  and  steps.  Close  by  is  the  field  where  the  Emperor  and  imperial 
princes  assembled  every  spring  to  guide  the  ivory  and  gold  plough  while  invoking 
the  blessings  of  heaven  and  earth  on  the  fruits  of  the  land.  But  since  the 
triiunphant  entry  of  the  allies  into  the  capital  this  ceremony  has  fallen  into 
abeyance.  The  Temples  of  the  Earth,  of  the  Sun  and  Moon,  and  the  other 
sanctuaries,  where  are  celebrated  the  solemn  rites  of  the  national  religion,  lie 
beyond  the  walls  of  the  Manchu  town.  But  just  inside  the  ramparts,  and  near  the 
Temple  of  the  Sciences,  stands  the  old  observatory  of  the  Jesuit  missionaries,  with  its 
curious  bronze  astronomic  instruments  of  native  workmanship,  which  form  the 
finest  known  collection  of  Chinese  bronzes.  The  Russian  observatory  at  the  north- 
east comer  of  the  enclosure  contains  a  valuable  Chinese  library,  and  in  the  Lazarist 
mission  is  a  rich  natural  history  museum  formed  by  Armand  David.  But  the 
magnificent  imperial  library  has  been  to  a  large  extent  dispersed.  Under  the 
Ming  dynasty  the  Government  maintained  schools  in  which  were  taught  Siamese, 
Burmese,  Persian,  Turki,  Tibetan,  and  two  dialects  of  the  south-western  wild  tribes. 
But  since  the  "  Opium  War "  the  ministry  have  discovered  that  there  are  other 
languages  of  more  importance  than  those  of  Indo-China  and  Central  Asia.  Hence 
in  the  Government  school  attached  to  the  Foreign  Office  young  mandarins  are  now 
taught  English,  French,  German,  Russian,  and  Manchu. 

As  a  trading-place  Peking  is  scarcely  as  important  as  in  the  time  of  Marco 


1 1  M|im4t.)nnas)*imiiiaB«" '  ■tag!i^i!,aivw!i.«MttHaeigflifeaM9^^ 


!Wi»!Uii«a>!«aiaiii!L!<W'aaiwtw 


-'■"■im*"-, '.'»." 


TOPOGRA  PUY— PEKING. 


169 


sanguinary 

)orior  to  tho 
[  along  the 
lorncd  with 
quite  apart, 
the  Manehu 
il  thousand 
ed  amongst 
engaged  in 
ig   tho  last 

also  within 
cred  citv,  in 
with  yellow 
cxclude<l,  is 
Imost  equal 
uated  in  the 
;arter.  The 
by  marble 

bright  red, 
I  vegetation, 
•mounted  by 
jrnaraenting 
ind  imperial 
ile  invoking 
it   since  the 

fallen  into 
d  the  other 
religion,  lie 
and  near  the 
xies,  with  its 
oh  form  the 
it  the  north- 

the  Lazarist 
d.  But  the 
Under  the 
ght  Siamese, 
1  wild  tribes, 
re  are  other 
Lsia.  Hence 
irins  are  now 

ne  of  Marco 


Polo,  when  "  of  silk  alone  a  thousand  carts  entered  every  day  in  the  year."  Never- 
theless the  road  between  the  capital,  with  its  port  of  Tnngchcw  on  the  Pe'i-ho,  is 
still  daily  thronged  with  waggons,  pack  animals,  and  wayfarers.  Tho  two  cities 
are  also  connected  by  a  canal  about  15  miles  long,  which  is  frequented  by  junks 
laden  with  opium,  wine,  and  other  produce.  Tungchew  is  usually  crowded  with 
craft,  at  times  forming  a  floating  bridge  all  the  way  to  Tientsin.  But  for  alK)ut 
three  months  in  the  year  the  navigation  is  blocked  by  ice,  and  then  the  traffic 
between  Peking  and  Shanghai  is  carried  on  by  the  wretched  overland  route.  The 
only  good  roads  radiating  from  the  capital  are  those  running  to  the  Summer 

Fi'f?.  74.— Cbi.estial  Sphkrb  in  tub  Old  Omhervatouy,  Pbkino. 


Palace  and  south-westwards  to  the  famous  Luku-kiao  bridge  over  the  Wen-ho. 
This  magnificent  structure,  with  its  twenty- four  arches,  as  described  by  Marco 
Polo,  gave  way  in  tho  seventeenth  century,  and  was  restored  by  the  Emperor 
Kang-hi,  who  adorned  it  with  two  elephants  and  two  hundred  and  eighty  lions  in 
marble.  '''  .    -  ■'      ;      ^-     . 

The  chief  industries  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  capital  are  market  gardening 
and  coal  mining.  The  district  abounds  in  carboniferous  deposits,  and  the  rich 
mines  of  the  Tsing-shui  valley  are  already  being  actively  worked.  The  anthracite, 
however,  still  continues  to  be  brought  by  pack  animals  to  the  centres  of  population, 

and  when  some  English  speculators  lately  proposed  to  construct  a  railway  from 
44 


':? 


mum'wt»iiiM»B(>m-i 


»_-, li^l 


170 


EAST  ASIA. 


Peking  to  the  productive  Chaitang  mines,  they  received  from  the  Government 
olTu-ials  the  usual  answer:  "  Mules  have  hitherto  sufficed;  they  will  still  suffice." 
Since  the  days  of  3Iarco  Polo  not  even  a  good  road  has  been  laid  down,  so  that  it 
is  found  more  prf)titable  to  import  good  English  coal,  and  even  firewood,  through 
Shangluii  from  California.  South- west  of  Peking  there  arc  also  some  productive 
marble  quarries  and  magnetic  iron  mines. 

South  of  the  capital,  and  separated  from  it  by  u  marshy  plain,  is  the  extensive 
park  of  Nanhai-tze,  occupying  about  80  square  miles  within  a  fortified  enclosure 
some  40  miles  in  circumference.  Numerous  villages,  cullivatcnl  tracts,  and  military 
stations  are  scattered  over  these  woodlands,  from  which  Europeans  are  jealously 
excluded.  Amongst  the  herds  of  deer  hero  maintained  Armand  David  discovered 
a  new  and  remarkable  species,  the  Elaphurus  Dnvidiaum,  some  specimens  of  which 
are  now  preserved  in  Europe.  In  the  neighbouring  hills  was  also  found  the 
Macacus  Chclicnsis,  a  curious  species  of  monkey  marking  the  northernmost  range  of 
these  animals  in  Asia.  But  a  still  more  famous  park  is  the  Yuangming-yuan,  or 
"  Splendid  Garden,"  better  known  to  Europeans  as  the  park  of  the  "  Summer 
I'alace."  This  imperial  residence  was  plundered  by  the  troops  of  the  allies  in 
1860  after  the  Chinese  army  had  been  dispersed  at  Palikiao.  Those  who  first 
penetrated  into  the  interior  might  have  fancied  themselves  in  a  public  museum, 
such  was  the  profusion  of  artistic  objects  in  jade,  gold,  silver,  ivory,  and  lacquer- 
ware  lying  al)out.  liarge  quantities  of  these  curiosities  were  broken,  melted  down, 
or  otherwise  dissipated  ;  but  enough  remained  to  enrich  many  private  collections  in 
Europe.  The  gold  and  silver  ingots  were  distributed  omongst  the  troops  according 
to  their  rank;  but  the  great  bulk  of  the  precious  metals  is  supposed  to  have 
l)een  concealed.  Since  this  event  most  of  the  buildings  have  remained  in 
ruins,  one  palace  only  having  been  rebuilt  for  the  Empress  Dowager.  From  the 
summit  of  the  neighbouring  Iliang-shan,  a  wooded  hill  about  1,000  feet  high,  a 
varied  prospect  is  commanded  of  the  surrounding  gardens,  with  their  lakes,  temples, 
bridges,  kiosks,  glittering  pagodas,  and  in  the  hozy  distance  the  sombre  outlines  of 
the  massive  ramparts  enclosing  the  imperial  capital. 

At  the  northern  foot  of  these  heights  are  the  famous  sulphur  springs  long 
frequented  by  the  Chinese,  and  now  visited  also  by  European  invalids.  These 
waters  lie  on  the  route  to  the  renowned  sanctuary  of  Miaofeng-shan,  where  the 
monks  show  a  spot  whence  young  men  throw  themselves  down  a  precipice  "  through 
filial  love,"  thus  hoping  to  insure  a  long  life  for  their  parents.  Most  of  the 
numerous  Buddhist  monasteries  scattered  over  the  Peking  district  have  fallen  to 
ruins,  their  bronze  and  plaster  statues  being  now  exposed  unsheltered  from  sun  and 
rain,  whilst  their  walls  are  disappearing  amidst  a  rank  vegetation.  Of  these 
monasteries  the  largest  and  most  celebrated  is  the  Hoang-sze,  or  "  Yellow  Convent," 
where  a  "living  Buddha"  has  taken  up  his  alwde.  Farther  west  is  the  Temple 
of  the  "Great  Bell,"  ccMituining  one  of  the  largest  bells  in  the  world,  which  is 
nearly  27  feet  high  and  covered  with  30,000  exquisitely  chased  letters  representing 
a  complete  volume  of  Buddhist  liturgy. 

The  Peking  district  is  also  strewn  with  marble  monuments,  mostly  family  tombs, 


^^w-ETOpw^Bffir 


._--.     .fr.«^ 


TOPOGRAniY— PEKING. 


171 


Government 
itill  suffice." 
n,  «o  that  it 
)od,  throuf^h 
e  prcjductivo 

he  extensive 
cd  enclosure 
[ind  niilitury 
ire  jealously 
d  discovered 
ins  of  which 
>  found  the 
lost  range  of 
ing-yuan,  or 
,c  "Summer 
the  allies  in 
se  who  first 
ilic  museum, 
md  lacqucr- 
aeltcd  down, 
joUections  in 
ps  according 
ised  to  have 
remained  in 
.  From  the 
feet  high,  a 
kes,  temples, 
■e  outlines  of 

springs  long 
dids.  These 
n,  where  the 
ice  "  through 
Most  of  the 
lave  fallen  to 
Irom.  sun  and 
1.  Of  these 
3W  Convent," 
1  the  Temple 
rid,  which  is 
representing 

family  tombs, 


nearly  all  in  the  form  of  huge  turtles,  with  inscripti(ms  on  llioir  carapace.  The 
ni)pnm('hos  to  the  huriul-placcs  of  the  nobles  are  adorned  witli  colossal  cfligios  of 
lions  in  bidii/(>  or  marble.  But  more  attractive  to  Kuropcuns  are  the  so-called 
"  Portuguese  "  and  "  Kicnch  "  cemeteries,  wliere  repose  the  remains  of  Kicci, 
Verbiest,  Ajniot,  (iaubil,  Gerbillon,  and  otlier  famous  missionaries,  to  whom  we  are 
so  largely  indebted  for  our  knowledge  of  China  and  its  inluibitants. 

The  tombs  of  the  Ming  dynasty  lie  some  24  miles  from  Peking,  in  a  solitary 
amphitheatre  amongst  the  Tienshu  hills,  approached  by  a  gorge,  which  terminates 

Fig.  76. — Tientsin. 
Scale  1  : 3,000,000. 


Sinoheui  juii 


117 


EToFG 


Il7*l5' 


.  SOMilcK 


with  a  magnificent  marble  portal.  Of  these  tombs  the  most  noteworthy  is  that 
of  the  Emperor  Yung-le,  at  the  head  of  a  vast  avenue  of  marble  statues  representing 
twelve  high  officials,  priests,  or  warriors,  and  twelve  pairs  of  animals,  elephants, 
camels,  lions,  horses,  and  the  fabulous  unicorn  and  kilin,  some  kneeling,  others 
er(>ct.  Although  some  exceed  Hi  feet  in  height,  all  are  cut  in  a  single  block  ;  but 
being  (listributi«d  over  too  large  a  spacie  without  an  eye  to  the  perspective,  or  to  the 
general  effect,  the  result  is  not  ssitisfactory.  The  body  of  the  Emperor  lies  at  the 
end  of  a  long  gallery  under  the  natural  pyrantid  of  the  mountain,  and  near  it  is 
the  sacrificial  temple  resting  on  sixty  pillars  of  the  nanrau  laurel,  each  43  feet  high 


172 


EAST  ASIA. 


uiul  10  feet  in  eireumference.  The  blocks  of  inurblc  required  for  these  and  other 
imperial  tombs  were  conveyed  along  specially  constructed  rouds  on  huge  trucks 
with  sixteen  wheels,  and  drawn  by  six  hundred  mules. 

Tiriilsin — that  is,  "  The  Ford  of  Heaven  " — is  the  seaport  not  only  of  Techili,  but 
also  of  Mongolia  and  the  Kussian  province  of  Transbaikalia.  It  is  happily  situated 
in  an  extremely  fertile  district,  on  a  navigable  river  at  the  converging  point  of 
several  natural  highways  formed  by  the  rivers  of  the  -interior.  Thanks  to  the 
development  of  its  foreign  trade,  it  has  become  one  of  the  great  cities  of  China, 
already  surpassing  the  imperial  capital  itself  in  population,  which,  according  to  the 
consular  reports,  is  now  (;lose  upon  a  million.  The  imports  are  chiefly  rice,  woven 
goods,  opium,  European  hardware,  taken  in  exchange  for  raw  cotton  and  wool, 
skins,  furs,  plaited  straw,  and  camel's  hair.  Here  are  the  Government  granaries 
for  the  supply  of  Peking,  and  the  salt  depot  for  the  whole  of  North  China.     After 

Fig.  76.— Thb  Lowfk  Pki-ho. 
Sralel  :  l.aSO.OOO. 


12MilM. 


Tientsin  became  a  treaty  port  in  1858,  most  of  the  navigation  of  the  Pei-ho,  here 
commonly  known  as  the  Hai-ho,  or  "  Ocean  River,"  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
English ;  but  since  then  the  Chinese  have  gradually  recovered  the  first  place. 
Besides  the  river  junks  the  natives  now  own  vessels  of  the  European  type,  and  even 
numerous  steamers,  which  ply  daily  on  the  Pei-ho  above  and  below  Tientsin. 

A  few  miles  farther  down  is  the  European  settlement  of  Tzekhulin,  in  its  street 
architecture  and  general  appearance  quite  a  Western  town,  where  nearly  all  Euro- 
peans reside  who  have  business  relations  with  Tientsin.  Even  in  the  Chinese  city 
there  are  several  buildings  in  the  European  style,  amongst  them  the  new  hospital 
and  the  ruins  of  the  Roman  Catholic  cathedral,  destroyed  during  the  terrible  out- 
break of  1870,  when  all  the  French  priests  and  nuns  with  one  exception,  besides 
some  other  foreigners,  were  massacred.  A  cotton-spinning  factory  has  here  been 
recently  established,  and  some  60  miles  to  the  north-east  a  horse  tramway  now  connects 


-  ^Wft^PKlVBW^Bt 


}8e  and  other 
hujjc  trucks 

if  recbili,  but 
ppily  situated 
ging  point  of 
hanks  to  the 
;ie8  of  China, 
jording  to  the 
y  rice,  woven 
an  and  wool, 
lent  granaries 
:!hina.    After 


59' 


I7°40' 


le  Pei-ho,  here 
!  hands  of  the 
the  first  place, 
type,  and  even 
rientsin. 
in,  in  its  street 
early  all  Euro- 
le  Chinese  city 
le  new  hospital 
be  terrible  out- 
jeption,  besides 
f  has  here  been 
jy  now  connects 


IjJIWJiJ  ^1"   n.wrwljyi     l>  i 


lf.sm:'}f"' 


I 


I 

I 


HMMMRnn 


IIIWIIIWH.IL     .    UtaUBJU 


TOPOaRAPHY. 


178 


i'v.'^ 


< 
S3 


I 


O 
H 

O 


O 


the  Eaiping  coal  mines  with  the  port  of  Lutai,  on  the  river  Peitang,  at  the  head  of 
the  deop-8ea  navigation.  Works  have  also  been  undertaken  to  improve  the  water- 
way below  Tientsin,  where  the  bar  has  only  4  feet  at  ebb,  and  about  12  feet  at  flow. 
The  approach  to  this  important  strategical  point  is  now  defended  by  formidable 
lines  at  SinelifUg  above  the  delta,  and  by  the  forts  of  Taku  ("  Great  Mouth  "), 
near  the  main  entrance  of  the  river.  These  forts,  which  fell  so  easily  to  the  allies 
in  1858  and  18G0,  have  since  been  reconstructed,  anned  with  the  heaviest  ordnance, 
and  completed  by  a  vast  entrenched  camp  and  docks  for  the  Government  gun- 
boats. Peitang,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  San-ho,  just  north  of  the  I'ei-ho,  has 
also  been  strongly  fortified. 

On  the  route  leading  from  Peking  through  the  Kupe'i-kow  Gate  in  the  Great 
"Wall  to  Manchuria  there  are  several  towns,  amongst  them  the  administrative  city 
of  Yungping-fu,  which,  however,  is  a  small  place.  West  of  the  Kupei-kow  Gate 
the  Pe'i-ho  valley  is  approached  from  Mongolia  by  the  Kwan-kow  Gate,  formerly 
a  point  of  great  strategic  importance,  through  which  all  the  nomad  invaders  pene- 
trated into  China.  Hence  this  highway  is  defended  at  various  point*  by  strong 
lines,  some  of  which  have  been  mistaken  for  portions  of  the  Great  Wall  itself. 
But  here  the  most  remarkable  monument  is  a  triumphal  arch  erected  at  the 
southern  entrance  of  the  Kwan-kow  Pass,  and  bearing  an  inscription  in  six 
languages — Sanskrit,  Chinese,  Uigur,  Mongolian,  Tibetan,  and  Ninchi,  or  ancient 
Manchu,  the  last  mentioned  being  the  only  known  specimen  of  that  tongue.  The 
chief  importance  of  this  highway,  however,  is  now  due  to  the  traffic  of  the  Rus- 
sian caravans  and  postal  service,  which  follow  this  route  between  Eiakhta  and 
North  China.  The  convoys  of  brick  tea  for  the  Siberian  market  start  directly 
from  Tungchew,  on  the  Pei-ho,  without  passing  through  Peking,  which  they  leave 
to  the  south-west. 

In  the  upland  valleys  watered  by  the  tributaries  of  the  Wen-ho  the  most  impor- 
tant place  is  Knlgan  (Changkia-kow),  guarding  one  of  the  gates  of  the  Great  Wall 
leading  to  Mongolia.  The  military  quarter,  with  its  forts  and  barracks,  is  built  up 
against  the  wall  itself,  while  the  trading  quarter  lies  3  miles  farther  south,  beyond 
which  are  the  houses  of  the  Protestant  missionaries  and  Kussian  dealers.  Sitcan-hoa, 
at  the  entrance  of  a  defile  on  the  route  from  Kalgan  to  Peking,  is  also  much  fre- 
quented by  the  Chinese  and  Mongolians.  Its  imposing  ramparts,  triumphal  arches, 
and  extensive  parks  date  from  the  time  when  this  place  was  capital  of  the  empire 
under  the  Mongol  dynasty.  Like  Tatung-jvt,  lying  much  farther  to  the  west  and 
more  in  the  heart  of  the  mountains,  Siwan-hoa  is  conveniently  situated  in  the  midst 
of  fertile  valleys  and  rich  coal-fields,  and  does  a  considerable  trade  in  tobacco  and 
felts.  Kiming,  on  the  route  thence  to  £wan-hoa,  is  the  chief  postal  station  for  the 
whole  of  North  China.  Its  vineyards  produce  a  highly  esteemed  white  wine, 
which  is  found  only  on  the  tables  of  the  wealthy  mandarins. 

In  the  southern  section  of  Pechili,  watered  by  affluents  of  the  Wen-ho  and 
Pei-ho,  the  largest  place  is  Paoting-fu,  which  has  been  chosen  as  the  capital  of  the 
province  and  official  residence  of  the  Viceroy,  who,  however,  lives  mostly  in  Tientsin. 
It  is  regularly  built,  very  busy,  and  better  kept  than  the  imperial  capital.     The 


iwiiMiii 


msOM 


174 


EAST  ASIA. 


r. 


li 


1 

I: 


Burroundinff  plaiiH,  which  aro  ndmi'nibly  cultivatnl,  aro  larpdy  under  millet,  the 
Htajjle  crop  in  iVchili.  South-west  of  this  place  is  Chiiiijtiiif/,  near  the  Shensi 
frontier,  where  iron  iniaj^es  of  Huddha  are  manufactured  for  all  the  northern  pro- 
vinces. The  bronze  idols  in  its  t(MiipleH  are  amongst  the  most  remarkable  in  tho 
empire,  and  one  of  them  is  no  less  than  SO  feet  high. 


THE  SirANTUNO  PKNINSITLA. 

SiiANTT'xo  ifl  a  geof^raphical  region  entirely  distinct  from  the  rest  of  China. 
This  country  of  the  "  Kastern  Hills,"  as  tho  term  means,  consists  of  two  detached 
masses  of  mountains  and  hills,  one  of  which  projects  fur  seawards  between  tho 
Gulf  of  Pechili  and  tho  Yellow  Sea,  and  is  limittnl  landwards  by  extensive  alluvial 
plains  deposited  in  an  old  marine  basin.  In  this  directicm  tho  Hoang-ho  has 
shifted  its  course  for  ages,  washing  down  its  sedimentary  matter  at  one  time  to  the 
north,  at  another  to  the  south  of  tho  Shantung  peninsula.  In  its  general  outlines 
this  ])eninsulu  rcsenjbles  that  of  Liaotung,  but  is  of  larger  si/o.  Its  shores,  visited 
by  European  vessels  for  the  first  time  in  179JJ,  on  the  occasion  of  Lord  Macartney's 
embassy  to  l*eking,  are  indented  by  innumerable  little  inlets  developing  a  series  of 
regular  curves  from  headland  to  headland.  Some  of  these  headlands  are  continued 
by  banks  and  islets  for  a  long  distance  into  the  shallow  waters  of  tho  Yellow  Sea. 
The  north  coast  of  Shantung  is  even  comiected  by  a  sort  of  half-submergefl  istlnnus 
with  the  southernmost  extremity  of  Manchuria.  The  mean  depth  of  this  marine 
basin  is  only  about  80  feet,  yet  most  of  the  iidets  of  the  peninsula  are  accessible 
to  Chinese  craft.  The  facilities  thus  affoi-ded  for  intercourse  have  largely  contributed 
to  the  development  of  the  great  natural  resources  of  Shantung.  The  population  is 
said  to  bo  here  denser  even  than  in  Belgium,  and  from  the  summit  of  many  hills 
the  whole  country  as  fur  us  the  eye  can  reach  presents  the  aspect  of  a  vast  city 
interspersed  with  garden  plots.  The  natives  are  also  more  robust  and  energetic, 
as  well  as  of  a  more  swarthy  complexion,  than  those  of  the  Houng-ho  and  Yang-tze 
lowlands.  In  the  Chefu  district  and  elsewhere  they  show  many  graves  attributed 
to  a  pro- Chinese  race. 

The  Shantung  highlands  may  bo  reganled  as  the  remains  of  a  plateau  denuded 
ond  cjit  up  in  all  directions  by  small  streams.  In  the  north  a  series  of  regular 
rounded  eminences  stretch  along  the  coast,  but  nowhere  reach  an  elevation  of  3,400 
feet.  The  mean  altitude  is  lower  in  the  south,  although  here  the  peninsula, 
properly  so  called,  culminates  with  the  Lo-shau,  an  isolated  peak  rising  3,550  feet 
above  the  neighbouring  island-studded  bay.  But  towards  the  west  the  Ta-shan,  or 
"Great  Mountain,"  famous  in  Chinese  mythologj',  attains  a  height  of  5,100  feet 
close  to  the  plains  of  the  Hoang-ho.  Ta-shan  is  the  most  sacred  of  the  five  holy 
mountains  of  the  empire,  the  "  beneficent  king,"  the  "  equal  of  heaven,"  the  "  con- 
troller of  births  and  deaths,"  the  "  arbiter  of  human  destinies."  Confucius,  born 
in  the  neighbourh(MMl,  vainly  attempted  to  reach  its  summit,  a  temple  now  marking 
the  spot  where  he  stopped  short.  Since  then  the  ascent  has  been  rendered  easy 
by  a  good  paved  road  12  miles  long,  with  broad  shady  steps,  convenient  landing- 


TOPOORArilY. 


178 


milli't,  the 
tho  Shonsi 
•tliorn  i»ro- 
iblo  in  tlio 


of  China. 
w  dettuihed 
etwooii  tho 
live  alluvial 
ung-ho  has 
time  to  tho 
sral  outlines 
ores,  visited 
Macartney's 
^  u  series  of 
•o  continued 
Yellow  Sea. 
god  isthmus 
this  murine 
re  accessible 
r  contributed 
[)opulution  is 
f  many  hills 
f  a  vast  city 
id  energetic, 
nd  Yang-tze 
es  attributed 

teau  denuded 
es  of  regular 
ition  of  3,400 
le  peninsula, 
ng  3,550  feet 
e  Ta-shan,  or 
of  5,100  feet 
the  five  holy 
1,"  the  "  con- 
mfucius,  born 
now  marking 
rendered  easy 
lient  landing- 


places,  and  palanquin  bearers  for  old  and  infirm  pilgrims,  notween  these  wesfern 
hills  and  the  peninsula  proper  a  broad  depression,  stretehing  from  tho  (julf  of 
Pechili  to  the  Yellow  Sen,  was  formerly  traversed  by  a  navigable  canal  traced  like 
a  river  on  the  old  map  of  the  Jesuits.  Here  also  the  IVima-liu,  or  "  Lakt^  of  the 
White  Horse,"  wouhl  seem  to  bo  a  remnant  of  the  strait  which  fornu'rly  flowed 
along  this  depression  from  sea  to  sea. 

Nearly  all  the  forests  have  disappeared  from  the  hills,  and  the  indigenous 
vegetation  has  almost  everywhere  yielded  to  tho  useful  plants  introduced  by  man. 
The  wild  animals  have  also  been  mostly 
externnnuted,  and  little  room  can  even  ^'»-  "-O'"  Shantung  8thait. 

1  1     «         1-  i.      1       •         ^1  •       i<  Boale  1  : 2,UOO,0OO. 

be  spared  for  live  stock  ni  this  fer- 
tile and  highly  cultivated  region.  It 
abounds  also  in  coal-fields,  iron  ores, 
gold,  and  other  metals,  besides  precious 
stones,  including  diamonds  of  small 
size.  Tho  climate,  us  elsewhere  in 
North  China,  is  characterized  by  tho 
extremes  of  heat  and  cold.  ]}ut  tho 
transitions  are  effected  very  gradually 
and  regularly,  thanks  to  the  warm 
marine  waters  and  the  shelter  afforded 
by  tho  neighbouring  Munchurian  and 
Korean  uplands  from  sudden  polar 
winds.  The  typhoons  also  spend  their 
fury  in  the  Yellow  Sea  before  reaching 
the  Gulf  of  Pechili. 


Topography. 

The  largest  towns  aro  naturally 
found  on  tho  western  alluvial  plains, 
watered  by  the  Iloang-ho  and  its 
tributaries,  and  traversed  by  the  Yun- 
ho,  or  "River  of  Transports,"  which 
was  till  recently  navigable.  But 
many  of  these  places  are  exposed  to 
destructive  floodings,  while  others  have  been  plundered  by  the  Taiping  rebels  and 
Nienfei  brigands.  However,  they  rapidly  recover  from  such  disasters,  and  Tiingchmuj, 
on  the  Grand  Canal,  amongst  otheis,  has  already  resumed  its  place  as  one  of  the 
great  industrial  centres  of  the  empire.  Farther  north  Lintsing  and  Chingkia-hetc. 
which  also  suffered  severely  during  the  late  insurrection,  are  now  flourishing  towns, 
carrying  on  a  largo  trade  with  the  crmtral  provinces,  Pechili,  and  even  Mongolia. 
Tuinau,  the  Chinangli  of  Marco  Polo,  and  the  present  capital  of  the  province,  also 
lies  west  of  the  mountains  in  a  fertile  alluvial  district,  dotted  over  with  isolated 


.  30  Miles. 


mmimmmmm$ueil^^^^' 


tn^s^"' 


nn 


EAST  ASIA. 


conos  of  loiiff-oxtinct  volriiiiocs.  With  a  ciri-uit  uf  ulMiut  ii;")  iniloN,  it  in  lH)tli  oiipof 
tho  liir^oMt  and  lH>Ht-l>uilt  nitios  in  (Jhiiiii,  noted  oHpccially  f«)r  its  trade  in  falw 
f]>emN  and  nianiifacfiiro  of  a  peculiar  Milken  fabrie,  woven  from  the  C(K;(M>nM 
of  n  wild  Hilkwnrin  which  lives  on  oak-leavcH.  Here  in  a  Roman  Tatholic  com- 
munity of   r2,0U0  .souls,  besides  many  Mohammeilans,  variously  estimated  at  from 

Fig.  78.— TiNocNKW  AND  Muo-TAu  Archipblaoo. 
Bonto  1  :  198,000. 


120*  55 


120*45 


T«n^teh«w  feu 


0  to  as  Feet. 


88  to  06  Feet.  06  Feet  and  upwarda. 

— — ^^.^  8  Mfloe. 


10,000  to  20,000.  Three  miles  east  of  Tsinan  is  a  hill  consisting  of  partly 
magnetic  iron  ores,  and  on  the  Yellow  River  lies  its  port  of  Lokao.  In  the  basin 
of  the  Yellow  River  is  also  situated  Taingan-fu,  the  "  City  of  Temples,"  on  the 
Tawan-ho  (Wun-ho),  which  traverses  a  district  abounding  in  coal  and  iron.  The 
chief  temple  dedicated  to  the  holy  mountain,  Tai-shan,  occupies  a  large  space  to  the 


Wi^^Mi'i.n 


TOP'     .llArMY, 


177 


of  tji      own,  in  the  midHt  I.  acrp*  in  .  xJent,  all  fhf  trrch  of  wliieh 

ItAve  been  )>  iitwMiy  >riituH  ciin  rors  iih«*  tli»^  tenth  century.  When  viNJtctl  in 
ISfif)   hy  Mitrkhaiii  were         hmn  tli.       70,(M»()  pil^riniH  UHHCiiiblcd  in    thi« 

pluco  from  nil  |hii  <>1  Chun  Furthor  wtuth  licH  Yi'iirlicw-fn,  in  a  niut-Hhy 
dintrict  travcrKtHl  U\  c  (Iran'l  >mil,  fornu'i-ly  capital  of  one  of  the  nine  provinecH 
into  which  the  enn.  ■•'  >•"  div  uled  by  Yii  four  thouMUid  years  a^o,  and  still  the 
largest  place  in  the  south-west  uf  Shantung.     This  is  one  of  the  classic  regions 


Fig.  70.— CHiru. 
nnir  1  :  IM,O0O. 


0  to  16  Feet. 


18  to  S9  Fent. 


82  Feet  >nd  npwardt. 
3  Mile» 


of  China,   the  towns,  mountains,  and  rivers  of  which  figure  on  almost  every 
page  of  the  old  chronicles. 

Some  12  miles  west  of  Yenchew-fu  is  the  far-famed  city  of  Kinfao,  birthplace 
of  Confucius,  and  still  inhabited  almost  exclusively  by  his  descendants,  at  least 
20,000  of  whom  bear  his  name.  Although  a  fine,  vigorous  race,  not  one  of  them 
seems  to  have  distinguished  himself  in  any  way  during  the  twenty-four  genera- 
tions which  have  elapsed  since  their  common  ancestor  bequeathed  hxn  moral  code 
to  the  empire.  The  chief  temple  raised  to  his  memory  is  one  of  the  largest  and 
most  sumptuous  in  China,  and  contains  a  series  of  inscriptions  dating  from  all  t  lie 
djmasties  for  the  last  two  thousand  years.  The  accumulated  treasures  of  vases, 
bronze  ornaments,  and  carved  woodwork  form  a  complete  museum  of  Chinese  art. 
At  the  entrance  of  the  palace  is  still  shown  the  gnarled  trimk  of  a  cypress  said  to 


178 


EAST  ASIA. 


: 


liiivc  Ik'oii  planted  hy  roiifuciuM,  whilo  uriiH,  trijKKlH,  iniiniiscriptM,  nnd  oIIut 
])rfoioiis  iihjfctM,  Niiid  t(»  have  Ix-loii^cd  to  the  pliilnMophcr,  arc  prcHiTVcd  in  tlio 
private  apartnirntn  of  tlio  princi-ly  ln'ad  of  the  family.  'I'ln'  domain  of  thin 
dignitary,  wlio  is  a  diri'ct  feudatory  of  tlu'  i'mpire,  is  no  \vhh  tliun  l(i"<, <•!(()  aercs 
in  extent.  Wiien  Kinfao  was  Keizod  l»y  tiie  Tajpin;?  nlu  !■*,  they  respected  tlie 
temple,  the  pahice,  and  all  their  contents,  and  even  spared  the  life  of  the 
local  governor,  cftnlrary  to  their  invariablu  practice.  Mcar  the  temple  in  the 
jlfravo  of  ('onfuciuH,  in  the  centre  of  n  vuHt  space  occMpicd  by  the  family 
necroi)oliH.  TowanU  the  south-woHt  is  unuthcr  cemetery  near  the  small  town 
of  Txin-hii'ii,  which  for  the  last  twenty-two  centuries  has  received  the  renuiins 
of  all  the  descendants  of  Mengtze  (Mciicius),  the  most  renowned  disciple  uf 
Confucius. 

Tsiiii/r/irir-/ii,  the  old  capital  of  Shantung,  lies  on  the  northern  Hlnpo  of  the 
mountains  in  a  valley  draining  to  tin;  (julf  of  I'echili.  Although  much  reduced,  it  is 
Htill  a  large  i)laee,  and  a  now  almost  deserted  Tatar  (juarter  recalls  the  early  days 
of  the  ^fanehii  concpieiit.  Tsingchew  has  iK'come  u  chief  centre  of  Islam  in  Kast 
('hina,  and  a  knowledge  of  Arabic  is  still  kept  alive  in  its  schools.  The  surroiuid- 
ing  <listrict  is  e.\tremely  productive  and  den.sely  peopled.  The  hills  in  the  south- 
west contain  rich  ci  d  mines  and  sandstone  cpiarries,  the  powdered  material  of 
which  is  sent  to  every  part  of  China  for  the  manufacture  of  glass. 

Although  ranking  as  a  simple  hieii,  or  "town  of  the  third  class,"  Wi'i  is  really 
the  most  im])ortant  place  in  Shantung.  It  is  convoniently  situated  in  the  jdain 
which  separates  the  two  upland  regions  of  the  province,  and  enjoys  easy  communi- 
cation with  the  northern  and  southern  shores  of  the  peninsula.  To  Kmi/iin/  and 
other  ports  on  these  shores  it  forwards  the  silks,  tobacco,  coal,  iron,  saltpetre,  and 
other  produce  of  the  country,  for  which  it  has  become  the  chief  emporium.  The 
long-projected  railway  to  the  coast  is  still  opposed  by  the  Oovernmcnt ;  but  it  is 
connected  by  carriage  roads  with  the  southern  ports,  with  the  great  market  of 
Clivwtmn,  with  the  gold  mines  of  Pinr/tu,  and  with  Lachcw,  on  the  Oulf  of  Pechili, 
noted  for  its  rich  deposits  of  soapstono.  Hoaiig-liivn,  in  the  northern  section  of 
the  peninsula,  does  a  largo  forwarding  trade,  especially  to  Manchuria,  through  the 
port  of  Lnngkcic,  and  with  Europe  through  Tetnjchctr,  recently  made  a  treaty  port. 
The  harbour  of  Tengchew  was  formerly  deep  enough  for  Chinese  craft  to  penetrate 
into  tlie  interior  of  the  city  ;  but  tliey  are  now  excluded,  while  largo  vessels  are 
obliged  to  anchor  a  long  way  from  the  shore.  Hence  the  foreign  merchants  have 
removed  most  of  their  business  to  the  more  commodious  port  of  Ycntui,  the 
"  Smoky,"  so  named  from  a  beucon-fire  which  formerly  served  as  a  signal  to  warn 
the  people  of  the  coast  from  the  Japanese  pirates.  But  the  place  is  better  known 
by  the  name  of  Clipfu,  from  a  promontory  protecting  the  harbour  on  the  north,  and 
commanded  by  a  cone  1,000  feet  high.  In  summer  Chefu  is  the  "  Scarborough  " 
of  the  foreign  communities  in  China.  Other  seaports  at  the  eastern  extremity  of 
the  peninsula  are  Weihai,  with  a  good  harbour  ;  Yungching,  and  Shitaw,  both  doing 
a  brisk  trade  with  Korea. 

On  the  southern  slope  of  the  peninsula  the  chief  places  are  Laiyany,  on  n 


.M> 


and  other 
kinl  ill  tho 

lit!  of  this 
,0(10  ariT!^ 
jK'ctt'd  the 
it'o  of  the 
iplo  in  tho 
I  In-  fiiiiiily 
^iiuill  town 
lio  iTinuinrt 
diHciplo  of 

opo  of  tho 
•ducod,  it  is 

ourly  thiys 
am  in  Kunt 
!  suiTound- 

tho  Houth- 
lauteriul  of 

^f»  18  really 
1  tho  plain 
f  coninmni- 
'{iai/iiiff  und 
llpotro,  and 
rium.  Tho 
;   but  it  is 

market  of 
I  of  Pechili, 
n  section  of 
hrough  tho 
treaty  port, 
to  penetrate 

vessels  are 
chants  have 
Yenta'i,  the 
nal  to  warn 
otter  known 
e  north,  and 
arhorough  " 
3xtrcmity  of 
,  both  doing 

aiyaiuj,  ou  n 


TiiK  noANo-iio  hasin. 


no 


river  flowing  to  tho  port  of  Tiiii/fxi ;  Txiiiii,  a  depot  for  grain,  fniils,  pigs, 
and  otlicr  agricnltnral  produce;  lytiniiii,  Kitinr/inr,  and  Yiihi'ir,  tlie  lant  with 
a  eoiiNiderable  Mosh>ni  (■oniniiiiiity,  and  prodticlivo  coal  niinoM  in  the  iiciglibouring 
hills. 


TlIK  IIOANO-IIO  RASfN, 

PllOVmiM   nv    KANIIf,    SlIINKI,   HllAMI,    AND    IIl'NAM. 

Tmk  region  drained  by  tho  Ifoang-lio,  or  Yellow  River,  comprises  in  Tilu't  and 
Cliina  i)roj)er  a  t(»)Ml  area  of  some  (UM), 000  square  miles,  or  about  three  times  the 
extent  of  Franco.  Yet  it  ranks  only  as  tho  second  river  basin  of  the  empire,  and 
there  were  ov<  ''  times  when  it  formed  merely  a  tributary  syHteni,  discharging  u 
porti(m  t)f  its  waters  into  tho  Yang-tzo-kiang.  Nevertheless  it  presents  a  striking 
contrast  to  tliis  great  stream  in  tho  salient  features  of  its  estuary  and  wiisdiug 
course,  iio  loss  than  in  tho  character  of  tho  lands  and  peoples  fringing  its  banks. 
To  mark  this  contrast  the  natives  have  ichMititied  tho  twin  streams  with  the 
two  male  anil  female  principles  of  heaven  and  earth  (  Viniu  and  17/;),  which 
divide  the  world  between  tliem.  The  Hoang-ho  is  tho  female  river,  (h'voled 
to  the  earth,  and  designated  by  tho  name  of  Yellcc,  which  the  inhabitants 
of  tho  "  YeUow  Lands "  naturally  regarded  as  prt-eminontly  tho  terrestrial 
colour. 

Tit'th  streams  rise  on  tho  same  inland  plateau,  and  in  their  lower  course  traverse 
tho  >  lino  alluvial  plains.  IJut  in  their  middle  course  they  are  deflected  north  and 
sout  II  into  regions  far  distant  from  each  other,  and  differing  greatly  in  their  physicid 
aspect.  After  emerging  from  tho  upland  pasturages  of  tho  m)sterious  and  still 
unexplored  "  Starry  Lakes,"  tho  Iloang-ho  escapes  from  tho  higlilands  through 
formidable  gorges,  but  without  describing  tho  vast  Ik'iuI  which  is  traced  on  most 
majjs.  Swollen  by  numerous  torrents  from  the  Euku-nor  ^Mountains,  it  reaches 
the  verge  of  tho  desert,  already  a  large  stream.  Hero  it  is  suddenly  deflected  north- 
wards along  the  scarp  of  tho  Mongolian  plateaux,  and  even  beyond  China  proper 
round  tho  Ordos  country,  and  through  a  gorge  in  the  Ala-shan  range,  beyond 
which  it  throws  off  several  shifting  channels  intermittently  flooded  aecordinj^) 
tho  extent  of  the  annual  inundations.  When  visited  by  Prjevalsky  in  1871  tho 
main  stream,  1,300  feet  broad,  lay  to  the  south.  But  it  was  of  recent  formation, 
and  lateral  branches  were  at  that  time  winding  through  the  plains  as  far  as  the 
foot  of  tho  In-shan  range.  To  these  displacements  of  the  stream  is  probably  due 
tho  log(>nd  that  the  Iloang-ho  disappears  altogether  in  the  sands  north  of  the  Ordos 
peninsula,  and  again  reappears  among  the  rocks  lower  down. 

Uclow  this  half -lacustrine  region  the  stream,  resuming  its  easterly  course, 
impinges  against  the  gneiss  hills  forming  towards  the  south-east  the  outer  scarp  of 
the  ^Icmgolian  plateau.  Pumpelly  thinks  ho  has  discovered  the  traces  of  an  old 
bed,  through  which  the  Yellow  River  formerly  flowed  along  the  base  of  the  plateau. 
A  string  of  lakes  connected  by  narrow  depressions  would  seem  to  indicate  the 
former  course  of  the  stream,  when  it  discharged  through  the  Pei-ho  into  the 


^SSS^JSES 


■p< 


.y 


9. 


•ipnnHHHwwi 


V 


111 

II 


'U 


m  1 


180 


EAST  ASIA. 


Yellow  Sea.  But  it  is  now  deflected  southwards  through  two  parallel  chains,  thus 
completing  the  circuit  of  1,200  miles  which  it  describes  round  Ordos  and  the  pro- 
vince of  Shensi.  The  formation  of  this  new  bed  is  perhaps  referred  to  in  the 
Chinese  legend  of  the  contest  between  Kingkung  and  Chwanchew  for  the  empire 


Fig.  80.— Tuan8.0hi>08. 
Scale  1 : 2,300,000. 


'A'iM^^^-P^     ^   '     Oiryouan 


I04"'50 


.  60  Miles. 


of  the  world.  "In  his  rage  Kingkung  butted  with  his  horn  against  Mount 
Puchiao,  which  supports  the  pillars  of  heaven,  and  the  chains  of  the  earth  were 
broken.  The  heavens  fell  to  the  north-west,  and  the  earth  was  rent  asunder 
towards  the  south-east." 


-'mm'-'smKsms^s^^- 


'fiimf^^^ft. 


THE  IIOANO-nO  BASIN. 


161 


chains,  thus 
ind  the  pro- 
jd  to  in  the 
r  the  empire 


Below  these  ranges  the  middle  course  of  the  river  is  abruptly  temiinat(>d  by  a 
sharp  l)end  towards  the  east  at  the  confluence  of  the  Wei.  In  some  respocts  the 
Iloang-ho,  notwithstanding  its  greater  volume,  might  even  be  regarded  as  tlio 
tributary  of  the  "Wei,  which  maintains  its  original  direction  throughout  its  entire 
course,  us  does  the  Saone  after  its  junction  with  the  Rhone  in  France.  Tlie  Wei 
is  in  any  case  its  largest  affluent,  and  even  more  important  as  a  navigable  highway. 


ill' 


Kg.  81.— Clifkb  of  Yellow  Eakth  on  the  Hoano-iio. 


4/-     I 


?3 


)6''50- 


gainst  Mount 

he  earth  were 

rent  asunder 


Thousands  of  flat-bottomed  craft  ascend  its  stream  to  within  half-way  of  the  Lan- 
chew  bend,  where  the  Hoang-ho  is  deflected  towards  Mongolia. 

Both  rivers  wash  down  large  quantities  of  sedimentary  matter,  estimated  in 
1792  by  Staunton  at  one-fiftieth  of  whole  volume  for  the  united  stream.  This  is 
three  or  four  times  in  excess  of  the  average  even  of  such  rivers  as  the  Ganges  and 
Pe'i-ho,  which  carry  down  an  unusual  amount  of  alluvia.  These  deposits  are  one 
of  the  great  sources  of  danger  to  the  riverain  populations.  Natural  embaukmenta 
are  thereby  gradually  formed  along  the  course  of  the  stream,  whose  bed  is  raised, 


182 


EAST  ASIA. 


and  now  channels  formed  during  the  floods,  which  often  cause  widespread  r-uin. 
liike  the  Nile,  To,  and  ^lississippi,  the  Yellow  River  thus  flows  oocasionall  at  a 
hififher  elevation  than  the  siuToundinpf  plain,  although  nt)t  so  high  as  has  been 
represented  by  the  terror-stricken  fancy  of  the  inhabitants.  A  vast  system  of 
end>anknu>nts  has  been  erected  on  both  sides  to  keep  the  stream  within  its  bed 
during  tlie  rising  of  its  waters.  Above  Kaifung-fu  the  two  main  dikes  on  the 
left  side,  etich  72  feet  high,  run  parallel,  and  from  3,000  to  2,700  yards  from  the 
natural  bank  of  the  river,  and  the  intermediate  space  is  cut  up  into  rectangular 
sections  by  transverse  mounds.     The  more  exposed  districts  are  thus  divided  into  a 

Fig.  82. -SHmiNUb  uF  THB  HoANO-Ho  DVRiNo  Thkbe  Thovsand  Yeabs. 

Scale  1  :  10,000,000. 


.  180  Hoes. 


number  of  independent  tracts  arresting  the  overflow,  ai.d  enabling  the  people  to 
raise  their  crops  in  conjparativc  security.  But  this  very  system  itself,  maintained 
by  the  constant  lal)our  of  00,000  hands,  has  the  inevitable  result  of  increasing 
the  height  of  the  banks  by  the  rapid  deposits  of  alluvia  in  the  lateral  sections. 
The  difference  in  level  between  the  river  bed  and  the  low-lj'ing  plains  becomes 
proportionably  increased,  and  the  higher  the  embankments  are  carried  the  more 
dangerous  becomes  the  stream.  Nevertheless  the  risk  may  be  diminished  by  the 
construe!  ion  of  canals  conveying  the  overflow  to  one  or  other  of  the  lacus- 
trine depiissious  in  Kiaug-su  north  of  the  Yang-t/c-kiung.     Thus  in  1780  the 


THE  nOANO-nO  BASIN. 


188 


iprond  niin. 
donuU .  iit  a 
as  ha«  boon 
;  Hystcin  of 
thin  its  hod 
likes  on  tho 
Is  from  the 
rectanguhir 
vidod  into  a 


^81 


S 


tie  people  to 
,  maintained 
f  increasing 
ral  sections, 
lins  becomes 
3d  the  more 
ishcd  by  the 
'  the  lacus- 
in  1780  the 


Emperor  Kienlong  caused  a  canal  60  miles  long  to  bo  constructed  in  fifteen  months, 
which  diverted  half  the  discliargc  of  the  Iloang-ho  into  Lake  Ilangt/ou.  IJut  in 
spite  of  all  precautions  great  disasters  arc  occasionally  caused  by  tho  bursting  of 
tlie  dikes,  when  tho  crops  of  whole  provinces  are  swept  away,  and  millions  booome 
a  prey  to  famine  and  jjostilence.  For  China  the  Iloang-ho  still  remains  the  Nih-ho, 
or  "  llebellious  lliver,"  as  it  is  called  by  the  old  chroniclers.  The  riverain  poim- 
latious  are  always  at  the  mercy  of  invading  hosts,  or  even  of  predatory  bands  strong 
enough  to  seize  and  open  the  sluices.     In  1209  one  of  the  few  defeats  experienced 

Fig.  83. — Bkcent  SiiiFTiNas  of  tiik  Uoano-ho. 
Scale  1  :  H.OOO.OOO. 


Oto83Feet 


83  to  164  Feet.  164  Feet  and  npwards. 

__iiiiii^_  16  Miles. 


by  Jenghiz  Ehan  was  due  to  this  cause.  In  1642  a  mandarin  submerged  the  city 
of  Kaifung-fu,  with  its  200,000  inhabitants,  and  later  on  the  Emperor  Kang-hi  in 
tho  same  way  destroyed  half  a  million  of  his  subjects. 

The  lowlands,  subject  to  the  shifting  course  of  the  Iloang-ho,  comprise  the  vast 
region  stretching  from  the  mouth  of  the  l*ei-ho  to  that  of  the  Yaiig-tze-kiang.  The 
stream  thus  oscillates  to  the  rigiit  and  left  over  an  area  some  5o0  miles  long  north 
and  south,  presenting  within  these  limits  changes  elsewhere  unrivalled  in  extent 
and  importance.   These  disastrous  shif tings,  at  times  laying  waste  a  region  as  large 


^i 
r 


i'} 


184 


EAST  ASIA. 


i^  I 


■    I 


ii 


U8  Groat  Britiiin,  arc  clue  to  the  Shantung  uplands,  which  arrest  the  direct  easterly 
course  of  the  stream,  deflecting  it  either  to  the  right  or  to  the  left,  and  thus  causing 
it  to  flow  at  one  time  north  to  the  Gulf  of  Pechili,  at  another  south-eastwards 
to  the  Yellow  Sea.  Since  the  mythical  times  of  Yu,  said  to  have  flourished  some 
forty-two  centuries  ago,  these  complete  or  partial  changes  have  been  regularly 
recorded  by  the  native  annalists.  For  the  last  two  thousand  five  hundred  years 
the  bed  of  the  Lower  lloang-ho  has  been  displaced  as  many  as  nine  times,  when  one 
or  more  fresh  channels  have  been  excavated  in  the  alluvial  plains,  and  each  of 
those  events  has  been  attended  by  the  partial  depopulation  of  the  land. 

In  the  middle  of  the  present  century  the  Yellow  River  flowed  south-eastwards 
below  Kaifung-fu  to  the  coast  about  midway  between  Shantung  and  the  Yang-tze 
estuary.  A  small  branch  was  even  thrown  off  through  a  series  of  lakes  to  the  latter 
basin.  But  in  1851,  when  the  Taipings  began  their  ravages,  the  inhabitants  being 
unable  to  keep  the  dikes  in  repair,  the  stream  made  a  breach  over  a  mile  broad 
through  its  left  bunk  near  the  village  of  Lungmenku.  Still  the  old  bed  was  not 
completely  dried  up,  and  the  new  course  northwards  to  the  Gulf  of  Pechili  was  not 
definitely  established  till  the  year  1853.  Even  then  the  channel  was  not  thoroughly 
excavated,  and  at  many  points  the  stream  preserved  the  aspect  of  a  permanent 
inundation,  covering  a  space  from  10  to  15  miles  in  extent.  It  thus  overflowed 
into  the  bed  of  the  Tatsing-ho,  formerly  an  independent  river.  Along  the  old 
course  most  of  the  embankment  works  remained  intact,  while  the  villages  were 
converted  into  heaps  of  ruins,  the  cities  deserted,  and  the  cultivated  lands  allowed 
to  lie  fallow.  The  change  was,  in  fact,  a  twofold  disaster,  for,  on  the  one  hand,  it 
caused  fertile  tracts  to  be  submerged,  while  on  the  other  districts  were  necessarily 
abandoned  whose  productiveness  depends  on  the  irrigating  canals  derived  from  the 
river.  The  direct  evil  caused  in  the  region  at  present  traversed  by  the  Hoang-ho 
is  a  small  matter  compared  with  the  ruin  indirectly  occasioned  by  the  withdrawal 
of  the  water  which  fed  these  canals.  Hence  the  inhabitants  of  the  southern 
districts  have  repeatedly  petitioned  to  have  the  stream  restored  to  its  old  bed,  while 
those  in  the  north  have  adapted  themselves  to  the  altered  conditions.  Numerous 
villages  have  sprung  up,  and  embankments  have  been  constructed  for  nearly 
100  miles  on  both  sides,  regulating  the  course  of  the  river  in  its  new  channel, 
which,  however,  still  varies  in  width  from  a  few  hundred  yards  to  2  miles.  But 
after  the  loss  of  millioTis  of  lives  a  fresh  disaster  was  threatened  in  1870,  when  a 
breach  was  opened  in  the  embankment  on  the  right  side  above  Kaifung.  On  this 
occasion  the  overflow  took  the  direction  of  the  Yang-tze-kiang  through  the  Kulu-ho, 
the  Sha-ho,  and  Lake  Ilang-tzew,  west  of  the  old  bed.  Through  numerous  other 
smaller  openings  on  both  sides  the  Hoang-ho  would  seem  to  still  send  contributions 
to  the  Yang-tze,  the  Iloai,  and  Pei-ho,  a  fact  which  explains  the  remarkable 
diminution  of  volume  observed  by  recent  travellers  in  its  lower  course. 

Near  the  Gulf  of  Pechili  the  stream  winds  through  a  marshy  tract,  which  was 
evidently  at  one  time  a  marine  basin.  The  town  of  Putai,  said  to  have  been 
within  GOO  yards  of  the  coast  twenty-one  centuries  ogo,  now  lies  over  40  miles  from 
the  sea,  and  all  the  surrounding  lands  are  still  saturated  with  saline  particles. 


SSSmi 


.'=-^' 


THE  GRAND  CANAL  AND  LOWER  IIOANO-HO. 


186 


•ect  easterly 
iiU8  causing 
h-eastwards 
rished  sonio 
n  regularly 
tudred  years 
)8,  when  one 
and  each  of 

th-eastwards 
he  Yang-tze 
to  the  latter 
)itant8  being 
i  mile  broad 
bed  was  not 
chili  was  not 
t  thoroughly 
a  permanent 
18  overflowed 
long  the  old 
irillages  were 
ands  allowed 

one  hand,  it 
•e  necessarily 
ved  from  the 
he  Hoang-ho 
e  withdrawal 
the  southern 
(Id  bed,  while 
Numerous 
d  for  nearly 

new  channel, 
i  miles.  But 
1870,  when  a 
rag.     On  this 

the  Kulu-ho, 
imerous  other 

contributions 

e  remarkable 

,ct,  which  was 
to  have  been 
40  miles  from 
line  particles. 


Owing  to  the  narrowness  of  the  navigable  channel,  large  vessels  are  now  obliged  to 
anchor  some  distance  off  the  bar,  althougli  it  uas  a  depth  of  7  feet  even  at  low 
water.  The  cargoes,  transhipped  to  smaller  craft,  arc  carried  to  Tiemen-kwun, 
24  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  river,  beyond  which  ])oint  the  "  ungovernable 
Iloang-ho"  has  almost  ceased  to  be  available  for  navigation.  Its  ujjper  course  in 
Eansu  might  be  navigable  by  small  boats ;  but  here  the  natives  prefer  the  road  to 
the  river  for  transporting  their  produce. 

The  Grand  Canal  and  Lower  Hoano-ho. 

The  "  Grand  Canal "  so  often  spoken  of  by  travellers,  especially  in  the  last 
century,  is  one  of  the  great  monuments  of  human  industry,  although,  perhaps,  less 
wonderful  than  it  may  seem  to  be  at  first  sight.  It  is  not  a  cutting,  like  so  many 
European  works  of  the  kind,  carried  by  a  series  of  locks  over  extensive  tracts  at 
dill'ercnt  levels,  but  simply  consists  of  a  string  of  abandoned  watercourses,  lakes, 
and  swamps,  all  connected  together  by  short  artificial  channels.  Hence  it  has 
almost  everywhere  preserved  the  aspect  of  a  winding  river,  constantly  varying  in 
width.  As  related  by  Marco  Polo,  the  Emperor  Eublai  Khan,  towards  the  end  of 
the  thirteenth  century,  created  the  Yun-ho,  or  "  River  of  Transports,"  as  it  was 
named,  mostly  by  connecting  river  with  river,  lagoon  with  lagoon.  Even  before 
that  epoch  goods  were  conveyed  by  water  and  across  a  series  of  diflicult  portages  from 
the  Yang-tze  to  the  Pei-ho  basin.  But  although  the  course  of  the  canal  was  thus 
already  indicated  and  partly  constructed  by  nature,  none  the  less  enormous  are  the 
sums  that  have  been  spent  on  the  formation,  and  especially  on  the  maintenance,  of 
this  great  navigable  artery.  Thousands  of  hands  have  been  constantly  employed  in 
dredging,  embanking,  protecting  the  exposed  sections  from  the  fury  of  the  winds, 
so  that  a  regular  canal  constructed  on  the  European  principle  would  have  probably 
been  less  expensive  in  the  end.  The  Grand  Canal,  which  is  mainly  fed  by  the 
Iloang-ho,  the  Wan-ho,  and  other  streams  from  Shantung,  has  in  recent  times  lost 
much  of  its  importance,  and  is  at  present  in  such  a  bad  state  that  the  navigation  is 
actually  interrupted  at  some  points.  Since  the  introduction  of  steam  Peking  and 
North  China  receive  their  supplies  chiefly  from  the  sea,  so  that  the  inland  navigation 
for  which  the  canal  was  constructed  has  no  longer  the  same  commercial  and 
economic  significance.  It  still,  however,  presents  many  advantages  for  the  local 
traflic,  and  it  may  be  hoped  that  the  work  of  restoration,  already  begun  at  the 
Tientsin  end,  will  soon  render  this  artery  navigable  by  steamers  throughout  its 
entire  length,  from  the  Pei-ho  to  the  Yang-tze  basin. 

According  to  one  estimate  the  mean  discharge  of  the  Iloang-ho  is  about  80,000 
cubic  feet  per  second,  or  nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  Nile.  The  sedimentary 
matter  brought  down  in  its  turbid  waters  is  slowly  yet  perceptibly  diminishing  the 
basins  of  the  Gulf  of  Pechili  and  Yellow  Sea.  Staunton  and  Barrow  have  calculated 
that  these  alluvia  would  be  sufficient  to  create,  in  twenty-five  days,  an  island  half  a 
square  mile  in  extent  and  120  feet  thick.  They  have  further  calculated  that  in 
about  twenty- four  thousand  years  the  Yellow  Sea  will  have  entirely  disappeared, 
45 


186 


EAST  ASIA. 


just  as  tlio  iiiliind  seas  wost  of  Sliatitunj,'  have  already  boconio  dry  land.  Its 
uavijjnlion  is  already  inudi  ohstrueted  l)y  (he  .-hiftiii^'  sand-banks,  as  well  as  by  the 
dense  [o'^s  in  whieh  these  shallow  waters  are  Irec^uently  wrapped.  The  Chinese 
limit  the  term  "  Yellow  Sea  "  to  the  portion  discoloured  by  the  alluvia,  applying 


Fig.  84.— Yellow  8ea. 
RcnlP  1  :  7*00,000. 


(■   « 


<'  ,; 


♦ 'II 


0  to  82  Vtct  83  to  l(i4  Feel. 

(^   Submarine  Sandbanks. 


Ii:4  to  32H  Feet.    328  Fee'-  onJ  upwarJe. 

^2^  Bonks  exposed  at  low  water. 
_i_i  160  Miles 


the   expression    "  Black   Sea "    to   the   marine    water.s    preserving   their   natural 
purity. 

The  extensive  plains  stretching  between  the  Lower  Hoang-ho  and  Yang-tze  are 
traversed  by  the  sluggish  Tloai,  which,  notwithstanding  its  great  length  and  volume, 
can  scarcely  be  regarded  as  an  independent  river.  From  age  to  age  it  has  never 
ceased  to  oscillate  from  right  to  left  in  search  of  a  fixed  channel.  At  one  time  it 
flowed  to  the  Iloang-ho,  at  another  to  the  Yang-tze,  while  occasionally  throwing  off 
branches  in  both  directions.  At  present  it  discharges  into  Ijake  Ilang-tzew  and  the 
other  lacustrine  basins,  Avhich  are  the  remains  of  the  ancient  inlet  penetrating 
northwards  between  Shantung  and  the  mainland. 


-— ^  .i,lli"il|llpiSli  Mrilg^tUM) 


Iniid.  Its 
11  as  by  tlio 
.'ho  Cliiiu'so 
a,  applyiug 


their  natural 

Yang-tze  are 
1  and  volume, 
it  has  never 
it  one  time  it 
r  throwing  off 
-tzew  and  the 
t  penetrating 


THE  TSIXG-LINO  AND  OTHER  RANGES. 


The  Tsixg-uxo  and  othku  Ranoks. 


187 


The  ppntnil  highlands  about  the  hoad-strcams  of  the  Iloang-ho  arc  still  lol'ty 
enough  to  supply  alluvial  deposits  which  may  some  day  convert  the  Archipelago  of 
Japan  into  an  Asiatic  peninsula.  E.vtensivo  ranges  rooted  westwards  in  the 
Tibetan  plateaux  form  the  water-parting  between  the  Iloajig-ho  aiul  Yang-tze 
basins,  and  these  are  succeeded  farther  north  by  other  less  elevated  chains  forming 
tlio  outer  scarp  of  the  Mongolian  terrace  lands. 

The  main  range,  which  may  be  regarded  as  an  eastern  continuation  of  the 
Kucn-lun,  is  separated  from  the  Kuku-nor  highlands  by  the  deep  gorge  of  the 
Upper  Iloang-ho,  South  of  Ijanchew-fu  this  range  takes  the  name  of  Siking- 
shan,  and  is  hero  broken  by  the  valley  of  the  Tao-ho,  an  upper  affluent  of  the 
Yellow  River.  ]Jut  east  of  this  point  its  snowy  peaks  stretch  away  to  the  south  of 
the  deep  valley  of  the  Wei-ho,  where  it  is  known  as  the  Tsing-ling,  or  "  lUuo 
Mountains."  In  the  upper  valley  of  the  Han,  north  of  Ilanchung-fu,  this  section 
is  crossed  by  passes  ])racticable  thnmghout  the  year  for  mides.  The  pass  chosen 
by  the  naturalist  Armand  David,  in  the  winter  of  1873,  is  G,.']00  feet  high,  and 
runs  along  the  west  side  of  the  famous  Taijei-shan,  whose  snowy  crest  has  an 
extreme  elevation  of  from  12,000  to  13,000  feet,  while  Kichthofen  assigns  a  mean 
altitude  of  6,500  feet  to  the  main  ran.'re.  In  its  central  section  the  Tsing-ling 
consisting  of  granites  and  old  schists,  is  so  difficxilt  to  cross,  that  travellers 
generally  prefer  to  turn  its  eastern  extremity  through  one  of  the  depressions  whicih 
here  separate  the  great  bend  of  the  Iloang-ho  from  the  valley  of  the  Han,  a 
tributary  of  the  Yang-tze.  Northwards  the  Tsing-ling  terminates  in  the  granite 
mass  of  the  Hoa-shan,  which  overlooks  the  triple  confluence  of  the  Iloang-ho,  the 
Wei-ho,  and  Lo-ho,  over  against  the  imposing  Fungtiao-shan,  traditionally  said  to 
have  been  separated  from  it  by  an  earthquake. 

Like  the  Pyrenees,  which  they  resemble  in  their  general  aspect  and  elevations, 
the  Blue  Mountains  form  a  parting  line  between  two  vegetable  and  animal  domains. 
The  chammrnps  palm  grows  only  on  the  slopes,  but  on  the  north  side  the  paulovnia, 
catalpa,  and  magnolia  are  found  intermingled  with  the  spruce  and  oak.  Here  also 
flourishes  the  red  birch,  while  a  species  of  rhododendron  attains  the  proportions  of  a 
tree.  Some  of  the  woodlands  still  harbour  a  few  carnivora,  and  the  northern  atd 
southern  fauna  are  represented  by  several  species,  among  which  are  the  chamois,  ante- 
lope, monkey,  and  a  wild  ox  protected  by  religious  scruples  from  the  native  hunters. 
The  parallel  treeless  ridges  of  the  Funiu,  which  form  an  eastern  continuation 
of  the  Tsing-ling,  attain  here  and  there  an  elevation  of  over  6,500  feet,  but  their 
mean  height  scarcely  exceeds  2,600.  Like  the  Tsing-ling,  they  form  a  parting 
line  between  the  Hoang-ho  and  Yang-tze  basins.  In  a  single  day  the  traveller 
passes  from  one  region  to  another,  presenting  the  greatest  contrasts  in  soil, 
climate,  vegetation,  and  even  in  the  appearance,  habits,  and  speech  of  the  inhabit- 
ants. In  the  south  the  crops  are  endangered  by  a  superabundance  of  moisture,  in 
the  north  by  prolonged  droughts.  On  one  side  rice  is  the  staple  of  agriculture  and 
food,  on  the  other  maize,  wheat,  and  millet. 


1 


IRS 


EAST  ASIA. 


I'arnllol  witli  tho  THinf,'-ling  other  rimfjcs  run  north  of  tho  "NVoi-ho  valley  in 
the  pninsuhi  foriiK'<l  by  the  two  ^yreat  h(  luls  of  the  Hounfj-ho.  JJut  they  are 
intersecteil  by  other  ridges  running  Houtli-west  and  north-euHt,  and  forming  with 
tlieni  numerous  valleys  radiating  in  every  direct  ion.  .Some  of  tho  breaks  (M-curring 
at  tho  i)oints  of  intersection  afford  imiMtrtant  passes  between  the  upper  and  lower 
courses  of  tho  lloang-ho.     lletween  tho  King-ho  and  Wei-ho  u  mouutuiu  muss, 


Fig.  H'>  —  Teuiucb  Lasdh  of  Shanri. 

SmO*  1  I  ^400,OUO. 


11 


120  Miles. 


^ 


formerly  known  as  the  Yo,  was  long  regarded  as  one  of  the  bulwarks  of  the 
empire.  North-east  of  Lauchew  some  of  the  peaks  take  the  name  of  Siwe-shan, 
or  "  Snowy  Mounts,"  but  tho  ranges  rising  to  the  north  of  the  Wci-ho  valley  are 
generally  of  moderate  elevation.  The  ranges  skirting  the  south  side  of  the  Ordos 
steppe  are  continued  east  of  the  lioung-ho  through  Shansi.  Here  the  "  Western 
Mouutaius."  from  which  the  province  of  Shansi  takes  its  name,  run  uniformly  in  a 


THE  YEIJ^OW  LANDS. 


180 


o  vuUoy  in 
it  they  are 
rilling  with 
s  occurring 
and  lower 
ituiu  muss, 


north-onstcrly  direction,  nnd  the  whole  region  rises  in  successive  terraces  from  the 
llonan  lowlands  to  the  Mongolian  plateaux.  Thus  are  formed  several  parallel 
hasins  in  which  the  streams  flow  until  they  find  a  hreacli  tiirough  which  they 
reach  the  plains.  One  of  the  ridg(>s  skirting  these  basins  is  the;  Siwe-shan,  or 
"  Sierra  Nevada  "  of  Shunsi,  and  towards  its  north-east  end  arc  several  venerated 
peaks,  the  most  fre(piented  of  which  is  at  present  the  Utai-shan,  or  "  Five  Peaks," 
with  un  extreme  height  of  11,000  feet.  As  many  as  three  hundred  and  sixty 
temples  are  said  to  stand  on  its  sloj)cs,  some  of  which  are  imposing  structures,  nnd 
one  of  them  is  built  of  pure  copjjcr.    According  to  the  popular  belief  those  buried 


Fig.  8(1.  -Utai-mman. 
Scale  1  :  230,000. 


115* 


e:  ofG 


"1115°  10' 


,  a  Miles. 


varks  of  the 
f  Siwe-shan, 
ho  valley  are 
of  the  Ordos 
ie  "  Western 
Qiformly  in  a 


here  are  insured  a  happy  transmigration,  and  the  flowers  growing  especially  on 
the  Nanting,  or  "  Southern  Peak,"  are  credited  with  certain  medicinal  properties. 
From  the  summit  of  these  holy  mountains  a  view  is  afforded  of  the  Ileng-shan, 
also  one  of  the  old  "guardians  of  the  empire."  Traditional  sacrifices  are  still 
offered  here,  but  the  Chinese  do  not  display  the  same  fervour  as  the  Mongolian 
pilgrims  to  the  shrines  of  the  Utui-shan. 

The  Yellow  Lands. 

Apart  from  the  highlands  and  alluvial  plains,  most  of  the  Hoang-ho  basin  is 
covered  with  hoang-tu,  or  "yellow  earth,"  which  prevails  throughout  Pechili, 


icS&-y|fe»r>5  1 


100 


EAST  ASIA. 


Shiinsi,  Kinisii,  liiilf  of  SIh'iihi,  the  iiortlicni  division  oi'  iloniin.iinil  cxlciiftivi"  Iriirts 
ill  Sliiiiitiiii^.  This  I'oriiiiitioii,  coiiiitrisin^;  a  region  liir^cr  than  tiu*  whole  of 
France,  real  Ik's  in  noine  phiees  even  to  the  hanlvH  of  tlie  Vaiif^-t/e,  and  stretelieH 
westwards  to  the  Tibetan  phiteaiix.  In  these  repioiis  everytliin^  is  yellow — hills, 
fields,  hi^^'hwavH,  Inmses,  (he  very  torrents  and  streams  ehar^'d  vith  alluviu. 
Even  the  vej;etation  is  often  covered  with  a  yellow  veil,  while  every  pull  of  wind 
rniHC8  clouds  of  fine  dust.  From  these  lands  the  Kniiwror  liiiiis»'lf  takes  the  title  of 
Ilouug-ti,  or  "  Yellow  Lord,"  equivalent  to  '  Master  of  the  "NVorhl."     According 


Fig.  87. — YiLi.ow  I.AMOM  OK  NuiiTU  China. 

Sonic  I  :  18.CIUO,000. 


:,    I] 


<■    i! 


■!j  ii 


^^    miDH    ^!    ^ 

AUnyJnm.    Yellow  Ijinds.  Red  Allvjvlnm.     rnltBomle.     Metamorpbic.       Volouie.     Carboniferoiu 
— >— — ^-^_i^  300  MlleH. 

to  Ilichthofon,  the  hoanj»-tu,  regarded  by  him  as  a  formation  analogous  to  tlirf  loess 
of  the  Rhine  and  I)anul)(>  basins,  is  nothing  more  than  so  much  dust  accumulated 
during  the  course  of  ag(>s  by  the  northern  winds.  In  any  ease  it  cannot  be  of 
glacial  origin,  for,  inst«>ad  of  being  simply  heaped  up  like  the  moraine  dei)o.sits,  it  is 
pierc(>d  by  vertical  lioles  rMinifying  in  various  directions,  and  caused  by  the  stem.s 
and  roots  of  jdaiits  gradually  covered  by  the  dust.  Nor  is  the  hoang-tu  deposited 
in  luyens  like  the  alluvia  of  running  waters,  while  it  is  destitute  of  murine  fossils 
attesting  a  possible  submersion  of  the  land  mider  the  ocean. 


i.Hivi'  triirtH 
'  wliiilt'  of 
il  strrtrlifrt 
low — hills, 
th  uUuviu. 
\\  of  wind 
llii>  title  of 
According 


pJiJ 


i    .1 


I 

I- 


1 


VJ 


miferons 


IS  to  tlirf  loess 
uccuinulatod 
ninnot  be  of 
dei)osits,  it  is 
by  tho  stems 
-til  dej)osited 
Luriuc  fossils 


C5 


i 

a. 
a. 

H 

5 

is 


h    i 


■Vr^--  -'■^t  ■ 


Omm 


-Emb 


k-~— 


TIIK  YKI.LOW  LANDS. 


101 


On  iIm-  pliiti'iiiix  onoinlcil  l»y  iiuiuiitiiiM  l>iirrii"H  fnniiiny;  f'oMi'cl  Imsins  tho 
vt'lliiw  I'll  ill  I'nriiis  ii  iiiiiiiiriii  liivrfnl'  uiikiiuwii  ili'hlli.  Itiit  wlicn'Vtr  tlic  iTOHivi) 
iii'tidii  (if  riiiiriiii};  wiitcrs  Ims  liad  lull  piny,  riiDiiniMis  tH-^urcs  with  vertical  wiiIIh 
hiiM'  Im'cii  iipciK'tl  ill  tlic  iit';j^illii('coitH  iiiiots.  Tlic  wiitiT,  priicli'iiliii;;;  nipiilly 
tliiuii;,'!!  till-  ('(111111  ics-^  ciiiply  Kpiii'i'M  h'l't  liy  (lie  routs  ul'  pitiiits,  j^nidiiully  (liHiiito- 
^nitcs  the  soil,  lirciikiii^  it  up  iulu  pcipi'iidiciiliir  lilnckH.  The  iihh'c  cxpoMcd 
iiiusscs,  n^i\  iii;,r  way,  loriii  irrcj^iilar  clills,  Imtkcii  up  in  all  directions,  and  ercatinj^  ii 
laliyriiitli  id  deep  pir;>:<'.s  Hanked  liy  perpendicular  walls.  In  some  places  the  work 
of  erosion  has  left  little  Iteyoiid  mere  lerraees,  or  isolated  eminences,  often 
resend)lin<if  feudal  stronj,'h(dds.  Klsewhero  the  >«;radiiiil  infiltration  has  excavated 
unihr^roiind  galleries  in  many  dislrietH  alfordin^  shelter  for  the  whole  population. 
The  erosions  reveal  in  some  places  a  thickness  of  at  least  2,(K)0  feet,  oil'erinjf  a 
prodif,'ioiis  ipiaiitity  of  ferlilisinj;  soil  constantly  washed  down,  and  maintaininj;  tlu! 
productiveness  of  the  plains  watered  liy  the  ll(ian<f-ho.  i*'or  this  yellow  earth  is  the 
richest  soil  in  China,  hein^j;  far  more  fertile  ev(Mi  than  ordinary  alliivinm.  It 
re(piires  no  maimrinj^,  and  j;;oeM  on  producing  heavy  cropH  for  ajj^es  without 
Hhowinjj;  any  signs  of  oxhaustion.  It  contiiiuH  all  tho  nutritive  elementH  of  plants, 
while  its  porous  eharacter  is  such  tliut  lli(>  moisturo  penetrates  far  into  the  soil, 
n'fnrning  hy  (•aj)illary  attraction,  charged  with  all  the  chemical  Hulistances  in 
solution  iihich  contrihute  most  to  the  alimentation  of  the  vegetahle  growths.  It 
even  serves  as  a  manure  for  other  lands,  over  which  it  is  distrilmti'd  in  largo 
quantities.  Such  is  its  efficacy  that  it  enahles  the  peasantry  in  the  cold  regions  of 
North  Chinii  to  raise  erops  of  cereals  at  an  elevation  of  (i.oOO  feet,  and  in  wmio  places 
even  8,000  feet,  wliereas  in  the  warmer  provinces  of  the  south  the  land  is  seldom 
cultivated  heyond  tj.OOO  feet  ahove  sea-level. 

Much  ingenuity  has  been  displayed  in  overcoming  the  didiculties  offiM'ed  to  freo 
communication  hy  the  perpendicular  walls  of  the  yellow  lands.  To  jiass  from  river 
basin  to  river  basin  advantage  has  bet-n  taken  of  every  narrow  fissure,  deep  cuttings 
have  iK'en  made  in  many  jjlaces,  and  fresh  routes  opened  when  the.se  have  been 
filled  up  by  tho  landslips.  Some  of  tho  most- frequented  roads  have  been 
excavated  to  depths  of  from  40  to  100  feet  and  upwards,  nv/1  the  labour  expended 
on  all  these  works  is  I't  lea.st  equal  to  that  luvi.shed  on  the  building  of  the  (Jreat 
Wall,  or  the  construction  of  the  Grand  Canal.  The  roads  are  sometimes  continued 
for  hundreds  of  miles  almost  in  tho  bowels  of  tho  earth,  but  are  seldom  more  than 
8  or  10  feet  wide,  tho  wheeled  traffic  being  conducted  by  means  of  shuntings  like 
the  "gares  "  in  the  Suez  Canal.  In  dry  weather  tho  waggons  sink  into  the  dust 
up  to  the  axle,  while  after  the  rains  tho  tracks  are  converted  into  quagmires, 
dangerous  alike  to  man  and  boast.  Yet  these  difficult  highways,  being  quite 
unavoidable,  po.s.sess  great  strategic  importance,  the  bhickade  of  one  of  these  defiles 
at  a  single  point  being  often  sufficient  to  cut  olf   all  connnunication   between 


extensive  regions. 


The  mountains  whose  lower  slopes  are  covered  by  the  yellow  earth  also  contain 
some  of  the  richest  coal  beds  in  the  world.  Anthracite  and  other  varieties  are 
found  in    all  tho  provinces    watered   by   tributaries    of   the    Iloang-ho — Pechili, 


~5S^<;S®9^{2E»*E' 


192 


EAST  ASIA. 


Shantung,  Sliausi,  Shcnsi,  Kansu,  lEonau — and  some  of  the  deposits  are  con- 
veniently situated  on  the  river  banks,  whence  tlie  produce  can  be  easily  exported 
by  water  to  the  seaboard.  The  anthracite  basins  of  Ilonan  alone  cover  an  area  of 
over  21,000  square  miles,  so  that  one  of  the  most  agricultural  regions  on  the  globe 
offers  every  clement  of  future  industrial  development. 


Topography. 

The  Iloang-ho  basin  has  in  recent  times  suffered  so  much  from  the  ravages  of 
civil  war,  inundations,  and  long  droughts,  followed  by  famine  and  pestilence,  that 
not  even  an  approximate  estimate  can  be  formed  of  its  present  population.  The 
country,  however,  appears  to  be  rapidly  recovering  from  these  disasters,  and 
according  to  the  reports  of  recent  travellers,  the  towns  and  villages  are  again 
everywhere  assuming  their  normal  appearance.  Thanks  to  the  introduction  of  the 
potato  plant,  some  of  the  upland  valleys  hitherto  uninhabited  are  now  receiving 
numerous  settlers,  and  at  the  present  rate  of  increase  the  Hoang-ho  basin  will  in  a 
few  decades  be  again  peopled  by  some  eighty  millions,  as  it  was  before  the 
Mohammedan  insurrection  and  the  bursting  of  the  Kaif ung-fu  embankments. 

Qomi,  the  most  elevated  town  on  the  Hoang-ho,  was  recently  visited  by 
Prjevalsky.  It  stands  at  an  altitude  of  8,000  feet  on  the  extreme  verge  of  the 
cultivated  zone,  which  is  here  succeeded  by  the  wooded  tracts  where  the  blue  pheasant 
is  indigenous.  Siiiinfj-fii,  lying  east  of  the  Kuku-nor,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Siuing,  is  the  capital  of  Kansu,  and  residence  of  the  authorities,  who  administer 
the  Tangut  and  Mongol  populations  of  the  Kuku-nor  region.  Its  position  at  the 
north-east  corner  of  the  Tibetan  plateaux,  and  near  the  historic  route  to  the  Tarim 
basin  and  Zungaria,  renders  it  strategically  and  commercially  a  place  of  great 
importance.  But  the  wide  circuit  of  its  walls  now  encloses  many  ruins,  while 
much  of  its  trade  has  been  transferred  to  JDonkir,  some  24  miles  farther  west. 
Here  the  Eastern  Tibetans  and  Si- Fan  tribes  assemble  to  exchange  their  rhubarb, 
hides,  wool,  live  stock,  and  minerals  for  provisions  and  other  supplies.  Amongst 
these  varied  and  unruly  elements  the  exchanges  are  not  always  effected  without 
bloodshed  ;  the  dealers  go  armed,  and  disputes  about  the  market  prices  sometimes 
end  in  free  fights.  This  region  is  sacred  in  the  eyes  of  the  Tibetan  and  Mongol 
Buddhists,  as  the  birthplace  of  the  great  reformer,  Tsonkhapa,  and  amongst  the 
lamassaries  held  in  special  reverence  is  Kunbtim,  which  lies  south  of  Sining,  on  a 
wooded  terrace  near  the  deep  gorge  of  the  Hoang-ho.  Befoi'c  the  recent 
Mohammedan  and  Si-Fan  troubles  this  place  contained  4,000  lamas,  and  its 
university  comprises  four  schools  devoted  to  the  study  of  the  occult  sciences, 
ceremony,  prayer,  and  the  art  of  healing  the  "four  hundred  and  forty  ailments  of 
mankind."  One  of  the  chief  remedies  is  the  foliage  of  a  sacred  tree,  a  species  of 
older,  growing  in  front  of  the  great  temple,  every  leaf  of  which  is  said  to  bear  a 
representation  of  Buddha  and  various  characters  of  the  sacred  Tibetan  alphabet. 
Hue  fancied  he  saw  this  marvel,  and  Szechfcnyi,  after  much  inquiry,  was  shown 
a  leaf  on  which  had  been  traced  the  rude  outlines  of  a  figure  of  Buddha. 


:8   are  con- 

ily  exported 

an  area  of 

m  the  globe 


e  ravages  of 
tilcnco,  that 
ation.  The 
sasters,  and 
>8  are  again 
iction  of  the 
w  receiving 
sin  will  in  a 

before  the 
ments. 
'  visited  by 
erge  of  the 
)lue  pheasant 
bank  of  the 
0  administer 
sition  at  the 
to  the  Tarim 
ace  of  great 
ruins,  while 
farther  west. 
leir  rhubarb, 
s.  Amongst 
icted  without 
es  sometimes 
and  Mongol 
amongst  the 
Sining,  on  a 

the  recent 
mas,  and  its 
3ult  sciences, 
Y  ailments  of 
a  species  of 
lid  to  bear  a 
tan  alphabet, 
y,  was  shown 
la. 


BOAD  CUT  THROUGH  TUB  ■' YELLOW  EABTU." 


! 

in 

■ 

1 

i 

t 

i 

i 

i 

• 

1 

1 

If 

1     ^ 

3        : 
1 

] 

• 

1 

1 

1 

i 
1 

i 

1 
i 

ii 

j!          ; 

; 

1 

j 

^ 

i 

j 

^ 

1 

1 

i 


urn 


i:y^Wm 


mm 


TOPOGRAPHY. 


193 


North  of  Sining-fu  and  Chuufjpe-liicii,  which  also  lies  on  the  Sining-ho,  nearly 
all  the  towns  were  reduced  to  heaps  of  ruinH  during  the  late  Dungan  rehellion. 
But  thanks  to  its  strong  ramparts,  Lancheu-fii,  starting-point  of  tlie  main  route  to 
the  west,  was  not  only  preserved,  but  also  afforded  an  asylum  to  innumerahlo 
refugees  from  the  surrounding  districts.  Official  capital  of  Kansii,  although  the 
Viceroy  resides  alternately  at  Snclivw,  near  the  "  Jade  Gate,"  Lanchcw-fu  occupies 
an  advantageous  site  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Iloang-ho,  which  near  this  ])oint 
bends  suddenly  northwards  round  the  Ordos  peninsula.  Although  its  forty 
thousand  houses  are  mostly  mere  wood  huts,  its  well-kept  streets,  paved  with 
granite  and  marble  blocka,  impart  a  pleasant  appearance  to  this  place.     Amongst 

Kig.  88. — SiNOAN   AND  THE   LoWBK    VVei-HO    VaLLBT. 
Scale  1  :  1,700,000. 


,  SO  MUea. 


its  numerous  industries  are  a  cannon  foundry  and  a  factory  conducted  by 
Europeans  for  the  manufacture  of  cloth  for  the  army  and  other  coarse  materials 
in  wool  and  camel's  hair.  There  are  even  some  steam-engines  supplied  from  the 
neighbouring  coal  mines,  and  broad  roads  of  moflern  construction,  planted 
with  elms  and  willows,  radiate  from  this  important  centre  to  every  part  o'  the 
province.  Some  60  miles  south-west  of  Lanchew-fu  is  the  fortress  of  Sa/'iir,  or 
Ilnr/ietr,  the  chief  stronghold  of  the  Dungans  during  the  insurrection.  From 
this  place  they  probably  take  the  name  of  Sah-la',  by  which  they  are  known  in 
Eansu. 

On  the  left  bank  of  the  Iloang-ho  stands  the  commercial  town  of  Chougirei,  at 
the  cast  foot  of  the  Ala-shan,  and  close  to  one  of  the  gates  of  the  Great  Wall  on 


*i 


104 


EAST  ASIA. 


the  very  vorjifo  <it'  the  dcscil.  I-'artlicr  down  llie  historic  city  of  Ninffliia,  ji  foriiu  r 
oinpoiium  of  tni«U'  with  Moii<j;olia,  aiul  capifiil  of  an  indciK'ndcnt  Male  in  tlic  tenth 
and  eleventh  centuries,  still  j)re.sents  an  iniposinj^  appearance  with  its  papodas, 
lofty  brick  wtdls,  and  ramparts.  llelow  Min<>:hia  the  chief  places  arc  Jitiotii 
(liichukiiai),  on  the  left  hank,  and  C/ini/an-kinTJi,  near  the  north-eastern  anfj;le  of 
the  Ordos  peninsula.  Soutii  of  the  Great  Wall  the  stronj^hold  of  Paotr  f^uaids  the 
chief  p;issa<;:e  lea<lin<j;  across  the  lloan,n;-ho,  between  the  provinces  of  JShensi  and 
Shansi.     Jlere  the  stream  is  scarcely  4-")l)  yards  broad. 

South  of  the  Urdos  peninsulu  the  chief  stations  on  the  great  historic  highway 
between  the  two  bends  of  the  Iloang-ho  are  marked  by  the  towns  of  PiiigliaiKj-Jn, 
Kiiiflieir,  and  I'iiicluir,  all  of  which  were  enal)led  by  their  strong  ramparts  to  resist 
the  Dungan  rebels.  But  all  tlie  Hurrounding  lands  were  wasted,  and  the  Dungan 
prisoners  them.selves  have  since  been  einph)yed  in  repairing  the  damage  done  and 
raising  extensive  defensive  works  against  similar  outbreaks  in  the  future.  A  grotto 
near  I'inchew  contains  the  largest  and  mo.st  famous  statue  of  ISuddha  in  Central 
China.  It  is  about  oO  feet  high,  and  flanked  by  two  others  half  the  size,  representing 
two  disciples  pointing  at  the  divinity.  In  the  Wei-ho  valley  the  chief  place  is 
fiuiic/tcir,  below  which,  on  the  same  river,  lies  the  administrative  town  of  Fiivliany- 
hicii,  near  a  hill  surmounted  by  anotlicr  colossal  Buddha.  Farther  south,  on  the 
banks  of  a  tributaiy  of  the  Wei-ho,  rise  the  pagodas  and  domes  of  Tdiiiyc/irir, 
which  fonns  a  group  of  Hvc  namicipalities  with  a  common  mayor,  but  each 
surrounded  by  a  separate  enclosure  of  high  walls.  Tsingchew  is  a  large  mart  for 
tea,  tobacco,  and  indigo,  and  has  some  silk  embroidery  and  metal  industries. 

Sini/aii-fii,  the  chief  town  of  Shen.si,  and  capital  of  the  Middle  Kingdom  under  the 
Tsin  dynasty  (DOG  to  12«S0),  is  still  one  of  the  largest  places  in  the  empire,  btnug 
exceeded  in  population  probably  by  Canton  alone.  It  stands  in  a  plain  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Wei-ho,  King-ho,  and  a  few  other  smaller  streams,  and  each  of 
its  square  walls  facing  the  cardinal  points  is  over  6  miles  long,  and  pierced  in  the 
centre  by  a  monumental  gate  with  lofty  pavilions.  Thanks  to  its  central  position 
and  fertile  soil,  Hingan  has  for  thoustmds  of  years  been  a  conmiercial  city  of  the 
first  class,  and  alth(»ugh  none  of  its  old  buildings  have  been  preserved,  it  contains  a 
rare  archaeological  c»)llection  of  designs  and  inscriptions  some  two  thousand  years 
old,  and  of  great  historical  importance.  During  the  late  Dungan  revolt  the 
fifty  thousand  Mohammedans  of  Singan  were  interned  within  the  walls  under  pain 
of  death,  and  the  inhabitants  were  with  difficulty  prevented  from  exterminating 
them. 

On  the  Wei-ho,  below  Singan-fu,  lies  the  formerly  important  town  of  lloa-clicir, 
where  the  terrible  outbreak  began  in  IStiO  which  devastated  so  many  flourishing 
lands  and  cost  the  lives  of  millions  of  their  inhabitants.  Of  this  i)lace  nothing 
now  remains  except  one  of  the  oldest  mcmuments  in  the  empire,  a  temple  erected 
at  the  l)oginning  of  the  Christian  era.  In  the  district  the  largest  place  now  is  the 
fortress  of  TuiKj-kivdii,  or  "The  East  Gate,"  which  is  the  central  stronghold  of  the 
Jloang-ho  basin,  and  one  of  the  best-defended  points  in  China.  Occxipying  a  vital 
])osition  where  the  Hoang-ho,  after  receiving  three  copious  affluents,  suddenly 


«|fW^>lHllf  I  ■!    IW  ■j',"   >'li 


TOI'OCUAPIIY. 


195 


hid,  a  fornu  r 

in  the  tintU 

its  i)iiRO(l;is, 
s  arc  lidutn 
iter  11  aiifi;U>  of 
fi-  j^uanls  the 
>f  Sbcusi  and 

[oric  higliway 

Pi)i(j/i((ii<J-Ji'> 
parts  to  resist 

(I  the  DiiiiK"" 
iiage  (lone  and 
Lire.     A  grotto 
iba  in  Central 
2,  representing 
ebief  place  is 
k-u  of  Fiu/i(iiifj- 
r  south,  on  the 
of   TuiiKjt'/ifW, 
lyor,  but  each 
large  mart  for 
lustries. 
gdoni  under  the 

empire,  being 
a  plain  at  the 
ns,  and  each  of 

pierced  in  the 
central  position 
•cial  city  of  the 
.h1,  it  contains  a 

thousand  years 
<ran  revolt  the 
lalls  under  pain 
1  exterminating 

wn  of  Hod-clirir, 
any  flourishing 

is  place  nothing 
temple  erected 

place  now  is  the 
rongbold  of  the 

ccupying  a  vital 

luentB,  Huddenly 


trends  eastward,  Tung-kwan  h  the  natural  junction  of  several  main  routes,  and  in 
the  neigbbiKirhootl  is  tho  sacrc;!  Iloa-sliaii,  a  liill  like  the  Tai-sban  (if  Shantung, 
covered  witli  shrines  and  inucb  freiiueiited  hy  pil;,'rinis.  Enthroned  on  the  stininiit 
and  encircled  by  heavenly  spirits  is  the  "  White  Kniperor"' (l*ei-hi),  guardian  of 
tho  western  provinces. 

North  Shansi,  bordering  on  the  Ordos  coinitry,  is  one  of  tho  least-known  regions 
in  China.  It  is  known,  however,  to  contain  some  commercial  jdaces,  such  as 
Fiir/icir,  in  tho  valley  of  the  Lo-ho ;  Yanf/nii,  in  a  rich  coal  and  petroleum  district 
farther  north;  Yii/iii-fu,  at  a  gate  in  the  Groat  Wall  near  tlie  ^longolian  stej)j)e. 
The  northern  division  of  Shansi,  being  more  accessible,  has  been  fre(iuently  visited 
by  European  explorers,  who  have  carefully  studitnl  its  geology  anil  natural 
resources.  Here  lies  Taiijuan-fH,  capital  of  tho  whole  proviiu-e,  in  a  ricli  district 
watered  by  the  Fuen-ho,  a  tributary  of  the  Iloang-ho.  Like  J'ekiiig,  Taiyuan  has 
its  Manchu  quarter  separated  from  the  Chinese  town  by  a  lofty  enclosure.  It  had 
formerly  a  well-known  manufactory  of  small  aims,  and  it  still  contains  a  Govom- 
nu»nt  arsenal  and  gun  foundry.  Tho  district  produces  tlie  best  grapes  in  China, 
from  which  the  inhabitants  make  a  good  wine,  following  the  method  introduced  by 
tho  early  Roman  Catholic  missionaries. 

South  and  south-wost  of  the  capital  are  tho  busy  towns  of  Iliowkao  and  Chi- 
hieii,  and  farther  on  are  tho  flourishing  cities  of  Tailiu-liien  and  Ch(tiujlan-rliin, 
which  have  extensive  relations  with  London,  Marseilles,  and  San  Francisco.  Every 
town  and  village  of  this  district  has  its  special  industiy — wown  goods,  jjapcr,  hard- 
ware, porcelain,  bronzes — while  the  coal  mines  are  largely  worked  for  the  local 
demand. 

Before  the  Taiping  revolt  Piiigi/rinf/-fn,  in  a  sandy  plain  on  the  Fuen-ho,  M'as 

one  of  the  largest  places  in  Shansi ;  now  it  is  a  mass  of  ruins,  from  which,  however, 

it  is  gradually  recovering.     It  is  <me  of  the  oldest  cities  in  tho  world,  and  within 

2  miles  of  its  triple  enclosures  lies  the  site  of  tho  imperial  capital  during  the  Yao 

poritMl,  over  forty-two  centuries  ago.    Close  by  is  a  temple  dedicated  to  the  memory 

of  tho  throe  venerated  Emperors,  Yao,  Shun,  and  Yu,  and  according  to  tho  legend 

Yao  lies  buried  in  a  grotto  amongst  the  hills  oast  of  Pingyang.     Seven  1  lai'ge 

places,  such  as  Piicheu-fu,  Kiai-cheir,  Ngauiji,  and  Yi(enchi)ig,  lie  in  tho  south-east 

corner  of  Shansi,  where  tho  rich  salt  works  supply  tho  requirements  of  tho  whole 

province,  besides  the  greater  portion  of  Shansi,  Ilonan,  and  Kansu.     The  chief 

saline  stretches  along  the  north  side  of  a  lake  18  miles  long,  whence  is  probably 

extracted  more  sjdt  than  from  any  other  spot  in  the  world.     The  primitive  method 

of  working  it  seems  to  have  little  changed  since  the  time  of  Yao,  yet  it  still  yields 

about  154,000  tons  yearly,  which  is  ft)rwardod  to  the  surrounding  provinces  chiefly 

through  Yuenching.     Tho  numerous  saline  springs  of  South  Shensi  and  Ilonan 

show  that  vast  salt  beds  e.xisf   also  in  these  regions.     On  the  opposite  sloi)e  of  the 

Fungtiao-shan  sidt  marshes  stretch  away  to  tho  banks  of  the  lloang-ho,  and  here 

tho  j-ellow-earth  cliffs  arc  everywhere  saturated  with  salt. 

Below  Tung-kwan  towns  and  villages  follow  in  rapid  succession  along  both 
sides  of  the  Iloang-ho.     JIoiiaii-/u  occupies  the  site  of  a  former  imperial  capital, 


m^^ 


|;    jjn 


EAST  ASIA. 


and  near  it  stoml  Lni/aiiff,  the  imperial  residence  during  the  Wei  and  Tang  dynasties 
in  the  third  and  seventh  centuries  of  the  vulgar  era.  It  lies  near  the  north  bunk 
of  the  Lo-ho,  which  here  flows  parallel  with  the  main  stream,  from  which  it  is 
separated  by  u  long  range  of  hills.  Ilonan  occupies  one  of  the  most  central  points 
in  the  empire;  and  when  the  Great  Asiatic  Kailway  is  comijleted,  it  cannot  fail  to 
become  a  chief  emporium  of  the  transit  trade  with  the  A\'e.st.  The  surrounding  hills 
are  crowned  with  some  of  the  oldest  and  most  curious  temples  in  China. 

K(ii/nii(/-/ii,  capital  of  Ilonan,  and  still  universally  known  by  its  old  name  of 
Pioi-kanij,  is  deprived  of  the  full  advantage  of  its  favourable  position  on  the  right 
side  of  the  lloang-ho  by  the  inundations  both  of  the  main  stream  and  of  its  tributary, 
the  I'ien,  bv  which  tlie  riverain  tracts  are  here  often  devastated.  In  1541  it  was 
almost  entirely  destroyed  by  its  own  inhabitants,  who  broke  down  the  embankments 
in  order  to  drown  a  rebel  army.  Unfortunately  they  nearly  all  perished  themselves, 
while  most  of  the  besieging  forces  had  time  to  escape.  Kaifung-fu,  which  was  the 
imperial  capital  from  1280  to  1405  a.d.,  has  preserved  none  of  its  old  monuments, 
and  is  now  merely  a  trading  place,  presenting  the  aspect  of  a  permanent  fair. 
Here  is  the  only  Jewish  community  in  China,  engaged  almost  exclusively  in  gold 
and  silver  work,  brokerage,  and  money-lending. 

North  of  the  Iloang-ho  the  city  of  Iloaikiiig-fu,  surrounded  by  a  vast  garden, 
watered  by  rivulets  from  the  Taishang-shan  hills,  although  a  busy  place,  is 
surpassed  in  importance  by  Chiiigtca-chctt,  which  lies  11  miles  farther  north- 
west, and  which  is  a  great  centre  of  the  coal  and  iron  industries.  The  route 
running  thence  to  Tientsin  traverses  the  largo  city  of  Wei-hwi-fu  (Wei-kiun j  and 
the  port  of  Tankoic-cheii,  at  the  head  of  the  navigation  of  the  Wei-ho.  West  of 
this  river  lies  Changte-fu,  noted  above  most  Chinese  towns  for  its  well-kept  streets 
and  prosperous  appearance. 

South  of  the  Iloang-ho  the  most  important  place  in  the  extensive  plains  watered 
by  the  Iloai  and  its  tributaries  is  Choirkia-kow,  at  the  confluence  of  the  three  head- 
streaivis  of  the  Sha-ho,  and  west  of  the  provincial  city  of  Chinchew-fti.  The  plains 
surrounding  Kiceite,  south  of  Kaifung-fu,  are  quite  as  productive  as  those  of  West 
Ilonan,  but  they  suffered  far  more  from  the  ravages  of  the  Taiping  rebels.  The 
lacustrine  region  stretching  from  Nanking  to  Tsinan,  and  traversed  by  the  Grand 
Canal,  being  undefended  by  any  strongholds,  all  its  towns  were  seized  and  sacked 
by  them. 


BASIN  OF  THK  YANG-TZE-KIANG. 
Sbchuen,  Kwriciiew,  IlrrBii,  Hvxax,  Noaniiwk[,  Kianoku,  Kianosi,  Chbkiano. 

The  Yang-tze-kiang  basin  comprises  three-eighths  of  China  proper,  with  a 
population  estimated,  before  the  late  civil  war,  at  no  less  than  200,000,000. 
Although  not  originally  founded  here,  the  State  drew  from  this  region  the  chief 
elements  of  strength,  which  enabled  it  to  develop  into  the  paramoimt  power  of 
East  Asia. 

Of  the  two  great  Chinese  rivers  the  Yang-tze  is  by  far  the  largest,  and  is 


mwm.^^ 


BASIN  OP  THE  YANQ-TZK-KIANO. 


197 


Pnng  dynaRtics 
he  north  hiink 
in  which  it  is 

central  points 
;  cannot  fail  to 
rrounding  hills 
ina. 

8  old  name  of 
>n  on  the  right 
)f  its  tributary, 
In  1541  it  was 
D  cnihunkincnts 
tied  themselves, 

which  was  the 
)ld  monuments, 
aermanent  fair, 
lusively  in  gold 

a  vast  garden, 
busy  place,  is 
farther  north- 
ies.  The  route 
[Wci-kiun)  and 
ei-ho.  West  of 
veil-kept  streets 

e  plains  watered 
the  three  head- 
-fu.  The  plains 
IS  those  of  West 
ng  rebels.  The 
ed  by  the  Grand 
eized  and  sacked 


ClIBKIANO. 


proper,  with  a 
lun  200,000,000. 
region  the  chief 
umoimt  power  of 

le  largest,  and  is 


hence  commonly  spoken  of  simply  as  the  Ta-kiang,  or  "  Great  River."  Like  those 
of  the  Iloang-ho,  its  waters  are  turbid  and  of  a  yellow  colour,  from  the  alluvia 
Avushcd  down  with  the  stream.  But  while  the  Ilonng-ho  is  compared  to  the 
"earth,"  or  "Female  rrinciple,"  whoso  symlKilic  colour  is  yellow,  the  Yung-tze, 
according  to  some  commentators,  is  the  "  8on  of  the  iliile  Principle ;  "  that  is,  of 
Heaven.  The  title  of  "  lUue "  given  to  it  by  the  early  missionaries,  and  still 
current  in  Europe,  would  thus  be  justified,  azure  being  the  colour  of  the  sky.  Hut 
much  doubt  prevails  as  to  the  real  meaning  of  the  characters  conmionly  used  to 
designate  this  river,  which  may  possibly  mean  "  Son  of  the  Ocean,"  in  allusion  to 
its  vast  inundations,  or  may  be  a  purely  geographical  expression,  derived  from  the 

Fig.    89.— COMI'AKATIVE    DiSCHAItOB    OK   TUB    YaNQ-TZR   AND   OTHER   RiVEKS. 


178,00(1 
SS.OOO 


High  Water. 


Mean. 


Low  Water. 


old  province  of  Yang,  now  called  Kiangsu.  But  however  this  be,  the  grandilo- 
quent epithets  applied  to  the  river  of  Central  China  need  cause  no  surprise,  for  it  is 
certainly  one  of  the  very  largest  in  the  world.  In  the  length  of  its  course  and  the 
extent  of  its  basin  it  is  no  doubt  surpassed  by  three  others  in  Asia  alone — the  Ob, 
Yenisei,  and  Lena.*  But  in  volume  it  far  exceeds  those  Siberian  streams,  and 
according  to  the  careful  measurements  of  Blakiston  and  Guppy,  it  is  surpassed  in 
this  respect  by  three  only  in  the  whole  wo,rld — the  Amazons,  Congo,  and  La  Plata. 
Below  the  confluence  of  the  Han  the  mean  discharge  is  about  035,000  cubic  feet 

*  Length  of  the  Yang-tze  according  to  Ritter,  2,800  miles ;  approximate  area  of  drainage  according 
to  Blakiston,  7aO,OUO  square  miles. 


-m* 


jr 


I » 


J 


I 


jii! 


'11 


mm 


109 


EAST  ASIA. 


per  socoiid,  jiiid  at  liij,'h  wiifor  in  Aii<;ust  1,'J()(»,(I(»()  cuhic  feet.  Assuniinp'  that  tlio 
pr<)|H>rti()ii  between  iiiinfiill  inul  (liseliin<j:e  is  tniiintaiiud  throughout  itH  h>wor  eourso, 
the  avenij;e  vtthune  ol'  the  Van<,'-lze  woiihl  l)e  S"jS,()()U  cubic  leot,  ur  hix  times  that 
of  t]io  Nih-,  anil  ten  times  that  ol'  tlu>  IMione. 

When  instilulinj;  eompaiisons  between  their  two  ^^rout  water  hif^hways,  tlie 
r'hinese  never  fail  to  contrast  the  benelicent  character  of  the  southern  with  the 
ilisastrous  influence  of  the  northern  stream,  which  they  have  entitled  the  "  .Scimrfj^e 
of  the  Sons  of  Man."  The  Yan<?-t/e  has  never  caused  such  widespread  ruin  uh  that 
wliich  has  attended  the  shiftin<^s  of  the  Iluung-ho,  nor  is  any  river  in  the  world 
more  useful  for  navi<rution.  ff  it  docs  not  yet  number  us  muny  stoumers  ns  the 
Mississippi,  or  even  the  Volffa,  it  is  none  the  less  cr«)wded  with  flotillas  of  junks 
and  river  craft  of  every  d«'scription,  while  its  float in<?  pojmliition  is  numbeied  by 

Fig.  UO.     Navioaulb  Covuhb  of  the  Yano-tzm  and  ith  Tuiuutauiiw. 

Sonle  1  :  ■>o,nii(),ni)0. 


Mnvi^iilile  fur 
Steuiucri. 


NuviRnltli-  tur 
BoaiB. 


Ocriixiiiniilly 
n.iTipiMe. 

-  SCO  Milen. 


rniiiivifriible  or 
uut^xplored. 


hundreds  of  thousands.  Mareo  Polo  was  certainly  fi^nilty  of  no  exapffjeraticm  wlion 
he  declared  that  the  waters  of  the  "  Kian  "  bore  more  vessels  laden  with  more 
morchaiidiso  thnn  on  all  the  united  seas  and  rivers  of  (Christendom.  A  conflagra- 
ti(m  caused  by  li<»'htnin<>f  in  the  port  of  Cehaiifj;  in  1850  consmned  seven  hundred 
large  junks  and  thousands  of  small  boats,  and  on  this  occasion  as  many  as  fifty 
thousand  p(>ople  are  said  to  have  perished  by  fire  or  water.  One  local  merchant 
alone  ordered  no  less  than  ten  thousand  coffins.  Thus  were  destroyed  in  a  single 
port  more  boatmen  than  arc  found  in  all  France.  Tlic  Tuiping  rebellion,  which 
ragetl  chiefly  along  the  banks  of  the  Yang-tze  and  its  great  affluents,  for  o  time 
swept  the  river  of  its  inhabitants.  Ihit  since  the  restoration  of  peace  the  local 
trade  has  revived,  and  lf)ng  lines  of  craft  engaged  in  peaceful  pursuits  have  again 
made  their  appearance  on  its  waters.     But  these  flotillas  are  from  time  to  time 


ly 


iijiiiijiiTii  Mriiu  - 


iiiniiip  thut  the 

t  s  lower  course, 

Hix  times  thut 

lii<j;]nviiys,  tlie 
therii  with  the 
I  tlie  "  .Sfoiirg(> 
.'11(1  ruin  U8  that 
r  in  the  world 
(teumers  as  the 
utillas  of  junks 
H  nunihered  by 


irnble  ov 
doi'ed. 


igp^eration  wlien 
aden  with  more 
n.  A  conflagra- 
d  seven  hundred 
us  many  us  fifty 
c  loeul  nierchunt 
royed  in  u  sin<»le 

rebellion,  which 
ucnts,  for  o  time 

peace  the  local 
rsui^s  have  again 
om  time  to  time 


THE  UrriUl  YANO-T/E  AND  MIN. 


1!)!) 


tossed  by  the  waves  raised  by  tlio  passing  steajiuTs,  as  if  to  warn  them  of  the  revo- 
lution that  is  taking  pluct?  in  the  niethorls  of  triiiisport. 

The  Yang-tze  lias  received  from  the  Mongoliiins  tlie  title  of  Dalai,  or  "Sea," 
and  in  the  history  of  (!hina  it  hasphiyed  the  same  ])art  as  the  ocean  and  great  marine 
inlets  elsewliere.  It  has  afforded  even  greater  facilities  for  travel,  for  tlie  transport 
of  goods,  and  for  the  mutual  inten^ouise  of  the  surrounding  peoples.  At  the  present 
day  European  inHuenees  are  penetrating  into  the  heart  of  the  empire  through  the 
sumo  channel,  which  for  practical  purposes  may  bo  regarded  as  a  continuation  of 
the  seaboard,  stretching  some  2,400  miles  inland.  The  total  length  of  the 
navigable  waters  in  its  basin  is  equal  to  half  the  circnniforeuce  of  the  ghjbo. 

Tin;  TJppKU  Yang-tzv,  ano  Jlix. 

The  head-streams  of  the  Yang-tze  arc  known  to  ri.sc  on  the  Tibetan  plateaux,  far 
beyond  the  limits  of  (!hinu  proper.  Although  utill  unexplored  by  Kuropean 
tnivellers,  its  actual  source  may  be  indicated  with  some  ajiproach  to  accuracy. 
Tliree  rivulets,  known  to  the  ^[ongolians  as  the  Ulun-muren,  or  "  lied  J  avers,"  and 
more  particularly  discriminated  as  the  Nameitu,  Toktonai,  and  Ketsi,  take  their 
rise  in  the  north-eastern  region  of  Khachi,  south  of  the  unexplored  Kuen-lun 
ranges,  which  are  here  continued  westwards  by  the  Ihiyan-khara  chain.  These 
three  streams  jointly  form  the  ^lurui-ussu,  or  "  Winding  ^Vater,"  of  the  Mongo- 
lians ;  the  Dichu,  or  Brichu,  of  the  Tibetans — that  is,  tho  "  River  of  the  Cow  ;  "  and 
in  Chinese  territory  the  Yang-tzc-kiang.  Where  it  was  crossed  by  I'rjevulsky,  at 
an  elevation  of  13,000  feet  above  tho  sea,  its  bed  was  750  feet  broad,  and  its 
current  very  rapid.  From  the  appearance  of  its  banks  it  is  evident  that  during  the 
summer  inundiuions  its  waters  are  spread  over  a  space  at  least  5,300  feet  wide. 
Hence  at  an  altitude  of  nearly  2 J  miles  above  the  sea,  and  over  3,000  miles  from  its 
mouth,  the  Murui-ussu  already  discharges  more  water  than  many  famous  streams  in 
West  Europe.  In  this  region  the  two  great  rivers  of  China  approach  nearest  to 
each  other,  their  basins  being  here  separated  only  by  the  ridge  of  the  Buyan-kuara, 
whose  snows  feed  both  streams. 

The  Murui-ussu  at  first  follows  the  same  direction  as  the  other  rivers  of  East 
Tibet,  flowing  parallel  with  the  Lu-tze-kiang  and  Luntzan-kiang  southwards,  as  if 
intending  to  discharge  its  waters  into  the  Gulf  of  Siam.  But  after  falling  for  over 
COO  miles  towards  the  Indian  Ocean,  it  fails  to  pierce  the  Y''unnan  plateau,  and  is 
thus  deflected  eastwards  to  the  China  Sea.  At  this  part  of  its  course  it  has 
received  the  names  of  Kinsha-kiang,  or  "  River  of  the  Golden  Sands,"  and  Peshui- 
kiung,  or  "  White  Water."  The  title  of  Kinsha-kiang  has  also  been  conferred  on 
the  Yalung  ( Yarlung),  or  Niachu,  whicii  flows  from  the  slopes  of  the  liayan-kharu 
parallel  wiih  the  Murui-ussu  and  the  other  Tibetan  rivers  of  the  province  of  Kham. 
At  the  confluence  of  Iwth  the  Yalung,  nearly  as  large  and  more  rapid  than  the 
main  stream,  plunges  into  a  wild  rocky  gorge  which  has  never  yet  been  pierced  by 
a  ])ath. 

Below  the  Yalung  the  Einsha-kiang  receives  another  tributary  from  the  Bayan- 


200 


EAST  ASIA. 


m 


kliura,  or  at  loaHt  fntiii  iln  caHforn  oxtoiiHion,  (ho  Miii-Hlum.  Thin  in  tho  Wim,  or 
Mill  of  our  inapH,  \vlii<li  alno  flown  jmrallol  with  tho  oth«'r  watorcoiirscH  of  tho 
provinco  of  Kliiiitt.  ThorcM-an  Im<  no  doiiht  that  th(>  ^[iii  iiiUHt  l)o  rr^mU'd  as  an 
aftiiu'iit  of  the  KiuHlia-kian<;,  to  wliifh  it  in  groatly  iiift>rior  in  volumes  and  length, 
whiU*  itH  vidh'V  is  nuTcly  a  hitcral  trou<fli  in  tho  groat  doprosMJon  travorstnl  hy  tho 
wiitors  of  tho  Yang-tzo.  NovorlhoU'ss  most  f'hinoso  aiitlioritiosliavo  coiiNich'rod  tlio 
Min  ItH  tho  main  hninoh,  a  fact  whith  must  (h>uhtK>ss  bo  attrihutod  to  tho  common 
oulturo  provailin<^  in  tho  vaHoys  of  tho  Min  and  Lower  Yang-tzo.  Tho  grwit  river 
eomiii}^  fiou'  '^e  up|M'r  rogiouM  inliabitod  hy  wihl  and  liostih*  triln's  soemi'd  to  tlio 
(•ivilisod  Chini'so  to  In'Umg  to  another  worhl.  They  oonsidored,  in  fact,  that  tho 
Kiang,  or  "  llivor,"  pro-ominontly  s(»  oaUod,  sh«tuld  flow  altogether  within  tho  limitM 
of  tlioir  domain.  In  tho  Yukui.g,  tho  ohlo.st  ('hinoso  goognij)hionl  work,  tlio  Min 
IS  iiiioiidy  (h'sorihod  as  forming  tho  up}>or  course  of  iho  "(Jroat  Uivor,"  an<I  Marco 
I'olo,  wlio  lived  in  its  valley,  also  gives  it  tho  name  of  "  Kian."  On  the  old  maps 
all  tho  ui)iM'r  course  of  the  Kinsha-kiang  is  s\ippress«>d,  while  an  exaggerated 
imi)ortanco  is  ossigncKl  to  the  lloang-ho,  whoso  valley  had  Wen  the  first  to  bo 
8ettlc<l.  Sineo  Marco  Polo's  time  the  Min  has  shifted  its  In'd  in  tho  ploin  whore  is 
situalod  rhingtu-fu,  capital  of  Sochuen.  It  flowed  formerly  through  the  heart  of 
the  city  in  a  <loop  channel  half  a  mile  broad,  whereas  now  it  no  hmger  traverses  tho 
place,  and  ramitios  into  several  branches,  of  which  tho  one  nearest  to  tho  town  walls 
is  oidy  .'};{0  feet  wide.  This  change  in  its  course  has  been  largely  caused  by  the 
irrigation  uanals  constructed  in  tho  surrounding  plain,  which  is  one  of  the  most 
fertile  in  China. 

During  the  inundations  tho  Min  is  navigable  as  far  as  Chingtu,  but  at  other 
periods  the  boats  cannot  get  beyond  Sintsin-hien,  the  converging  point  of  all  the 
natural  and  artificial  channels  in  this  basin.  Here  begins,  at  a  distonco  of  2,000 
miles  from  tho  sea,  the  vast  and  unbroken  water  highwiiy  by  which  the  whole  of 
riiina  proper  is  intersected  from  east  to  west.  One-tenth  of  this  navigid)lc  artery  is 
formc<l  by  the  ^lin,  whereas  almve  the  confluence  tho  Kinsha-kiang  would  appear 
to  be  only  navigable  for  some  (50  miles  by  ordinary  craft.  At  the  same  time  the  falls 
spoken  of  by  the  boatmen  of  Pingshan  are  probably  mere  ropids  which  might 
easily  be  overcome,  and  tho  solitude  of  those  waters  should  jK'rhaps  l)e  attributed  to 
tho  terror  inspired  by  tho  surrounding  Miaotzc  wild  tril)os.  Hut  even  below  the 
junction  of  tho  Min  the  navigation  of  the  main  stream  is  not  everywhere  clear  of 
rapids  and  other  obstructions.  According  to  Itlakiston's  measurements  the  total 
fall  of  the  Yang-tze  below  I'ingshan  is  about  1,500  feet  in  a  distance  of  1,700  miles, 
or  little  more  than  an  average  of  10  inches  in  tlio  mile,  but  very  unevenly  distri- 
buted. Below  the  junction  the  river,  here  flowing  north-east,  follows  the  direc- 
tion of  the  rocky  ranges  which  fringe  both  its  banks,  but  which  at  intervals  present 
gaps,  through  which  the  stream  rushes  in  an  abruptly  winding  bod.  The  project- 
ing bluffs  are  here  crowne<l  with  strongholds  and  entrenched  camps,  >vhich  offer  a 
refuge  to  tho  peasantry  of  the  surrounding  districts  during  civil  Avar.  At  their 
foot  are  rich  deposits  of  coal,  carbonate  of  lime,  and  here  and  there  of  iron  ores, 
while  a  little  gold- washing  is  done  along  the  more  level  banks. 


tho  Wen,  or 
imrscs  of  tho 
"jfiinU'd  an  an 

0  and  lcn^;th, 
voi'Mcd  by  tlio 
onMidrrcd  tlic 

1  the  conuiiDii 
lie  j;rwi1  river 
«eenied  to  the 
fact,  that  tho 
ihiii  the  liniit8 
ivork,  tlie  Min 
r,"  and  Mareo 
I  tho  ohl  maps 
1  exapr^?oratc<l 
he  tirst  to  bo 
plain  where  i8 
'h  tho  heart  of 
r  t  raverNos  tho 
the  town  walls 

caused  by  tho 
10  of  the  most 

a,  but  at  other 
oint  of  all  the 
tanco  of  2,000 
h  tho  whole  of 
igable  artery  is 
;  would  appear 
lO  time  tho  falls 
s  which  might 
)C  attributed  to 
even  below  tho 
y  where  clear  of 
nionts  tho  total 

of  1,700  miles, 
mcvcnly  distri- 
lowa  the  direc- 
itcrvals  present 
Tlie  projoct- 
8,  which  offer  a 

war.     At  their 
jrc  of  iron  ores, 


TllM  MIDDLK  YANO-TZl-:  AND  IIA\-KIAN(J, 


TlIK    MlDIH.i:    VaXO-T/K    and    irAN-KI^NO. 


901 


In  all  this  region,  to  which  lUakisloii  has  given  tho  name  of  "Cross  Ranges," 
tho  old  banks  may  be  traced  at  u  considonibio  elevation  alnivc  (he  present  K  vol  of 
tho  highest  floiMJings.  It  is  evident  that  the  river  loniuily  flowed  al  a  much 
high-.T  olovution  than  at  present.  In  this  lionlior  region,  betwoon  the  provinces  of 
S.rhuon  and  llupoh,  the  •' Ta-kiang,"  or  "(iroat  River,"  presents  some  of  its 
gran<lost  and  most  varied  scenery,  llelow  the  Shipuohai,  or  "House  of  tho  I're- 
I'i.tus  Stone,"  a  Iluddhist  temple  romantically  perched  on  a  scpiaro  rocky  blulf,  tho 
stream  plunges  into  a  gorge  with  vertical  walls  over  (mO  feet  high.  At  s<.mo 
points  th(>  channel  is  scan-oly  470  feet  wide,  and.  as  most  of  those  deep  fissures  run 
east  and  west,  their  ch-pths  are  sehhan  reached  by  the  s(»lar  rays.  'J'lioir  ghMimy 
recesses  uro  overgrown  with  ferns  and  other  vegetable  growths  delighting  in  tho 
shade  and  moisture,  while  their  summits  are  ch)thed  with  forests  of  conifers. 
Sunken  ledges  fringe  tho  banks,  but  in  many  places  tho  channel  is  fully  100  feet 
d.op,  rising  during  the  August  freshets  from  00  to  70  feet  above  its  ordinary  level 
in  tho  narrow  ravines.  To  avoid  those  inundati(.ns  all  the  houses  havo  to  lio 
perched  on  the  crests  of  the  hoadhinds.  Ordinary  craft,  if  well  managed,  puss 
down  without  iiuich  risk  of  going  to  pieces  on  tho  sunken  shoals;  but  those  ascend- 
ing tho  stream  huvo  to  struggle  against  a  current,  in  some  places  running  over 
10  miles  an  hour.  Hero  a  regular  towing  system  has  been  organized,  and  at  tho 
uu)re  dangerous  jMiints  villages  have  sjjrung  up  peopled  mainly  by  skilled  boatmen 
engaged  in  this  work.  As  many  us  u  hundred  are  sometimes  attacluul  to  the 
bandnm  towing-rope  of  a  single  junk,  ami  uro  often  preceded  by  a  clown  or  hired 
bull'oon  leaping  and  bounding  along,  and  encouraging  them  with  his  merry  antics. 

lletween  Kweichew  and  Ichang  tho  series  of  fan,  or  chief  rapids,  have  a  t«»tul 
length  of  114  miles,  and  terminate  with  several  roniantic  gorges,  such  us  tlutso  of 
Lou-kun  and  Mi-tan.  Ik'yond  those  tho  hills  suddenly  fall  on  either  side,  tho 
stream  e.vpands  to  a  width  of  over  5,000  feet,  and  hero  porpoises  are  met  following 
in  tho  wake  of  the  junks.  For  at  this  distance  of  1,000  miles  from  the  coast 
niarino  influences  are  already  felt  in  a  river  to  which  the  natives  have  applied  tho 
sjiying,  «'  IJoundless  is  tho  ocean,  fathomless  tho  Kiang."  For  ordinary  craft  it 
may  truly  be  descrilxMl  as  fathomless,  being  scarcely  anywhere  less  than  20  foot 
dei«p  even  at  low  water.  But  as  wo  approacli  tho  sou  the  danger  of  inundations 
increases  with  tho  gradual  lowering  of  tlio  banks,  and  in  the  plains  the  stream  is 
enclosed  on  both  sides  by  regular  embimkments,  like  tlu)se  of  the  Hoang-ho.  The 
evil,  however,  is  hero  greatly  mitigated  by  tlie  extensive  lagoons,  and  oven  veritabh' 
lakes,  which  now  begin  to  make  their  appearance  on  both  sides.  Of  these  lakes 
the  largest  is  tho  Tung-ting,  which  lies  above  the  confluence  of  tho  Han.  With 
an  area  of  at  least  2,000  square  miles,  tho  Tung-ting  serves  as  a  reservoir  for  the 
overflow  of  a  basin  some  80,000  square  miles  in  extent,  comprising  nearly  all 
the  province  of  Hunan.  This  lake  changes  in  form  and  extent  according  to  tho 
volmne  of  water  discharged  into  it  by  the  Yuen,  Su,  Siaiig,  and  its  other  influents, 
and  according  to  the  level  tif  the  Yang-tze  itself,  from  which  there  is  at  tinus  a 
46 


'f 


•^ 


11 : 


II  ! 


202 


KAHT  ASIA. 


b;i<'k  How  tlirou^h  the  Tiiiiy:f iiijf-lio  i'liUHsury.  iMiriii;;  the  llnods  tlit«  rivriiiii 
jiopiilatioii  Inrsaki-  their  villiiffcs,  MCfkiiij;  a  temporary  rel'ii;^e  eillier  on  the  Kiir- 
rouiulinj;  hilU  or  on  the  ]M)ats  and  rafts.  From  tlie  Tnn^-liiij^  are  named  the  two 
adjacent  provinces  of  Flnpeli  and  llunan  ;  that  i^,  "  North  of  the  Luke  "  and  "  South 
(tf  the  liake"  respectively. 

Moth  in  :.izo,  commercial  anrl  historical  iinportnnco,  tlie  chief  afllnent  of  thn 
Ijowcr  Van>,'-t/e  is  nncpu-stionably  the  Man-kianj,',  wliich  presents  a  natnral  hij;h- 
way  of  trade  and  migration  between  the  two  ^'real  arteries  of  the  empire.  In  the 
Hun  basin  aro  also  comment  rated  all  the  elements  of  prosperity — a  temperati- ami 
hcallhy  climate,  fertile  soil,  abundant  wutcr  of  j^;oo(l  qnality,  an  endlessly  varied 
flora,  ^ypsnni,  marbles  and  other  bnildin;r  materials  from  tlu*  nei^hlxnirin^  hills  ; 
lastly,  rich  carboniferous  deposits.  The  Ilan  is  available  for  navigation  nearly 
tlirou^'hont  its  whole  <'ourse,  and  in  summer  niifi^ht  be  ascended  by  steamers  for  a 
distance  of  (lOU  miles.  Kven  above  llanchniifif-fu,  whcie  it  is  a  nieri!  torrent,  it 
iMM'omoH  navi>,nibl(»  for  boats  durin'j;  the  floods;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  its 
middle  c(Uirse  is  obstructed  by  rapids,  which  cause  frecpient  shipwrecks,  Lower 
down  the  channel  stands  at  a  higher  elevation  than  tlio  Nurroundint^'  plains,  and 
hero  the  villa^^es  are  often  bnilt  on  broad  terraces,  restinpp  a<j;ainst  the  end)ank- 
ments,  and  during  the  inundations  forming  artificial  islands  amid  the  snrroundin<:r 
watiMs.  The  whole  plain,  stretchinfj;  from  Lake  Tun;,flin<if  to  the  J  Ian  and 
Yanj?-tze  continence,  is  at  times  converted  into  a  vast  inland  sea,  ultlxm^h  in  its 
lower  conrso  the  bed  of  the  Han  it.self  is  narrower  than  hijfhor  up.  At  low  water 
in  winter  it  is  only  '.'()()  feet  broad  at  Hankow,  whereas  it  expands  in  its  middle 
course  to  2,000  feet,  and  in  sonje  pluccH  even  to  IJ  miles  from  bank  to  bunk. 

Lakk  Povaxo  and  the  Lowkh  Yaxo-tzk. 

Luke  I'oyanf^  resembles  the  Tunptinjj;  in  its  position  south  of  a  great  lieml  of 
the  Yung-tze,  its  vust  extent,  its  hydrogruphic  system,  and  its  importance  for  navi- 
gation. It  also  receives  u  large  influent,  the  Kia-kiang,  whoso  alluvial  delta  is 
seen  at  low  water  ])rojecting  far  into  the  lake.  Here  also  there  is  n  back  flow  from 
the  Yang-tze,  raising  the  level  some  -'{0  feet.  Lake  Poyung  is  studded  with  ishuuls, 
but  many  ])art8  of  the  surface,  some  1,800  square  miles  in  extent,  are  little  more 
than  marshy  forests  of  reeds.  In  the  north,  however,  it  is  very  deep,  and  here 
the  shores  are  fringed  with  wooded  hills,  headlands,  and  steep  bluffs  crowned  with 
the  towers  and  pagodas  of  numerous  towns  and  hamlets.  The  animation  of  th'^' 
picturesque  prospect  is  enhanced  by  the  numerous  flotillas,  rafts,  and  junks  nb  ii  g 
on  these  busy  waters.  Near  the  outlet  rises  the  "  Great  Rock  of  the  Orphan," 
confronting  the  smaller  but  more  elevated  "  Little  Rock  of  the  Orphan,"  which 
stands  on  the  Yang-tze  itself  over  against  the  confluence.  The  water-fowl  and  schools 
of  porpoises  which  penetrate  into  the  lake  give  it  the  appearance  of  a  marine  inlet, 
and  the  rest>mblance  is  often  heightened  by  the  fierce  storms  to  which  it  is  subject. 

lielow  Lake  Poyang  the  Great  River  trends  north-east  across  one  of  the  most 
pleasant  landscapes  in  China.     Here  the  current  flows  in  its  broad  bed  with  a 


s  the  riv«>riiin 
IT  (III  the  Mur- 
uiiiiu'd  tilt"  t\vi» 
I'"  iiiid  "South 

iilllin'iil  of  tho 
11  niitiinil  hiy;li- 
iii|iirt>.     Ill  tho 
,  tciiiporiiti!  and 
•iidh'ssly  viiricil 
hhourin^  hills  ; 
vijjiitioii  iK'iirly 
V  stt'iimtTH  lor  u 
iiuTt!  tornMit,  it 
»thor    himd,   its 
vrccks.      Lower 
liiiu:  pliiiiis,  mid 
st  till*  ciiibaiik- 
tho  Hurrouiiding 
tho    Hull   and 
,  altlum^jfli  in  its 
.     At  low  water 
ds  in  its  middle 
I  to  bunk. 


a  frreat  bend  of 
)rtunco  for  navi- 

alluvial  delta  is 
a.  back  flow  from 
led  with  islands, 
t,  are  little  more 
f  deep,  and  here 
ffs  crowned  with 
animation  of  tbo 
md  junks  nb  iis? 
of  the  Orphan," 
Orphan,"  which 
-fowd  and  schools 
)f  a  marine  inlet, 
lich  it  is  subject, 
one  of  the  most 
iroad  bed  with  a 


•«»w«»PWI»" 


:»ji&a'iAiiW8M»-^''aa'-jg-^-«»!^"^^  iiiWi>ag^4.'Jj>m'ai)iWKtf jwi  'jmhs^ .  .n ''  !i;<!i'  .sA^i>.i.'a.aiii».f'gf 


M 

\i 
ti 

E7 
o 

!5 

■< 

03 

a 

b 

O 

Ed 


^ 


N 

6 

SB 
< 

h 

o 


LAKE  POYAXO  AND  THE  LOWER  YAXO-TZE. 


208 


placid  \in!form  nintiou ;  tlic  monotony  of  its  grey  wutors  is  broken  horo  and  there 
by  It'tily  iwlt'ts ;  the  biunlets  alonfi;  the  banks  nestle  uniid  their  bamboo  tliickets 
and  clusters  of  trees;  the  nei<j[hbourhood  of  the  busy  marts  is  announced  by  the 
towers  and  pagodas  crowning  every  eminence;  tlie cultivated  plains  are  intersected 
on  both  sides  by  low  gnissy  ridges,  wliich  wind  away  till  lost  in  the  haze  of  the 
distant  horizon.  But  the  true  alluvial  plains  are  not  reached  till  we  get  beyond 
^I'anking,  where  the  Yang-tze  turns  eastwards  and  gradual!}'  exi)and8  into  a  broad 
estuary,  in  which  the  tides  ascend  for  a  distance  of  2lo  miles.  Here  the  channel 
in  some  places  exceeds  JJOO  feet  in  depth,  but  the  bed  contracts  as  it  approaches 
the  coast,  where  it  is  separated  by  extensive  sand-banks  from  the  sea.  At  the 
mouth  the  distance  from  headland  to  headland  is  about  00  miles ;  but  most  of  this 
space  is  occupied  by  islands  and  shoals,  where  the  deepest  channels  across  the  bar 
have  a  mean  depth  of  13  or  14  feet,  rising  at  high  water  to  24  feet  and  uj)wards. 
Vessels  drawing  16  or  18  feet  arc  thus  easily  able  to  pass  up,  the  chief  danger  to 
navigation  here  being  the  dense  fogs  which  settle  on  the  shallows,  and  which,  as 
elsewhere  in  the  Yellow  Sea,  are  due  to  the  sudden  change  of  temperature  pro- 
duced in  the  currents  surrounded  by  deeper  waters. 

The  Yang-tze  carries  in  solution  less  sedimentary  matter  than  the  Iloang-ho. 
According  to  the  observations  of  Guppy,  the  proportion  of  solids  in  the  lower 
reaches  is  -j-^^rs  in  weight,  and  -fjrrr  in  volume.  Yet  the  alluvium  at  the  mouth 
represents  a  solid  mass  of  nearly  210  cubic  feet  per  second.  Thus  the  yearly 
increase  of  fluvial  deposits  amounts  to  6,300  millions  of  cubic  feet,  a  quantity 
sufficient  to  spread  a  layer  of  mud  nearly  7  feet  thick  over  an  area  of  40  square 
miles.  Hence  the  position  of  the  navigable  channels  is  modified  from  year  to 
year ;  new  sand-banks  make  their  appearance,  and  the  islands  in  the  estuary  are 
constantly  increasing  in  size.  The  island  of  Tsungming,  or  Ivianshe,  running 
north-west  and  south-east,  immediately  north  of  the  "W'usung  roadstead,  is  said  to 
have  been  just  rising  above  the  surface  at  the  time  of  the  Mongol  rule.  Eaten 
away  by  erosion  on  the  side  facing  inland,  it  is  continually  increasing  seawards, 
and  is  thus  drifting,  so  to  say,  in  the  direction  from  west  to  cast.  Its  earliest 
settlers  were  exiles  banished  from  the  mainland  ;  but  these  were  soon  followed  by 
free  colonists,  who  gradually  changed  the  aspect  of  the  land  Avith  their  canals, 
embankments,  villages,  and  cultivated  fields.  Some  Japanese  pirates  also  gained  a 
footing  on  the  coast  facing  seawards,  where  their  descendants,  turning  to  the  arts 
of  peace,  have  become  intenningled  with  the  Chinese  peasantry.  At  present  about 
2,000,000  souls  are  crowded  together  in  an  area  of  scarcely  more  than  800  square 
miles,  which  is  thus  one  of  the  most  densely  peopled  us  well  as  one  of  the  richest 
spots  in  China.  During  the  first  half  of  the  present  century  the  colonists  of 
Tsungming  enjoyed  complete  exemption  from  imposts,  official  control,  and  all 
vexatious  intermeddling  on  the  part  of  the  mandarins.  The  consequence  was  that 
they  were  at  once  more  prosperous  and  more  civilised  than  their  kinsmen  on  the 
mainland.  At  present  these  islanders  take  successive  possession  of  all  the  new 
lands  formed  in  the  Yang-tze  estuary.  In  this  way  has  been  colonised  the  large 
island  of  Hitei-sha,  which  has  itself  been  formed  of  a  hundred  different  islets 


'S^lmmmm^-^ 


-r<..M)*,f-'J>ui*i^"V!ivn»t'-itlfn.!im>*' 


Vlt' 


204 


EAST  ASIA. 


connoctod  by  mud-banks  with  fho  northeru  lioiuUaiul  at.  the  mouth  of  the  estuary. 
In  this  part  of  the  province  of  Kiangsu  the  settlors  find  tliemselves  in  contact  with 
an  abiiost  savage  aboriginal  element,  to  which  they  present  u  marked  contrast  in 
their  gentle  disposition  and  superior  intelligence. 

xVlthough  inferior  in  importance  to  those  of  the  Iloang-ho,  yrvai  -hanges  have 
nevertheless  taken  place  in  the  course  of  the  Ijowcr  Yang-tze-kiang.  IJesides  its 
present  mouth,  it  had  formerly  two  others  farther  south.  Of  these  the  largest 
branch,  which  may  still  be  traced  throughout  most  of  its  windings,  ramified  from 
the  northern  channel,  ut  the  point  where  is  now  the  city  of  Wuhu,  above  Nanking. 
From  this  point  it  pursued  a  meandering  course  south-eastwards  to  the  llangchcw 


Fig.  91. — Old  Mouths  of  the  Yano-tze. 
Rcnle  1  :  4,600,000.    After  KdkiiiB  nnd  Dtxker. 


..,.«  Old  Tied*  of  the  Yong-tie-kiong. 


^^^«    HiUy  Lands. 


m. 


.  00  MilGB. 


estuary.  The  outlines  of  its  ancient  bed  are  still  preserved  by  a  string  of 
lakes  in  the  Shanghai  peninsula,  now  abandoned  by  the  Yangtze.  Thus 
the  Ta-hu,  the  largest  of  these  peninsular  lakes,  recalls  its  former  fluvial 
character  in  the  outlines  of  its  western  shores,  which  follow  the  right  bunk 
of  the  Yang-tzc.  The  Gulf  of  Ilangchew  itself  still  retains  the  aspect  of  a  river 
mouth,  although  the  process  of  alluvial  deposits  has  been  interrupted,  and  in  many 
places  even  reversed,  the  waves  washing  away  the  sand-banks  and  eating  into  the 
old  coast-line.  Tlie  whole  district,  which  formerly  comprised  the  Yang-tze  delta 
between  the  two  estuaries,  is  u  low-lying  ti-ut^t  resembling  ITolland  in  appearance, 
being  cut  up  in  every  direction  by  dykes  and  canals,  and  all  the  traffic  being 
ciiuducted  by  water.     North  of  the  Yang-tze  the  alluvial  plain,  which  stretches 


■(gMfli^FWWiMyHlMjiy  ^i>ii 


SECTITTEN  niOnLANDS 


206 


tho  estuary, 
contact  witli 
i  contrast  in 

:hiingc>H  have 
Besides  its 
3  the  largest 
aniitied  from 
:)ve  Nanking, 
lie  Ilangchcw 


\SL' 


y  a  string  of 
mgtze.  Thus 
former  fluvial 
;he  right  bank 
pect  of  a  river 
d,  and  in  many 
eating  into  the 
Yang-tze  delta 
in  appearance, 
ic  traffic  being 
ivhich  stretches 


northwards  to  the  old  bed  of  the  Iloang-ho,  presents  mucli  the  aamo  aspect,  and 
here  also  the  natural  and  artificial  channels  form  an  inextricable  labyrinth  of 
watercourses.  This  region  is  traversed  south  and  north  by  the  Grand  Canal,  a 
former  affluent  of  the  Yang-tze,  which  now  joins  the  Iloang-lio,  while  the  IToai,  fed 
by  the  torrents  from  the  extreme  spurs  of  the  Kuen-lun,  is  distribut(>d  over  tho 
plain  in  numerous  brunches,  which  converge  in  the  old  beds  of  the  Iloang-ho.     A 

Fig.  92.— Channels  and  Bkkakwatbks  bbtwken  the  Hiiano-ho  ani>  Yano-tze, 

A  (Voiding  to  Oie  MiBsionnrips     Scale  1  :  2,500,ty)0. 


:.0fG.  119 


.aOMUns. 


good  idea  of  the  appearance  of  this  watery  region  may  be  had  from  the  chart  of  the 
early  Roman  Catholic  missionaries,  since  rectified  by  the  Chinese  geographer, 
Li-fong-pao. 

Sechtten  Highlands. 

Between  the  outer  terraces  of  Tibet  and  the  shifting  shores  of  the  YoUow  Sea 
the  Yang-tze  basin  is  divided  by  the  varying  relief  of  tho  land  into  several  natural 
regions,  dilToring  one  from  the  other  in  their  climate,  products,  and  the  character 
of  their  inhabitants.     A  well-marked  region  is  that  of  the  West  Sechuen  highlands, 


j4j«MWH»«va'i*;.',-«iti»«Bv-'««Ma*«w*>^^ 


^.'i 


.-.' . 


20A 


KAST  ASIA. 


wlicro  flio  "liivrr  t»l'  (idhU'ii  Saiul  "  winds  its  wiiy  iiloii;"'  (locp  iiiirrow  "for^yrs  tliroufrh 
tlic  lands  dl'  tboTilu'tiins,  ol'  tlu"  Miintzc  and  Lolo.  I'lasi  Sichucn,  n^uin,  is  separated 
from  the  plains  ol'lliipeli  hy  the  "  Cross  Ranges  "  and  the  ravines  between  Kweiehew 

Fig.  Oa. — ClIANNEI.R    ANII    BlIKVKWATKIlS    HKTWKKV    TIIK    IloAXO-HO    ANI>    YaNO-TZR. 
ApTciriliiiif  til  l.i-foii!^  pno.     Sculc  1  :  v'.liTn,"  0. 


m  Mileii. 


and  Ichang,  while  the  Nganhwei  hills  mark  the  extreme  limits  of  the  uplands  and 
the  beginning  of  the  lowland  plains  more  recently  conquered  from  the  ocean. 

The  ranges  on  the  ]']ast  Tibetan  frontier  are  evidently  the  remains  of  a  plateau 
gradually  worn  by  the  action  of  ice  and  running  waters  into  parallel  ridges 
running  mainly  north  and  south.     ^.Ithough  cut  deeply  into  the  thickness  of  the 


SKCIIUEN  HIOHLANUS. 


207 


nf^os  throujjh 
1,  is  s(<|)iiriit('(l 
(11  Kwciclicw 


=5^ 


le  uplands  and 
lie  ocean. 
IS  of  a  plateau 
parallel  ridges 
ickness  of  the 


plateau,  the  very  river  heds  in  this  rejyion  Mtill  lie  at  elevations  of  from  S.OOO  to 
10,000  feet  iihove  sea-level.  Tlie  <j;reat  trade  route  lea{liii<>'  lioni  liiissa,  tliroiirrh 
Hataiijif  and  Tatsienlu,  to  West  China,  maintains  hetween  those  two  towns  an 
almost  uniform  elevation  of  11,000  feet,  and  three  passes  on  tliis  route  stand  at  a 
hei;,'ht  of  nearly  'JO.OOO  feet.  These  passes  are  much  dieadt>d  by  traveUers,  far 
more  on  uceount  of  the  rarefied  atmosphere  than  for  their  steej)  inelines,  severe  cold, 
and  fierce  gales. 

The  ranges  separating  the  Kinsha-kiang  from  the  Yalung,  and  the  latter  from 
the  Min,  far  to  the  south  of  the  Kuku-nor  and  IJayan-khara  plateaux,  also  present 
sunnnits  rising  uIhjvc  the  snow-line,  which  has  been  fixed  by  (Jill  at  frcmi  14,000  to 
1(),000  feet  in  these  regions  of  the  East  Tibetan  frontier.  Thus  the  Nenda,  or 
"  Sacred  Mountain,"  rising  to  the  east  of  the  Upi)er  Kinslia-kiang  valley,  under 
the  parallel  of  liatang,  is  no  less  than  :20,o00  feet  high,  and  sends  down  in  all 

Fig.  94. — Mol'NTAINS    IIKTWEKN    TaTSIENLU    AND   BaTANO. 

According  to  OUl. 


Limit  of  Forests. 
„  Tillnge. 
„       I'astures. 


Scale  of  Heights  decnplc  of  Distances, 


directions  vast  glaciers  from  its  bouijdiess  snow-fields.  With  its  spurs  it  covers  the 
length  of  a  whole  day's  march  during  which  the  blue  glint  of  the  ice  on  its  upper 
slopes  remains  constantly  in  view.  East  of  the  Nenda  rise  the  scarcely  less 
elevated  peaks  of  Surung,  which  probably  form  a  portion  of  the  same  system. 
East  of  the  Yalung  the  crests  of  another  range  running  parallel  with  the  Surung 
all  rise  above  the  snow-line,  and  one  of  them  towers  some  4,000  or  5,000  feet  above 
all  its  rivals.  This  is  the  Ja-ra,  or  "  King  of  Mountains,"  and  Gill  declares  that 
he  "  never  saw  one  that  better  deserved  the  name."  "  Never  before,"  he  adds, 
"  had  I  seen  such  a  magnificent  range  of  snowy  mountains  as  here  lay  stretched 
before  me,  and  it  was  with  difficulty  I  could  tear  myself  away  from  the  sight." 
The  range  culminating  with  the  Ja-ra  is  connected  northwards  with  the  highland 
region,  forming  a  continuation  of  the  Bayau-khara,  and  here  also  numerous  peaks 
exceed  Mont  Blanc  in  altitude.     Armand  David  even  thinks  that  amongst  them 


>1  ' 


■« 


r^lgiKfdMBKSj'M^iG^'dM 


■"rritMrnTiiiiiiliWimiliniiniiliiW <iWiiini[iliijl.lii!inj|iiiu)iUiui 


208 


EAST  ASIA. 


may  yet  be  found  summils  rivalling  those  of  the  Tlirnnlayus  thcmsolvps.  The  best 
known  at  present  are  the  Nj^onii-ishan,  useended  in  1871)  by  the  missionary  Riley ; 
the  Siwehuiff-shan,  or  "  Dnif^fon  of  tlie  Snows ;  "  the  neighbouring  "  White  Cloud," 
14,000  to  ir»,0()()  feet;  the  "Seven  Nuils,"  a  seven-peaked  pyramid,  18,000  to 
20,000  feet  (Gill);  farther  north  the  Shipangfung,  apparently  ulmut  the  siimo 
height,  with  a  side  pass  between  two  tributaries  of  the  Min,  1.'3,;jOO  feet. 

The  AVest  Sechucn  and  Tibcfo-Chineso  frontier  ranges  rceeivo  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  moisture  under  the  form  of  snow  and  rain.  There  being  no  higher 
elevations  between  them  and  the  Bay  of  liungal,  they  are  exposed  to  the  direct 
influence  of  the  moist  winds,  and  in  some  places,  such  as  Litang  and  Mupin,  there 
are  said  to  bo  daily  showers  throughout  the  summer.  Ilenco  the  vegetation 
is  marvellously  luxuriant,  especially  in  the  sheltered  valleys.  The  slopes  even  of 
the  higher  valleys  rising  above  the  zone  of  arlwrescent  vegetation  are  covered 
for  three  mouths  with  magnificent  pastures,  which  disappear  beneath  the  snow 


Fig.  96.— FiioM  TUB  Min  Valley  to  Tatwenlu. 
Aocoidinp  toOill. 


Feet. 
10,000  (2 
7,500  [V^ 

3,7bO 

n 


JfllUL^— „-- 


I  Feet 

•*i  M.OOO 

J     7,500 

1*    8,760 

0 


Limit  Of  Limit  of   Maize.   Oardens.     Tea.     Orange, 
Foieita.    Tillage. 

Scale  of  Heights  decnple  of  Diatanoes. 


MlllllJII  M..-H.. 

Vine.       Bioe. 


during  the  long  winters.  Lower  down  there  is  a  surprising  variety  of  forest  trees, 
some  of  which  acquire  proportions  elsewhere  unknown.  Conspicuous  amongst  them 
is  a  yew  rivalling  the  finest  European  firs  in  height.  The  rhododendrons  acquire 
the  dimensions  of  trees,  and  lovely  azaleas  grow  to  a  height  of  18  or  20  feet. 
Ferns,  shrubs,  and  even  trees  find  a  footing  on  the  almost  vertical  scarps,  clothing 
the  rocky  slopes  with  their  verdure  and  bloom.  On  emerging  from  a  mountain 
gorge  the  traveller  turns  and  looks  in  vain  for  the  tract  he  has  followed.  Nothing 
is  visible  except  a  tiingled  mass  of  flowering  lianes  and  bushy  foliage.  Every 
village  in  the  valleys  of  the  streams  flowing  to  the  Min  is  embowered  in  a  thicket 
of  fruit  trees,  walnuts,  peaches,  and  apricots,  and  clusters  of  bamboo  are  foimd 
struggling  up  to  an  elevation  of  5,000  feet.  The  vine  and  mulberry  flourish 
in  the  Batang  district  at  a  height  of  no  less  than  8,500  feet,  and  sericulture  might 
here  be  easily  introduced,  but  for  the  fact  that  the  devout  Tibetan  Buddhists 
would  regard  the  destruction  of  the  silkworm  as  a  mortal  sin. 


I^i 


mfff"^9f^m9if»m 


INIIAmTANTS  OP  8ECIIUEN.— THE  SI-FAN. 


209 


CR.  The  best 
ioniiry  Ililcy ; 
Vhitc  Cloud," 
1(1,  18,000  to 
out  the  sumc 

3Ct. 

0  a  sufficient 
ng  no  liigher 
to  the  direct 
Mupin,  there 
he  vegetation 
ilopes  even  of 
a  are  covered 
uth  the  snow 


Feet 

I'l.OOO 

7,500 

3,T6() 

0 


Tlie  wild  imiinuls  of  this  region,  mostly  of  tlio  same  species  as  those  of  Tibet, 
have  already  disappeared  from  the  greater  part  of  the  districts  colonised  by 
the  Cliinesc.  Hence,  in  order  to  study  its  rich  fauna,  Annand  David  took  uj)  his 
residence  in  the  Miaotze  principality  of  Mupin,  at  an  elevation  of  7,000  feet  above 
the  sea.  Like  the  Tibetan  phiteaux,  the  Sechuen  highlands  abound  in  large 
ruminants,  various  species  of  antelopes,  the  musk  deer  and  mountain  sheep,  some 
of  which  are  hunted  for  their  valuable  horns,  sold  for  their  weight  in  gold.  The 
wild  yak  roams  in  solitary  dignity  round  aljout  the  grazing  grounds  of  thousands 
of  the  domestic  species,  and  the  upland  forests  of  Sechuen  are  frequented  by  tlie 
takin  (Biidorcas  taxicolor),  a  variety  of  the  ox,  found  also  in  the  Eastern  Himalayas. 
The  white  bear  of  Khachi  is  also  met  in  the  Mupin  country,  and  probably  on  all 
the  intennediate  plateaux.  Many  even  of  the  tropical  animals  have  penetrated 
into  these  bleak  highlands,  amongst  them  a  flying  squirrel  and  two  species  of  a])e, 
one  of  which,  the  kintsin-hew  [Rhinopithecus  Roxellance),  is  almost  as  large  as 
the  apes  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago.  It  has  a  short  face  of  a  bluish-green 
colour,  an  upturned  nose,  and  a  cranium  attesting  a  remarkable  degree  of  intel- 
ligence. But  the  Mupin  uplands  are  chiefly  distinguished  by  the  si)lendour 
of  their  avifauna.  Hero  the  loveliest  pheasants,  besides  various  gallinaceac  noted 
for  their  brilliant  plumage,  are  found  associated  with  numerous  species  more  modestly 
adorned,  as  well  as  with  the  nightingale  and  other  singing  birds  of  the  European 
type.  Armand  David's  collection  alone  contains  thirty  new  species,  and  no  doubt 
many  more  remain  to  be  discovered.  In  summer  green  parrots,  probably  from 
South  Yunnan,  find  their  way  into  the  Upper  Kinsha-kiang  and  Yalung  valleys, 
so  that  at  altitudes  of  9,000  or  10,000  feet  we  still  fancy  ourselves  lost  amidst 
the  dense  woodlands  of  Indo-China. 


' 


of  forest  trees, 
amongst  them 
idrons  acquire 
18  or  20  feet, 
sarps,  clothing 
m  a  mountain 
red.  Nothing 
)liage.  Every 
3d  in  a  thicket 
iboo  are  found 
[berry  flourish 
iculturc  might 
itan  Buddhists 


Inhabitants  of  Sechuen. — The  Si-Fan. 

Most  of  the  Alpine  districts  enclosed  southwards  by  the  great  bend  of  the 
River  of  Golden  Sand  belong  ethnically  to  Tibet,  although  politically  separated 
from  that  region.  The  civilised  inhabitants  of  the  coimtry  are  of  Bod  stock,  like 
those  of  Lassa,  with  the  same  customs  and  the  same  social  institutions.  In  Tibetan 
Sechuen,  as  in  the  province  of  £ham,  the  rivers  are  crossed  by  suspension  bridges, 
or  in  movable  seats  slung  from  bank  to  bank  on  bamboo  ropes.  In  Chinese  Tibet 
the  shepherds  have  also  their  black  tents  woven  of  yak  hair,  while  the  permanent 
dwellings  are  rudely  built  of  undressed  stone,  pierced  with  narrow  openings, 
and  terminating  with  flat  roofs.  They  are  generally  perched  on  solitary  crags, 
where  they  have  the  appearance  of  ruined  strongholds.  The  contrast  is  very 
striking  between  the  Tibetan  and  Chinese  villages.  While  the  latter  are  generally 
grouped  in  compact  masses,  the  former  are  scattered  over  a  wide  area,  so  that  in 
districts  occupied  by  both  races  all  the  enclosed  towns  are  Chinese,  the  straggling 
suburbs  Tibetan.  Nevertheless  the  lamassaries,  where  hundreds  and  even  thou- 
sands live  together  in  a  single  community,  are  inhabited  exclusively  by  Tibetans, 
with  perhaps  a  few  half-caste  Chinese  forsaken  by  their  parents. 


M'*- 


SI 


210 


KAST  ASIA. 


The  Imnas  arc  tho  true  iniiHt(>rn  «)f  iho  laud.  Relatively  more  nutnornufl 
ev«>u  than  those  of  Tihet  itself,  tliey  own  fully  one-half  of  the  soil,  the  tinest  henln 
of  yaks  and  sheep,  and  multitudes  of  slaves  emphtyed  as  shepherds  or  hushandmen. 
Tho  praetice  of  usury  has  even  rendered  them  tho  real  proprietors  of  the  lands 
eidtivat(>d  by  the  laity.  Mend)ership  is  easily  aequired  in  Ihcso  relij»ious  com- 
munities of  Seehuen.  Tho  fulfilment  of  a  vow,  the  fear  of  vengeance,  tho  desire  to 
eseapo  tho  imposts,  any  pretext  will  serve  to  gain  admission  as  u  novice,  and 
thus  gradually  acquire  all  the  privileges  enjoyed  by  the  eoufrutornity. 

Hut  while  the  lamas  arc  thus  placed  alwvo  the  law  and  exempt  from  tuxes 
of  uU  sorts,  the  common  people  are  all  the  more  ruinously  oppressed,  and  the 
imposts,  distributed  over  a  continually  decreasing  nundn'r  of  families,  huAe  already 
become  almost  unbearable.  During  the  last  hundred  years  the  population  subject 
to  taxation  has  diminished  fully  to  one-half,  especially  through  migration 
to  Yunnan  ;  tho  country  is  covered  with  ruined  houses  and  hamlets,  certain 
districts  have  even  been  entirely  depopulated,  and  extensive  cultivated  tracts  have 
reverted  to  the  condition  of  forest  or  pasture  lands. 

The  still  lialf-savuge  Til>etan  tribes  of  the  Xorth  Sechuen  highlands  are 
commoidy  designatetl  collectively  by  tho  name  of  Si-Fan,  or  "  Western  Strangers." 
Clothed  in  skins  or  coarse  woollen  garments,  and  with  their  dishevelled  hjcks 
falling  in  disorder  over  their  shoulders,  the  Si-Fun  present  a  ferocious  appearance 
to  tho  cultured  Chinese  of  tho  plains.  Yet  they  are  far  less  formidable  than 
they  seem,  and  tho  stranger  seeking  hospitality  amongst  them  never  fails  to  meet 
with  a  friendly  welcome.  Lamaism  has  been  introduced  to  a  limited  extent  into 
their  social  system,  and  their  priests  possess  books  written  in  the  Tangut  character. 
Those  of  the  Upper  Iloang-ho,  like  many  other  wild  tribes  of  the  interior,  and  like 
numy  Chinese  themselves,  fancy  that  the  Europeans  can  penetrate  with  their 
glance  to  vast  depths  in  the  land  and  water.  TLcy  can  also  fly  over  the  hills,  and 
if  they  cross  tho  plains  on  foot  it  is  because  they  would  be  encumbered  in  their 
flight  by  the  pack  animals  which  they  cannot  dispense  with.  The  chief  of  Sining 
asked  Prjcvalsky's  interpreter  whether  it  was  true  that  his  master  was  able  to  see 
the  precious  stones  sparkling  250  feet  below  the  surface  of  tho  earth. 

The  Mantze,  Lolo,  and  Chinese  of  Sechtten. 

Northwards  the  Si-Fan  come  in  contact  with  the  Amdoans,  while  towards  the 
south  and  south-west  they  border  on  other  tribes  also  of  Tibetan  origin,  commonly 
known  as  Mantze,  or  "  Indomitable  Yermin."  But  the  tribes  which  understand  the 
meaning  of  this  word  reject  it  as  an  opprobrious  term,  and  claim  to  be  called  I-jen ; 
that  is,  "  Different  People,"  or  "  Strangers."  One  of  these  tribes,  the  Sumu,  or 
"White  Mantze,"  dwelling  on  the  banks  of  the  Luhoa-ho,  a  western  tributary  of 
the  Min,  numbers,  according  to  Gill,  as  many  as  3,500,000  souls,  living  on  agricul- 
ture and  stock-breeding.  But  however  this  be,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
Mantze  form  a  considerable  clement  in  the  population  of  West  China.  Politically 
distinct  from  the  surrounding  tribes,   the  Mantze  of  Sechuen  are  grouped  in 


THK  MANTZE.  LOLO,  AND  OHINKSK  OF  HKrilUKV. 


211 


i(»ro  nuinerouB 
;]i('  finest  liordn 
ir  liuslmiidnn'ii. 
s  of  Uu"  luiitla 
relij^ious  eoin- 
!c,  tlie  (k'Hire  to 
u  novice,   und 

ipt  from  taxes 
•essed,  und  the 
8,  littve  ulreudy 
pulution  subject 
(Ugh  migration 
amlets,  certain 
utcd  tracts  have 

highlands  are 
:crn  Strangers." 
ishcvelled  hicks 
iious  appearance 
forniiduble  than 
ver  fails  to  meet 
lited  extent  into 
mgut  character, 
nterior,  and  like 
rate  with  their 
er  the  hills,  and 
tnbered  in  their 
B  chief  of  Sining 
r  was  able  to  see 
,h. 


irhile  towards  the 
rt'igin,  commonly 
h  understand  the 
)  be  called  I-jen ; 
aes,  the  Sumu,  or 
tern  tributary  of 
iving  on  agricul- 
,o  doubt  that  the 
aina.  Politically 
are  grouped  in 


eighteen  petty  states,  in  whidi  th<'  uiilhtirily  nf  the  kinglet  is  absdliite.  He  raises 
a  tiix  on  the  cultivated  land  as  well  as  un  the  herds,  mid  every  I'limily  owes  hin> 
the  yearly  trihute  «f  Hi.\  months' manual  lalxmr  paid  l)y  one  of  its  nienilu  rs.  IIi> 
disposes  of  llie  land  at  his  pleasure,  transferring  it  from  one  to  another  according  to 
liiscaprice.  The  throne  of  tlie  White  Mautze,  the  most  powerful  of  all  lliesc  states, 
is  always  occui)ii'(l  by  a  (pu'cn,  in  grati-ful  memory  of  the  brilliant  deeds  performed 
by  an  ancestress  of  the  reigning  family. 

The  epithet  of  "Savage"  applied  to  the  Mant/e  is  not  justified,  for  they  care- 
fully till  the  land,  weave  textile  fabrics,  build  houses  and  towers  in  the  Tibetan 
style,  possess  Tilwtan  and  Chinese  writings,  and  support  schools  for  their  children. 
Ti»w.irds  the  west  Tibetan  influence  j)revails,  and  here  the  lanuis  are  fully  as 
powerful  as  amongst  the  Si-Fan.  In  the  oast  the  Chinese  are  in  the  ascendant, 
and  here  numy  of  the  Mantze  have  shaved  their  shock  heads  and  adoi)t(>d  the 
costume  of  the  lowlanders.  It  is  evident  that  the  Mantze  states  will  not  be  able 
long  to  resist  the  pressure  of  the  Chinese  colonists,  who  are  continually  encroaching 
on  their  domain.  These  colonists  seize  every  pretext  for  declaring  war  against  the 
"  Savages  "  and  taking  possession  of  their  lands.  Thus  the  ^lautzeare  undergoing 
the  fate  of  all  concpiered  races,  and  they  are  accused  of  conunitting  the  very  crimes 
of  which  they  are  the  victims. 

In  the  great  bend  formed  by  the  Kinsha-kiang  between  Sechucn  and  Yunnan 
dwell  other  tribes  south  of  the  Mantze,  und  like  them  threatened  by  the  Chinese 
settlers.  These  are  the  Lolo,  a  name  without  any  meaning  in  Chinese,  unless  it  be 
a  reduplicate  form  like  the  Greek  "  Uarbar,"  indicating  "  stammerers  "  unable  to 
express  themselves  in  a  civilised  language.  In  any  case,  under  this  designation  of 
Lolo,  the  Chinese  confound  a  large  number  of  tribes  in  Sechuen  und  Yunnan,  all 
differing  essentially  from  the  Si-Fan,  Mantze,  und  others  of  Tibetun  stock.  Edkins 
regards  them  as  members  of  the  Burmese  family,  and  their  writing  system  woidd 
seem  to  resemble  the  Pali  current  in  Ava  and  Pegu.  By  Thorel  they  are  divided 
into  "  White  "  liolo,  akin  to  the  Laos  people,  and  "  Bluck  "  Lolo,  whom  he  regards 
as  the  aboriginal  element.  They  are  generally  taller  and  slimmer  than  the 
Chinese ;  their  features  are  also  sharper  and  more  pleasant,  at  least  according  to 
the  European  taste.  But  in  some  valleys  goitre  and  cretinism  are  very  prevalent 
affections.  In  the  city  of  Ningyuen  many  of  the  Lolo  have  adopted  Chinese  ways, 
and  some  have  even  passed  the  examinations  for  the  "  civil  service."  But  in  the 
surrounding  hills  the  tribes  have  preserved  their  independence,  and  are  accordingly 
avoided  by  the  Chinese  traders  and  travellers,  who  pass  north  and  south  of  their 
country.  After  centuries  of  warfare  the  colonists  have  failed  to  subdue  these 
barbarians,  whose  chiefs  have  in  very  few  instances  consented  to  recognise  the 
Imperial  Government.  Even  the  military  stations  established  at  intervals  along  the 
frontier  do  not  prevent  the  Lolo  from  frequently  swooping  down  from  their  eyries, 
and  carrying  off  the  salt  and  other  supplies  of  which  they  stand  in  need.  In  the 
northern  districts  of  Sechuen  a  half-caste  race  of  Chinese,  Si- Fan,  and  Mantze  has 
been  developed  ;  but  in  the  south  no  crossings  have  taken  place  between  the  rude 
Lolo  and  their  cultured  neighbours. 


-1  : 


^^<«W«^J«VNKnKWUinib^M««W-<^£»tl>^^^ 


218 


KAST  ASIA. 


Th(!  |Mirliiiii  i>[  SnliiKMi  (M'ciipicd  (  xcliiHivi'ly  hy  tlio  niincsc  is  limifcd  I)y  flir 
b1ii|)cs  of  (li(>  iiioimtiiiiis  lisiiifj;  wt'stdl'  the  Miii  valley.  Kiist  of  tliisiiiiliirnl  froiilicr 
the  iil»orijifiiiiil  clfiiiciits  linvf  coniplclcly  vaniMJicd  from  the  laud  of  llu-  "  Four 
Jlivfis,"  which  WUK  exclusively  held  by  them  some  tweiity-fwo  eeuturies  ajifo,  hefore 
the  adveut  of  the  first Chiiu'se  iMnui>j:rauts.  Siuce  theu  fre(|iii'nt  uinssacres  have 
taken  place,  iiud  in  the  tinn"  <»f  KuMai  Khan  most  of  the  settlers  were  extirpated. 
At  the  ^^anchu  cou(piest  (he  country  was  aj^ain  depojndated,  after  wliich  fresli 
Btreanis  of  ini<;ration  flowed  in,  esjM'cially  from  the  provinces  of  Sheusi  and  Ilupeh. 
Hence  tlic  population  of  the  "  Kour  llivers  "  is  of  very  mixo<l  origin  ;  but  from  tlio 
mixture  has  sprunji^  a  race  endowed  with  special  quulitiea.  Of  all  the  Chim<se  tho 
people  of  Sechuen  are  perhaps  (lui  most  courteous,  kindly,  and  refined,  and  at  the 
Hiime  time  tho  most  upright  and  intelligent.  But  although  extremely  industrious, 
they  have  little  tasto  for  trade,  and  tho  dealers  in  their  country  come  either  from 
Shensi  or  Kiangsi,  the  money-lenders  and  usurers  from  Shansi.  The  ])eojde  of 
Sechuen  also  supply  fewer  of  the  lettered  and  military  classes  tliau  perhaps  any 
other  jjrovince.  Their  practical  ccmimon  Honso  repels  them  from  the  official  course 
of  studies,  in  which  so  little  true  knowledge  is  entangled  in  an  ondl'  web  of 
meaningless  formulas.  Hut  as  husbandmen  and  artisans  they  have  placed  their 
country  at  the  head  of  all  tlio  provinces  of  tho  empire.  Having  taken  little  part 
in  the  Taipiiig  war,  they  have  had  all  the  moro  leisure  for  developing  their  inex- 
haustil)le  industrial  resources.  Their  salines,  petroleum  wells,  iron  and  coal  mines 
are  extensively  worked,  and  tho  h)wland  districts  aro  admirably  irrigated,  producing 
v(>getables  in  greater  variety  and  abundance  than  in  any  other  part.  For  soricidturo 
Secdiuen  is  also  unrivalled  oven  in  China,  and  so  common  is  silk  as  an  article  of 
dr(>ss  that  on  gala-days  more  than  half  of  the  inhabitants  of  tho  capital  are  clothe<l 
in  this  costly  fabric.  Not  only  tho  plains  and  imdulating  hills,  but  even  the  stoop 
8lo])es  witli  a  gradient  of  00°,  are  brought  under  cultivation.  Thanks  to  tho 
"foreign  root" — that  is,  the  potato — introduced  by  tho  missionaries  apparently 
in  tho  last  century,  tillage  has  been  developed  to  an  altitude  of  8,000  and 
oven  10,000  foot,  and  tho  cultivated  lands  have  already  been  continued  across 
tho  intervening  ranges  into  tho  neighbouring  provinces.  Tho  superfluous 
population  of  Sechuen  is  overflowing  in  the  same  direction,  and  thus  returning 
to  the  surrounding  lands  more  colonists  than  it  formerly  received  from  them. 

Tho  soap- tree,  tho  tallow- tree  ( 5/ /V/jHiym  schifera),  and  many  similar  useful  plants 
are  here  widely  cultivated,  and  one  of  the  most  remarkable  industries  is  that  of  the 
pei-la,  or  vegetable  wax,  which  has  to  be  carried  on  by  a  division  of  labour  between 
the  inhabitants  of  two  distant  districts.  The  insect  ( Coccus  prhi^  which  secretes 
tho  wax  is  born  and  reared  on  tho  leaves  of  tho  Li(jiintn(m  lucidum  growing  in  the 
Kionchang  country  near  Ningyucn.  At  the  end  of  April  the  eggs  are  carefully 
gathered  and  brought  to  Kiating-fu,  fourteen  days  distant,  and  at  the  other  side  of 
a  mountain  range.  Tho  difficult  journey  has  to  be  made  by  night  to  protect  the 
eggs  from  the  heat.  But  after  the  journey  begins  the  most  delicate  operation ;  for 
tho  eggs  have  now  to  bo  detached  from  tho  branch  on  which  they  have  been 
conveyed^  and  transferred  to  the  Fraxinxis  Siiiemis,  a  tree  of  quite  a  different  species, 


— -  ■  ■  l»ll  il^l 


itiiitcd  l)y  tlir 
ilurtil  trimlicr 
of  Iho  "  Four 
ii'M  iijfd,  iH'fiirr 
iiissacros  liiivc 
ro  cxtirpattKl. 
r  wliicli  I'rt'sli 
si  uiid  Iliiju'h. 

hut  from  the 
w  ChinoHo  tho 
10(1,  imd  at  tli(> 
ly  industriouH, 
no  t'ithor  from 
The  iK-opUi  of 
I  jjorhaps  any 

ofRciiil  courso 
■11(11  weh  of 
0  placed  tlu>ir 
ken  Httlc  part 
iifj;  their  iiiex- 
aiid  coal  mii)C8 
itod,  producing 
For  sericulture 
18  an  article  of 
ital  are  clothed 
even  the  stcop 
rhanks  to  tho 
rica  apparently 
of  8,000  and 
mtinucd  across 
he  superfluous 
thus  returning 
am  them, 
ar  useful  plants 
38  is  that  of  the 
labour  between 
which  secretes 
growing  in  the 
'8  are  carefully 
he  other  side  of 
t  to  protect  the 
!  operation ;  for 
hey  have  been 
ift'ercnt  species, 


TIIK  MANTZK,   l.ol.o.  AND  flllNKSK  OF  SKCIIUKN. 

Pin    im.— TlIK  HiCMlKM   IIlUIILANUt, 


21.') 


r 


'*Mn 


on  which  the  insects  are  hatched,  aud  secrete  the  highly  prized  white  vegetable 
wax. 


•214  KA8T  ASIA. 

TiiK  I'uoMNrr,  (»i    Kwi:t(irKW. 

Enut  'I  ''■•  ^Tm'  uiul  itH  tnlmtnrii'M,  tho  "  Four  Uivcrf*,"  •  ri'to  tho  red  wmdHtono 
ntid  ciirlK)  .  roii.-t  niiiy:t>M,  all  ruiiriiiijf  Honth-wcsf  niid  lutrfli-i-ust,  llir  drlritiis  Iroiu 
wliirli  hiis  been  strcv  i  (tvcr  tlic  xiirlncc,  iiiipiirfiii^?  to  it  tlic  ruddy  tinj^c  wliicii  Iiiih 
HU^f^,'('st('d  t(i  UiclitliolVii  its  iiiiiiu'  of  the  "  Ucd  nasiii."  Tlii'sc  niiiffcs  arc  coii- 
ni'ctcd  witli  tho  crcHts  Ncparatiiii^  tlir  Miii  aliliiciits  t'roin  tlir  valley  ol'  t)ii<  llan- 
kiaii^f,  and  which,  according;  to  Aniiaiid  David,  attain  an  ch'vation  of  l(),(M)0  feet 
Hoiith  <d'  llaMcliiin)f-fii.  Thin  watiT-partiiij^,  known  aH  tho  Lan-Hhaii,  ialln  j^^radnally 
castwardH  as  it  approaches  the  Vann[-tze,  disappcarinji;  at  last  in  tho  lueustrino 
re;,non,  which  rec(>ives  tlie  overflow  from  tlie  Yan<;-tze  and  the  Ilan. 

South  of  tile  (ifcat  River  the  province  (d"  l\^v•ei(•]lew  presents  in  itH  ffoncral 
relief  a  form  anuloH^oiis  to  that  of  Sechnen.  Thus  towards  the  west  it  is  com- 
manded hy  u  hi;?hland  rej^ion,  or  rather  a  broken  |)Iateau,  above  which  Hho  iho 
snow-olad  peaks  of  tho  lioau^-shan,  or  "Cold  Mountains."  Southwards  it  is  sepa- 
rated by  bonh'r  ran>>:es  from  the  Yunnan  tableland,  while  tho  chain  known  to 
Europeans  as  the  Nan-liny;  (Nan-shan),  or  "Southern  Ilan<?e,"  forms  the  water- 
jcirtin;;  between  the  Yan<j;-t/e  and  Si-kian^  basins.  In  the  interior  of  Kwcichowr 
tlie  parallel  rid;;es,  running  in  the  sanu'  din-ction  as  those  of  the  Red  Hasiii  in 
Sechuen,  have  a  lower  mean  elevation,  while  tho  waters  of  tho  Wu  and  other 
streams,  having?  a  less  rapid  incline,  are  hero  and  there  collected  in  swampy  tracts, 
ronderintj  the  country  very  insalubrious.  Marsh  fevers  and  civil  strife  have  been 
the  chief  causes  (d'  the  ba<'kwaril  state  of  Kweichew  as  compared  with  most  other 
provinces  of  the  empire.  In  the  southern  districts  war,  or  rather  "man  huntinj;;," 
is  the  normal  state  of  the  relations  between  the  Chinese  and  tho  aljorigines. 

THK   MlAOTZE. 

The  Miaotzo — that  is,  accordinj?  to  Morrison  and  Lockhart,  tho  "  men  sprung 
from  the  soil " — formerly  occupied  the  lowland  rejrions,  especially  about  the  shores 
of  Lakes  Tunf>;tinfj  and  Poyanj^.  (Jradually  driven  by  the  Chinese  intruders  back 
to  tho  hills,  these  Nan-man,  or  "  Southern  liarbarians,"  as  they  were  formerly 
called,  have  settled  mostly  in  the  Nanling  and  surrounding  valleys.  Hero  they 
have  been  broken  up  by  the  intervening  plains  into  numerous  tribes,  which  have 
in  the  course  of  ages  become  differentiated  to  such  an  extent  that  it  becomes  diffi- 
cult to  recognise  their  common  parentage.  The  Shu-king  of  Confucius  divides 
tho  iMiao  info  throe  main  groups — the  White,  Blue,  and  Red.  Certain  tribes 
known  by  these  names  are  still  found  in  the  South  Kweichew  highlands.  But 
such  epithets,  derived  from  tho  colour  of  the  dress,  are  probably  no  longer  applied 
to  the  same  tribes  as  those  mentioned  by  Confucius.  To  the  now  scattered  nation 
of  the  Miaotzo  also  belong  the  Chung  Miao,  Ngnchung  Miao,  Kilao,  Kitao,  Tuman 
of  Kweichew,  Tung  of  Kwangsi,  and  the  "  eighty-two "  tril)os  described  in  a 
Chinese  work  translated  by  liridgman.  Some  of  thorn  take  the  name  of  the  "  Six 
•  These  are  Iho  Jlin-kiiing,  the  To-kiarg,  tho  He-ehui  (BiHckWutcr),  and  Pei-shui  (White  WatPr). 


TffF.  MFAOT/i;. 


•21  n 


!•'  red  sniidsfoiio 
III'  tIrtriliiH  I'loin 
tiii)^(<  whirl)  liiiM 
riiiijft'N  an>  coii- 
It'V  <tl'  iIh-  lliui- 
III  nl'  1 0,001)  U'vi 
I,  lulls  ^rr!i(lii;illy 
till!  lucuHtriuu 

t.M  ill  its  ffcnrrul 
'  west   it   is  cniii- 

0  which  rise  tho 
wanls  it  is  scpii- 
clmiii  known  to 
oriiiH  the  watcr- 
ior  of  Kwi'icliow 
ho  U*'(l   liasin  in 

\Vu  and  otlior 

li  Mwaiiij)y  tracts, 

strifo  have  hccn 

1  wifli  most  other 
"  man  hunting," 
)orij^incs. 


Iio  "  mon  sprung 

about  the  whoros 

10  intruders  back 

y  wore  formerly 

eys.     Hero  thoy 

■ihes,  which  liavc 

it  becomes  diffi- 

'onfucius  divides 

Certain  tribes 

higlilands.     But 

lo  longer  applied 

scattered  nation 

lo,  Ivitao,  Tuman 

i  described  in  a 

amc  of  tho  "  Six 

lui  (While  WatPr). 


iriiiidrcd  Fiiiiiilies,"  pcrliiips  to  indicate  their  present  diM|)ers('d  conditinti.  Several 
ot  th«  subject  tribes  have  b<-comc  gradiiiilly  as>«iiiii!utcd  to  the  coiii|iicriiig  race,  iiikI 
some  Miao  scholars  have  already  pas>4('d  the  university  cxiimiiiiitioiis  and  been 
raised  to  the  rank  of  mandarins.  On  the  other  hand,  many  hall-caste  Cliiiiise 
live  in  tlie  sava^rc  state,  while  Mie  still  iiidepeiiilclit  Miao  Seng  have  taken  reliige 
ill  the  mountain  fastncss(>s.  Mere  they  have  biiill  llieir  t'ortilicd  villages  on  tli(> 
liill-tops;  but,  with  tho  exception  of  one  or  two  marauding  tribes,  tli(>y  remain 
mostly  on  the  defensive.  They  cultivate  maize,  and  even  a  little  rice  in  the  more 
sheltered  districts.  They  also  rui-te  cattle,  and  are  skilful  hunters,  excbaiigiiig  tho 
skins,  hartshorn,  musk,  and  other  produce  of  the  chas<'  for  the  supplies  liroiight  by 
the  hawkers  and  pedlars  from  the  surroiiiiding  plains.  Ileing  of  a  haughty  tem- 
perament and  intolerant  of  injustieo,  the  Miao  are  unable  to  (<ndure  the  oppression 
of  tho  nmndarins,  and  uro  eonseipiently  in  a  chronic  ntato  of  revolt.  Itiit  their 
highland  recesses  iiro  everywhere  surrounded  by  Chinese  settlements ;  the  area  of 
their  domain  is  being  continually  encroached  upon,  and  whole  tribes  have  nlready 
been  exlerminated.  During  th"  late  Taiping  and  I'anthay  insurrections  tho 
Chinese  forces  destroyed  several  of  their  villages,  and  many  of  their  chiefs  were 
sent  to  Peking,  where  thoy  wero  bidieaded  after  undergoing  frightful  tortures. 

N«)t  only  uro  tho  ]Miaotzo  thus  cruelly  treated,  but  they  are  also  accused  of 
every  crime,  and  scarcely  i-egarded  as  human  beings  worthy  of  the  least  considera- 
tion. The  Yao  of  the  Fiipo  district,  south  of  the  Xanling  range,  are  credited  by 
their  neighlMuirs  with  short  tails  like  monkeys,  and  there  can  be  no  (h»ul)t  that 
Home  of  tho  tribes  have  lost  their  former  culture  and  relapsed  into  barbarism  under 
tho  treatment  to  which  they  luivo  boon  subjected.  In  cirtain  places  they  dwell  in 
oaves  or  huts  made  of  branches,  or  else  in  the  fissures  of  atvvp  rocks  approached  by 
bunilioo  huhlors.  Yet  tho  Chinoso  annuls,  and  oven  modern  accounts,  have  spoken 
of  tho  Miuotzo  OS  possessing  a  knowledge  of  writing,  and  composing  works  in  their 
language  written  on  wooden  tablets  or  on  palin-leaves.  They  are  also  skilful 
weavers,  their  women  manufacturing  fine  silken,  linen,  cotton,  and  woollen 
materials  in  groat  demand  amongst  tho  Canton  dealers.  They  are  good  musicians, 
playing  on  a  kind  of  flute  more  ogroeablo  than  that  of  tho  Chinese.  Some  of  tho 
national  dances,  accompanied  by  drum  and  guitar,  have  a  religious  character,  while 
others  are  highly  expressive  of  sad  or  joyous  emotions.  But  their  great  vice  is 
drunkenness,  which  incroasos  tho  contempt  in  which  thoy  are  held  by  tho  people 
of  the  plains. 

It  is  to  bo  feared  that  the  survivors  of  this  ancient  race  will  have  disappeared 
before  their  true  affinities  have  been  determined.  Thoy  are  regarded  as  of  Tibetan 
stock  by  most  Chinoso  writers,  who  include  the  Miaotzo  amongst  the  Pa-Fun,  or 
"  Eight  Strangers,"  of  whom  the  Si-Fan  are  only  a  branch.  Yet  their  language 
would  seem  to  affiliate  them  to  the  Siamese  family,  in  common  with  thel'ai,  Papeh, 
and  other  peoples  of  South  Y'unnan.  In  general  of  smaller  stature  than  the  Chinese, 
they  have  more  regular  features,  and  their  eyes  are  round  and  straight  like  those  of 
Europeans,  Both  sexes  bind  up  their  flowing  hair  like  a  chignon  at  the  back  of  the 
bead,  while  the  women  of  some  tribes  gather  it  round  a  flat  board,  which  serves  to 


waxt'Wwii'* 


i.ir'iiwi.W*«<itfl  Mi'iwiiiw 


wiiiiiaiA^riiliw'hiiwiwaiilui^ 


„.:.V 


ITTW 


ill 


'Hi 


216 


EAST  ASIA. 


shelter  thcin  both  fr(mi  sun  and  rain.  All  wear  linen  or  woollen  blouacs  and  straw 
sandals,  and  the  men  often  envelop  their  heads  in  turbans  of  sonic  gay  colour. 
Tliere  is  no  organized  g()vernnient,  but  disputes,  if  not  amicably  arranged,  are  usually 
referred  to  the  arbitration  of  the  elders,  after  which  there  is  a  final  appeal  to  bruto 

Fig.  97. — Races  of  gouTH-WE8T  China. 
Scale  1  :  10,000,000. 


Wi|i|ili|i|i|i|i|i|i|ili|i|i|i|i|(li:i!ilil'li!'i'ili|ilili|i|i 


52* 


100 


Eof  G 


t— - 


Chinese 


Li»u  iiiid  Lolo  CLuIze). 


Miaotzc.  Yoo,  Kilao. 
nnil  Tiimon. 


Si  Fan  anil 
Tibetans 


in 


Mantze. 


[iili 


MoM)  (Ciyiliiied  Lisu).       Tape  and  Feyi,  Am,  Miiihmi,  Kbamti. 
^— ^-^_— li^  ISOMUes. 


force.  Family  feuds  are  often  thus  pei-petuated  to  the  ninth  generation,  and  the  vic- 
tims are  sometimes  said  to  be  devourwl  by  the  rival  faction.  Their  Buddhist  cult  is 
associated  with  the  worship  of  demons  and  ancestry.  In  some  tril)es  the  remains  of 
the  deud  are  removed  from  the  coilin  every  two  or  three  years,  and  carefully  wutihed, 


HUNAN,  KIANQSr,  AND  CIIEKIANO. 


217 


D8  and  straw 

jray  colour. 

I,  are  usually 

peal  to  brute 


oi.  KhamU. 

I,  and  the  vic- 
iuddbist  cult  is 

the  remains  of 
lei'ully  wutihed. 


the  public  health  dt  ponding,  as  they  suppose,  on  the  clean  condition  of  the  bones. 
Amongst  others,  deceased  friends  arc  mourned  for,  not  at  the  time  of  death,  but  with 
the  return  of  spring,  when  all  nature  is  renewed.  If  the  departed  do  not  then 
return  it  is  clear  that  they  have  forsaken  their  people  for  oA'er.  The  curious  custom 
of  the  "  eouvade  "  is  said  to  prevail  in  one  of  the  Miaotze  tribes.  After  childbirth, 
as  soon  as  the  mother  is  strong  enough  to  leave  her  couch,  the  husband  takes  her 
place  and  receives  the  congratulations  of  their  friends. 

IIUNAN,    KlANGSI,    AND   ChEKIANG. 

The  highlands  of  iluuan,  Kiangsi,  and  Chckiang  have  as  yet  been  explored  only 
at  a  few  points.  On  most  European  maps  of  China  wiiuling  ranges  are  traced 
between  the  river  basins  on  the  lines  of  the  old  Jesuits'  charts,  while  the  native  maps 
show  mountains  scattered  at  haphazard  in  all  directions.  Into  this  chaos  some  order 
has  at  lust  been  introduced  by  l*umpelly  and  Richthofen,  who  have  shown  that  in 
an  area  of  320,000  square  miles  the  south-eastern  region  of  China  is  covered  with 
heights  which  are  neither  anywhere  blended  in  one  continuous  plateau,  nor 
conmiandcd  by  any  central  range  of  exceptional  magnitude.  Probably  no  other 
region  of  equal  extent  displays  a  similar  labyrinth  of  mountains  and  hills  varying 
so  little  in  outline  and  elevation.  Here  open  plains  are  rare,  short  and  moderately 
elevated  ridges  occurring  almost  everywhere,  with  narrow  intervening  valleys 
connected  at  sharp  angles  with  each  other.  Most  of  the  eminences  have  a  mean 
height  of  from  1,500  to  2,500  feet  above  the  river  beds,  and  even  in  the  chief 
ranges  no  crests  attain  an  altitude  of  6,500  feet  except  perhaps  in  Fokien. 

All  these  low  chains  run  mainly  south-west  and  north-east,  like  the  Cross  Ridges 
of  the  Upper  Yang-tze.  Hence  throughout  the  greater  part  of  their  course  the 
southern  affluents  of  the  Blue  River  flow  north-eastwards  to  its  right  bank.  From 
the  Min  confluence  to  the  Yellow  Sea  the  main  stream  itself  develops  a  succession 
of  three  windings,  in  each  of  which  the  western  segment  follows  the  same  direction 
parallel  with  the  general  axis  of  the  land.  Lastlj',  this  is  the  line  also  traced  by 
the  indented  seaboard  of  the  provinces  of  Kwangtung  and  Fokien. 

The  main  axis,  to  which  Richthofen  has  given  the  name  of  Nan-.ihan,  or 
"Southern  Mountains,"  begins  about  the  sources  of  the  Siang,  the  chief  influent  of 
Lake  Tungting.  Beyond  the  gorges  pierced  by  the  Kia-kiang  it  develops  into  the 
massive  Wukung-shan,  forming  towards  the  north-east  the  water-parting  between 
the  Yang-tze  basin  and  the  streams  of  Fokien  flowing  to  the  coast.  To  this  main 
axis  belong  the  Ningpo  hills,  which  are  continued  seawai-ds  by  the  Chusan 
Archipelago.  A  submarine  prolongation  of  the  Nan-shan  is  even  supposed  to  run 
between  the  Yellow  Sea  and  the  Tung-hui,  or  Eastern  Sea,  reappearing  in  the  volcanic 
masses  of  the  large  island  in  the  Japanese  group.  On  either  side  of  the  broad  marine 
strait  the  hills  present  the  same  outlines  and  formations,  being  uniformly  conqjosed 
of  sandstones,  schists,  and  limestones,  probably  of  the  Silurian  period,  with  porphyry 
and  granite  cropping  out  at  intervals. 

The  water-parting  between   the  Yang-tze  and  Si-kiang  basins   traverses  the 
4T 


'M 


^ 


.4 


.ji;iMit'''Ti1iii'Ki'-Vii^iiiii>yi'i'V^"i'ii''*^ 


liiii'tntlill'liliaitiMMtl— ■»»«■ 


\m 


'  r 


EAST  ASIA. 


province  of  Kianp;si,  fur  to  the  south  of  the  mountains  forming  the  main  axis  of  the 
Nan-shaii.  To  this  water-parting  have  been  given  the  names  of  Nan-ling,  Mei-ling, 
Tuyu-ling,  from  the  various  /iiif/,  or  passes,  leading  from  the  northern  to  the  southern 
basin.  Of  all  the  Chinese  mountain.':  the  Mei-ling  has  been  most f repiently  visited, 
for  this  range  is  crossed  by  the  main  route  connecting  the  port  of  Canton  with  the 
central  regions  of  the  empire.  According  to  the  local  saying,  the  Mei-ling  is  the 
"  gullet "  between  North  and  South  China.  All  the  goods  brought  by  the  river  craft 
to  either  foot  of  the  hills  are  conveyed  by  porters  over  the  pass,  and  us  many  as 
fifty  thousand  hands  are  said  to  be  constantly  engaged  at  this  difficult  point  of  the 
route.  At  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  century,  when  the  trade  with  the  Eastern 
Archipelago  had  been  greatly  developed  by  the  enterprising  Arab  merchants,  this 
highway  was  constructed,  or  more  probably  repaired,  by  the  Emperor  Changkuling. 
Ritter  estimated  the  height  of  the  Mei-ling  at  8,000  feet,  but  modern  exploration 
has  shown  that  this  estimate  is  much  too  high.  Still  the  passes  in  this  region  are 
everywhere  so  steep  and  rugged  that  all  goods  are  carried  across  the  hills  by  porters, 
pack  animals  being  employed  only  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  large  towns. 

The  parting-line  between  the  peoples  and  languages  of  the  north  and  south  does 
not  follow  the  water-parting  between  the  two  basins.  It  passes  much  farther  north, 
here  following  the  normal  axis  of  the  Nan-shan  range,  which  is  entirely  comprised 
within  the  limits  of  the  Yang-tze  basin.  Thus  the  traveller  ascending  the  Kia-kiang 
River  through  the  jirovince  of  Kiangsi  passes  from  the  domain  of  the  Mandarin 
dialect  to  that  of  the  southern  languages  as  soon  as  he  has  entered  the  defiles  above 
Kingan.  Hence,  notwithstanding  its  low  elevation,  the  main  axis  has  played  an 
important  part  in  the  distribution  of  the  populations  in  this  part  of  China.  The 
division  of  the  land  into  innumerable  valleys  has  also  had  the  effect  of  developing 
a  multitude  of  isolated  clans  largely  independent  of  each  other.  Except  along  the 
main  commercial  highways  the  inhabitants  of  the  secluded  Nan-shan  valleys  know 
nothing  of  the  outer  world,  and  most  of  them  suppose  that  beyond  their  narrow 
domain  the  rest  of  the  earth  is  occupied  by  savages,  or  is  a  prey  to  wild  beasts. 

The  vegetation  of  Hunan  and  Kiangsi  is  naturally  of  a  more  tropical  character 
than  that  of  the  Upper  Yang-tze  provinces.  The  aspect  of  the  plants  betrays  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  torrid  zone,  while  even  such  trees  as  the  oak,  chestnut,  and 
willow  are  of  different  species  from  those  of  North  China  and  Mongolia.  On  the 
upland  slopes  the  magnificent  golden  pine  {^Ahies  Kwmpferi)  is  distinguished  by  its 
great  size  from  the  other  evergreens ;  lower  down  one  of  the  most  common  trees  is 
a  much  smaller  pine  with  extremely  narrow  leaves.  At  the  foot  of  the  hills  the 
camphor-tree  is  cultivated  round  about  the  villages  jointly  with  the  Elwncocca  and 
varnish  plant  (^R/ms  vcrniciferny  A  great  part  of  the  country  has  been  completely 
cleared  of  its  timber,  and  in  many  towns  the  only  available  fuel  is  straw,  dried  herbs, 
or  brushwood  from  the  neighbouring  hills.  The  woods  are  the  property  of  the 
Emperor,  my  the  natives,  and  they  accordingly  take  all  the  wood  they  require  for 
their  houses  and  boats.  But  the  hills  are  still  clothed  with  a  magnificent  vegetation 
of  shrubs  and  plants  of  small  size.  The  Chusan  Islands  especially  are  transformed 
to  a  land  of  enchantment  by  the  spring  and  summer  flowers,    [n  no  other  temperate 


*"«i.!i*l!i|5: 


"T^af? 


,!«g»jiiii^!ij»  jii*wpi_W'f  ".^■■IT 


INHABITANTS  OF  THE  LOWER  YANG-TZE  BASIN. 


219 


lain  axis  of  tbe 
-ling,  Mei-ling, 
to  the  southern 
4uently  visited, 
vunton  with  the 
Mei-liug  is  the 
y  the  river  craft 
and  as  many  as 
ult  point  of  the 
ith  the  Eastern 
merchants,  this 
)r  Changkuling. 
lern  exploration 
1  this  region  are 
!  hills  by  porters, 
^e  towns, 
h  and  south  does 
ch  farther  north, 
itirely  comprised 
ig  the  Kia-kiang 
)f  the  Mandarin 
the  defiles  above 
is  has  played  an 
;  of  China.     The 
!ct  of  developing 
Except  along  the 
ban  valleys  know 
and  their  narrow 
»  wild  beasts, 
tropical  character 
slants  betrays  the 
lak,  chestnut,  and 
;ongolia.     On  the 
stinguished  by  its 
t  common  trees  is 
)t  of  the  hills  the 
:he  Ehncocca  and 
8  been  completely 
straw,  dried  herbs, 
s  property  of  the 
d  they  require  for 
nificent  vegetation 
[y  are  transformed 
no  other  temperate 


region,  except  perhaps  in  Japan,  is  there  found  such  a  surprising  variety  of 
plants  remarkable  at  once  for  their  exquisite  foliage,  brilliant  blossom,  and  sweet 
perfume. 

On  the  other  hand,  all  the  large  wild  animals  have  disappeared  with  the  forests 
wliich  sheltered  them.  The  wild  boar  alone  has  again  increased  in  number  bince  the 
country  has  been  wasted  oy  the  Taiping  rebels  and  the  Imperial  troops.  In  some 
reedy  islets  of  the  Yang-tze  a  small  species  of  deer  (U//c/ro/jotes)  is  met  bearing  a 
remarkable  resemblance  to  the  musk  deer,  although  separated  from  that  animal  by 
vast  intervening  spaces,  and  found  nowhere  else  in  China.  The  only  domestic 
mammals  raised  in  the  country  are  the  ox,  buffalo,  and  pig.  The  heron  is  held  in 
great  veneration  by  the  peasantry,  and  large  communities  of  these  birds  are  often 
seen,  especially  in  the  thickets  surrounding  the  pagodas. 

Inhabitants  of  the  Lower  Yang-tze  Basin. 

The  Nan-shan  is  a  highly  favoured  agricultural  region.  From  the  Lower 
Yang-tze  provinces  China  draws  most  of  its  exports,  and  the  chief  tea  plantations 
are  found  in  the  eastern  districts  of  this  basin.  The  tract  stretching  for  some  300 
miles  from  the  banks  of  the  Chang  to  the  alluvial  lands  about  the  Yang-tze  estuary, 
and  including  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Fokien  highlands,  is  pre-eminently  the  home 
of  the  tea  plant.  It  is  generally  cultivated  on  the  slopes  with  a  southern  aspect, 
not  in  continuous  plantations,  but  either  in  small  plots,  or  else  in  the  hedges  between 
the  fields,  and  on  the  embankments  between  the  rice  grounds.  The  Yang-tze-kiang 
varieties  are  used  especially  in  the  preparation  of  the  green  teas.  Sericulture  is 
also  widely  developed  in  the  Nan-shan  and  Lower  Yang-tze  regions,  which  take  the 
first,  or  almost  the  first,  rank  not  only  for  tea  and  silk,  but  also  for  rice  and  other 
cereals,  as  well  as  sugar,  tobacco,  hemp,  oleaginous  plants,  and  fruits  of  all  kinds. 
The  sweet  potato  ia  cultivated  to  the  very  top  of  the  hills,  and  in  the  Nan-shan 
country  cotton  alone  is  not  produced  in  sufiicient  quantity  for  the  local  demand. 
But  the  deficiency  both  in  the  raw  material  and  in  woven  goods  is  amply  supplied 
from  the  provinces  of  Chekiang,  Nganhwei,  and  Hupeh. 

The  industrious  character  of  the  people  is  revealed  in  the  allies  they  have 
procured  for  themselves  in  the  animal  kingdom.  Like  the  English  in  mediseval 
times,  they  have  domesticated  the  cormorant,  turning  to  account  its  skill  at 
fishing.  Being  furnished  with  an  iron  collar,  to  prevent  them  from  swallowing 
the  prey,  these  birds  are  trained  to  dart  from  the  junks  to  the  bottom  of  the  river, 
returning  each  time  with  a  fish  in  their  bill.  After  the  day's  labour  they  roost  in 
regular  rows  along  both  sides  of  the  boat,  thus  maintaining  its  equilibrium. 
Elsewhere  otters  are  employed  in  the  same  way,  and  piscicidture,  a  recent  inven- 
tion in  Europe,  has  been  practised  for  centuries  in  China.  Dealers  in  the  fry 
traverse  every  part  of  Kiangsi,  supplying  the  tanks,  where  the  fish  are  reared  and 
rapidly  fattened  for  the  market,  Some  of  the  processes  of  this  remarkable  industry 
are  still  unknown  in  the  West. 

Such  pursuits  could  only  have  arisen  in  the  midst  of  teeming  populations,  and 


I 


1 : 


K4**8j^; 


■■"' "■*"'-■■'•■"'■■"' '''■"■■'^'"--•■'■'~"~""'"*"-?""-T-'"Yr1f'lTtilTiriMiaMiri'i»Mi> 


220 


EAST  ASIA. 


towards  tho  mifldlo  of  the  present  century  the  provinces  of  Kianpsu,  Ngiihhwoi, 
and  Chekianp^  were  found  to  bo  the  most  dcnisely  peopled  lands  in  the  whole 
world.  Accordinjj  to  the  returns  for  1842  Chekiang  hud  a  population  of  no  less 
than  20,000,000,  or  upwards  of  5G0  to  the  square  mile.  But  after  the  late 
massacres,  followed  by  famine  and  pestilence,  the  survivors  were  estimated  by 
Richthofen  at  no  more  than  5,500,000.  Yet  even  this  would  bo  a  higher  proportion 
than  that  of  France,  and  the  country  is  now  being  ropeoplod  with  surprising 
rapidity.  The  wasted  plains  of  Chekiang  have  been  occupied  by  iiumigrants  from 
the  provinces  of  Tlonan,  Ilunan,  Kweichew,  Sechuen,  and  especially  Ilupeh,  and 
the  new  settlers,  speaking  various  dialects  of  the  Mandarin  language,  do  not 
always  understand  each  other.  But  harmony  is  being  gradually  established,  and 
the  common  speech  resulting  from  these  diverse  elements  resembles  the  Mandarin 
standard  far  more  than  did  the  old  local  variety.  Thus  it  is  that  the  mixtures 
following  every  great  convulsion  contribute  more  and  more  to  the  remarkable 
national  unity  presented  by  the  inhabitants  of  China.  The  only  formality  required 
of  the  new  settlers  on  abandoned  lands  is  the  payment  of  a  nominal  sum  to  the 
piiiifi  Jen,  or  nearest  representative  of  the  former  possessors.  After  two  years  the 
soil  becomes  their  absolute  property. 


^i 


Topography. 

Since  the  recent  troubles  the  number  and  size  of  the  towns  in  the  Yang-tae 
basin  have  been  much  reduced.  Yet  several  still  remain  which  rank  amongst  the 
largest  cities  in  the  world ;  but  these  are  naturally  found  only  in  the  fertile 
regions  below  the  Upper  Kinsha-kiang. 

In  the  part  of  Sechuen  commonly  included  in  East  Tibet  the  chief  place  is 
Batang,  which  was  completely  ruined  by  a  series  of  earthquakes  in  1871.  It  now 
consists  of  a  few  hundred  new  dwellings  standing  in  a  fcitile  plain,  watered  by  an 
eastern  affluent  of  the  Kinsha-kiang,  and  by  copious  hot  springs.  Nearly  halt  of 
the  people  are  lamas,  living  in  a  sumptuous  monastery  with  gilded  roof,  and  the 
place  has  no  importance  except  as  a  station  on  :'ie  great  highway  between  Central 
China  and  Lassa.  Here  the  traders  from  the  East  exchange  their  brick  tea  and 
manufactured  wares  for  the  musk,  borax,  peltries,  and  gold-dust  of  the  native 
Tibetans.  These  are  under  their  own  magistrates,  and  controlled  by  a  Chinese 
garrison,  while  the  surrounding  hills  are  occupied  by  the  completely  independent 
Zendi  tribes.  Litang,  another  mart  on  the  route  between  Tibet  and  Chingtu-fu,  is 
one  of  the  most  wretched  places  in  the  world,  lying  in  a  depression  of  the  Kichu 
basin  over  13,000  feet  above  the  sea  at  the  limit  of  the  vegetable  zone.  In  this 
cradle  of  'he  Tibetan  nionarcihy  nothing  grows  except  a  few  dwarf  cabbages  and 
turnips,  yet  here  reside  some  3,500  lamas  in  a  rich  monastery  all  covered  with 
gold-leaf.  Tatsienlii  (Tachindo)  lies  some  5,000  feet  lower  down,  in  a  pleasant 
valley  watered  by  a  tributary  of  the  ]llin.  Here  is  the  custom-home  on  the 
Tibetan  frontier,  besides  a  Chinese  garrison  and  several  Buddhist  or  Mohammedan 
traders  from  Shansi.     Yet  the  nominal  ruler  of  the  country  is  a  i^kutze  king, 


ii«l;!j 


iHitiM^ii.ii'Mi.ii 


wwi^^iWWjMffwwy^^y 


gsu,  Ngiihhwci, 
s  in  the  whole 
iiition  of  no  less 
;  after  the  lato 
•c  estimutcd  by 
igher  proportion 
with  surprising 
nmiigrunts  from 
ally  Ilupeh,  and 
nguage,  do  not 

established,  and 
es  the  Mandarin 
iiat  the  mixtures 

the  remarkable 
rmality  required 
ininal  sum  to  the 
ter  two  years  the 


in  the  Yang-tae 
mk  amongst  the 
y  in   the  fertile 

le  chief  place  is 
n  1871.     It  now 
in,  watered  by  an 
Nearly  halt  of 
led  roof,  and  the 
'  between  Central 
eir  brick  tea  and 
ist  of   the  native 
led  by  a  Chinese 
etely  independent 
nd  Chingtu-fu,  is 
ion  of  the  Kichu 
ble  zone.     lu  this 
arf  cabbages  and 
r  all  covered  with 
\vn,  in  a  pleasant 
:om-ho'i-ie  on  the 
t  or  iVtoliammedan 
8  a  Ikutze  king, 


■•s 


^imm* 


Jiilu  till         'iilJ  itii'Liuii»  hull  iii»>iflMii|iiii'wi'iii*ii*iri 


■n>iia.m  ■.■iwiMliiwii.WfiMiw>jiai»m*f''ll»:ui<i"'y>»i"i  ui(iiw«>iiii>iiUw*vl 


imw 


4! 


"■  '  ■? 


m 


CUINKSE  MINERS-UPPEK  YANGTZE  UIUIILANDS. 


TOPOaRAniY. 


221 


■:y.J 


whose  territory  strctclios  south wuhIh  to  the  Lolo  dotniiin.  Chinese  women  arc  not 
ullowed  to  cross  this  state  to  enter  Tihet,  hut  they  lire  luunorous  in  Tafsienlu,  wlicre 
the  Tihetan  eUinient  is  mainly  represented  hy  half-castes.  Tatsienlu  is  the  present 
centre  of  the  Roman  Catholic  missions  for  Tihet. 

T?i'low  Tatsienlu,  the  Tatu-ho  River,  after  cmergin}^  from  a  formidahle  gorj^o 
with  sheer  walls  050  feet  high,  reaches  the  walls  of  Lntiiui-choo,  the  first  city 
lying  completely  hoyond  the  Tihetan  and  JIantzo  lands.  Beyond  this  point  it  is 
joined  by  several  tributaries,  the  united  stream  forming  the  Tung-ho,  the  chief 
affluent  of  the  Min,  and  even  exceeding  it  in  volume.  The  ^lin  is  navigable  by 
boats  at  all  seasons  as  far  as  Kiatiny-fu,  at  the  confluence  of  both  rivers.  This 
place  is  one  of  the  chief  marts  of  Sechuen,  whence  the  pei-la,  or  valuable  vegetable 

Fig.  98.— Chinotu-fu  Basin. 
Scale  1  :  l.BOO.noo. 


.—  30  Miles. 


wax,  is  forwarded  to  all  parts  of  China.  It  also  receives  by  water  the  raw  silk  of 
Yachetc-fu,  lying  to  the  north-west  on  the  route  between  Tibet  and  Chingtu-fu. 
Here  is  prepared  moat  of  the  brick  tea  intended  for  the  Tibetan  market.  In  the 
neighbourhood  is  cultivated  a  species  of  the  plant  who^e  coarser  leaves  are  used  in 
this  traffic.  Yachew  is  the  chief  stronghold  and  largest  military  depot  on  the 
frontier.  In  18G0  it  held  out  successfully  against  the  Taiping  rebels,  without  the 
aid  of  the  imperial  troops. 

Chinglu-fH,  capital  of  Sechuen,  still  remains  what  it  was  in  Marco  Polo's  time, 
a  "rich  and  noble  city,"  although  since  then  more  than  once  pliuulerod  and  even 
destroyed.     Nearlj'  tlic  whole  population,  said  to  have  exec  '  million,  was 

exterminated  by  Kublai  Khan.     The  present  city  is  of  recc  the  Imperial 

Palace,  probably  its  oldest  building,  dating  only  from  the  foiuiLcuiu  century.    The 


^t^Si  ■»■  a^i-j*rf«wj  T.a^  tU*i^ 


ilKiilf:^»'U-'^-  .'W:"-Jtf..-*VSl*, 


i'*iriffl 


222 


EAST  ASIA. 


walls  and  most  of  fhe  houses  wore  rebuilt  towards  the  end  of  the  last  century,  after 
the  place  hud  been  wasted  by  a  great  file.  Few  towns  cover  a  lurj^er  urea,  vast 
suburbs  stretchinf?  far  beyond  the  enclosure,  which  is  itself  12  miles  in  circuit. 
Like  most  provincial  capitals,  it  consists  of  a  Chinese  and  Munchu  quarter,  of  which 
the  former  is  by  far  the  largest  and  wealthiest.  Chinptu  is  the  "  Paris  of  riiina," 
the  finest  and  most  elegant  city  in  the  empire,  with  broad,  straight,  and  regular 
streets,  lined  by  handsome  wooden  houses  with  gracefully  curve<l  fa\'adc8.  The  red 
8and.stono  arches  erected  at  several  points  are  also  covered  with  fine  sculptures  in 
relief,  representing  fabulous  animals  or  scenes  of  social  life.  The  natives  have  also 
the  reputation  of  being  the  most  highly  cultured  and  the  greatest  lovers  of  the 
arts  and  sciences  in  China.  The  surrounding  plain,  one  of  the  best-cultivated 
tracts  in  the  world,  is  well  watered  by  countless  irrigating  rills  from  the  Min  and 
its  tributaries.  This  district  contains  as  many  as  eighteen  other  cities  with  the 
rank  of  chew  or  hten,  besides  several  other  unwallod  towns  and  villages  with  more 
inhabitants  than  many  commercial  marts.  A  population  of  perhaps  4,000,000  is 
crowded  together  in  this  basin,  within  an  area  of  less  than  2,500  square  miles. 
The  capital  is  at  once  a  great  agricultural  and  industrial  centre,  with  thousands  of 
hands  engaged  in  weaving,  dyeing,  and  fancy  work.  Some  36  miles  to  the  south- 
west stands  Kiunychew,  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains  skirting  the  plains,  where  is 
maimfactured  the  best  paper  in  China.  In  the  Upper  Min  valley  lies  Sioig/xm-ting, 
near  the  Kansu  frontier,  which  has  a  vast  Mohammedan  population,  notwithstand- 
ing its  elevation  of  nearly  10,000  feet  above  the  sea. 

The  road  leading  from  Chingtu  across  several  ranges  north-eastwards  to  Shensi, 
and  known  as  the  Kinniu-tao,  or  "  Route  of  the  Golden  Ox,"  is  said  to  have  been 
traced  some  twenty-throe  centuries  ago,  in  order  to  connect  the  two  kingdoms  of 
Tsin  and  Shu — that  is,  of  North  China  and  Scchuen — which  were  not  yet  grouped  in 
one  empire.  The  highway  from  Chingtu-fu  to  the  basin  of  the  Yellow  River 
remained  unfinished  for  six  hundred  years,  when  the  road  from  Ilanchung  over  the 
Ttiing-ling  to  Tingan  was  opened  by  the  Sechuen  Emperor  Liupi,  whom  legendary 
history  has  transformed  to  a  sort  of  Chinese  Hercules. 

The  Kinshu-kiang  regions  cannot  be  compared  with  the  Min  basin  for  the 
importance  of  their  urban  populations.  Yet  even  in  this  part  of  Sechuen  there  is 
at  least  one  large  city  never  yet  visited  by  any  European,  except  possibly  by  Marco 
Polo.  This  is  Ningyuen,  the  chief  place  in  the  flourishing  valley  of  the  Kienchang, 
which  joins  the  Yalung  near  the  confluence  of  this  river  with  the  Kinsha-kiang. 
The  Chinese  speak  of  this  place  and  of  the  surrounding  district  as  an  earthly 
paradise,  presenting  u  marvellous  contrast  to  the  rugged  mountains  enclosing  it  on 
all  sides. 

Pingnhan  marks  the  extreme  point  reached  by  Blakiston  during  his  exploration 
of  the  Yang-tze.  But  a  more  important  place  is  Siir/inc  (Sui-fu),  at  the  junction  of 
the  Min  and  Kinsha-kiang.  This  is  the  entrepot  for  all  the  produce  of  Yunnan 
exported  to  the  interior  of  China,  and  here  are  manufactured  mats  noted  for  their 
strength  and  pliancy.  The  coal  mines  above  and  below  Suchew  yield  the  best  coal 
iu  the  whole  Yang-tze  basin.     Farther  down  Lucheir,  at  the  confluence  of  the 


■Hpiuiiii  ■  —  .  , 


TOrOGBAl'UY. 


223 


century,  after 
ri'v  urea,  vast 
ilcs  in  circuit, 
rtor,  of  which 
•is  of  China," 
[,  and  regular 
(Ics.  The  red 
sculptures  in 
ives  have  also 

lovers  of  the 
)cst-cultivated 
n  the  Min  and 
cities  with  the 
iges  with  more 
18  4,000,000  is 

square  miles. 

thousands  of 
s  to  the  south- 
ilains,  where  is 

Sungpan-tiiiff, 
,  notwithstand- 

'ards  to  Shensi, 
i  to  have  been 
ro  kingdoms  of 
yet  grouped  in 
!  Yellow  River 
chung  over  the 
hom  legendary 

basin  for  the 
echuen  there  is 
3sibly  by  Marco 
the  Kienchang, 
!  Kinsha-kiang. 
;  as  an  earthly 

enclosing  it  on 

■  his  exploration 
;  the  junction  of 
luce  of  Yunnan 
3  noted  for  their 
eld  the  best  coal 
influence  of  the 


Fusung,  is  a  depot  for  the  salt  from  the  fimious  suHnos  of  Tzulin-chiiifi,  some  00 
miles  farther  norfh-eiist.  This  remarkable  salt  dintriet,  recently  visited  by  (Jill, 
comprises  a  tract  over  (5  miles  broad,  everywhere  pierced  by  i)its  hundreds  of  yards 
doi'p.  Gill  saw  one  which  had  already  been  sunk  to  a  depth  of  iJ.ITO  feet  thiough 
sandstone  and  argillaceous  strata.  The  work,  which  advanced  at  the  rate  of  about 
2  feet  daily,  had  been  in  progress  for  thirteen  years,  although  frequently  internq)ted 
by  the  breaking  of  the  boring  nutchines.  Other  wells  have  already  been  carried  to 
a  depth  of  040  yards,  and  Gill  mentions  a  brine-pit  "  two  thousand  and  some 

Fig.  99.— The  Thino-lino  and  SiNnAS. 
Aooording  to  Kluproth.    Soale  1  :  1,700,000. 


80  Hilet. 


hundreds  of  feet  in  depth,  and  about  3  inches,  or  perhaps  a  little  more,  in  diameter 
at  the  top." 

Most  of  the  bores  tap  the  brine  at  depths  of  from  600  to  1,000  feet,  beyond 
which  they  reach  the  petroleum  reservoirs.  Inflammable  gases  escape  from  these 
with  great  violence,  whence  the  term  "  fire  well  "  commonly  applied  to  these  pits. 
In  1862,  when  the  country  was  invaded  by  the  rebels,  one  of  the  pits  took  fire,  and 
burnt  for  a  long  time,  illuming  the  whole  country  like  a  lighthouse.  According 
to  Gill,  the  district  is  pierced  by  at  least  1,200  wells,  yielding  from  80,000  to 
120,000  tons  of  salt  yearly.  Most  of  the  mines  belong  to  wealthy  corporations, 
but  the  bulk  of  the  people  are  extremely  poor.  Few  places  present  a  more  wretched 
appearance  than  Tzuliu-ching,  whose  industry  enriches  the  capitalists  of  Chung- 
cheng.  Recently  some  of  the  master  miners,  associated  with  a  company  of 
European  traders,  attempted  to  introduce  English  pumping  engines  to  economize 


wti-rt**'! .1  i^^-Z.i^'2i  <*Mt- '^^■■s^ 


..«.^ 


"-atAta;t:u<fr' 


222 


EAST  ASIA. 


walls  and  most  of  the  houses  wore  robtiilt  towards  tho  end  of  the  last  century,  after 
the  place  hud  been  wasted  by  a  fi^roat  fire.  Few  towns  cover  a  lurp;er  area,  vaxt 
suburbs  stretchin<ir  far  beyond  tho  enclosure,  which  is  itself  12  miles  in  circuit. 
Like  most  provincial  capitals,  it  consists  of  a  Chinese  and  Manchu  quarter,  of  which 
the  former  is  by  far  the  largest  and  wealthiest.  Chinptu  is  the  "  Paris  of  China," 
the  finest  and  most  elegant  city  in  tho  empire,  with  broad,  straight,  and  regular 
streets,  lined  by  handsome  wooden  houses  with  gracefully  carvc<l  facades.  The  red 
sandstone  arches  erected  at  several  points  are  also  covered  with  fine  sculptures  in 
relief,  representing  fabulous  animals  or  scenes  of  social  life.  Tho  natives  have  also 
the  re2)utation  of  being  tho  most  highly  cultured  and  tho  greatest  lovers  of  tho 
arts  and  sciences  in  China.  Tho  surrounding  plain,  one  of  tho  best-cultivated 
tracts  in  the  world,  is  well  watered  by  countless  irrigating  rills  from  the  Min  and 
its  tributaries.  This  district  contains  as  many  as  eighteen  other  cities  with  the 
rank  of  c/iew  or  fiien,  besides  several  other  unwalled  towns  and  villages  with  more 
inhabitants  than  many  commercial  marts.  A  population  of  perhaps  4,000,000  is 
crowded  together  in  this  basin,  within  an  area  of  less  than  2,-500  square  miles. 
The  capital  is  at  once  a  great  agricultural  and  industrial  centre,  with  thousands  of 
hands  engaged  in  weaving,  dyeing,  and  fancy  work.  Some  36  miles  to  the  south- 
west stands  Kiumjrhew,  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains  skirting  the  plains,  where  is 
manufactured  the  best  paper  in  China.  In  tho  Upper  Min  valley  lies  Sungpan-ting, 
near  the  Kansu  frontier,  which  has  a  vaet  Mohammedan  population,  notwithstand- 
ing its  elevation  of  nearly  10,000  feet  above  the  sea. 

The  road  leading  from  Chingtu  across  several  ranges  north-eastwards  to  Shensi, 
and  known  as  the  Kinniu-tao,  or  "  Route  of  tho  Golden  Ox,"  is  said  to  have  been 
traced  some  twenty-throe  centuries  ago,  in  order  to  connect  tho  two  kingdoms  of 
Tsin  and  Shu — that  is,  of  North  China  and  Scchuen — which  were  not  yet  grouped  in 
one  empire.  The  highway  from  Chingtu-fu  to  the  basin  of  the  Yellow  River 
remained  unfinished  for  six  hundred  years,  when  the  road  from  Hanchung  over  the 
Tiling-ling  to  Tingan  was  opened  by  the  Sechuen  Emperor  Liupi,  whom  legendary 
history  has  transformed  to  a  sort  of  Chinese  Hercules. 

The  Kinshu-kiang  regions  cannot  be  compared  with  the  Min  basin  for  the 
importance  of  their  urban  populations.  Yet  even  in  this  part  of  Sechuen  there  is 
at  least  one  large  city  never  yet  visited  by  any  European,  except  possibly  by  Marco 
Polo.  This  is  Ningyueii,  the  chief  place  in  the  flourishing  valley  of  the  Kienchang, 
which  joins  the  Yalung  near  the  confluence  of  this  river  M-ith  the  Kinsha-kiang. 
The  Chinese  speak  of  this  place  and  of  the  surrounding  district  as  an  earthly 
paradise,  presenting  a  marvellous  contrast  to  the  rugged  mountains  enclosing  it  on 
all  sides. 

Pingnhan  marks  the  extreme  point  reached  by  Blakiston  during  his  exploration 
of  the  Yang-tze.  But  a  more  important  place  is  Stuhcw  (Sui-fu),  at  the  junction  of 
the  Min  and  Kinsha-kiang.  This  is  the  entrepot  for  all  the  produce  of  Yunnan 
exported  to  the  interior  of  China,  and  here  are  manufactured  mats  noted  for  their 
strength  and  pliancy.  The  coal  mines  above  and  below  Suchew  yield  the  best  coal 
in  the  whole  Yang-tze  basin.     Farther  down  Ltichew,  at  the  confluence  of  the 


'»•"-■"■     ■ 


■ryy 


TOrOORAPHY. 


228 


I'litury,  nftor 
or  urea,  vast 
Ics  in  circuit, 
'tor,  of  which 
is  of  China," 

and  regular 
loH.  Tlio  red 
sculptures  in 
vcs  have  also 
lovers  of  the 
est-cultivttted 
I  the  Min  and 
itics  with  the 
yes  with  more 
(  4,000,000  is 
square  miles. 

thousands  of 
I  to  the  south- 
ains,  where  is 
Siiiigpan-tiiiff, 
notwithstand- 

irds  to  Shensi, 
.  to  have  been 
3  kingdoms  of 
yet  grouped  in 
Yellow  River 
ihung  over  the 
lom  legendary 

basin  for  the 
ichuen  there  is 
sibly  by  Marco 
he  Kienchang, 

Kinsha-kiang. 

as  an  earthly 
enclosing  it  on 

his  exploration 
the  junction  of 
uce  of  Yunnan 
noted  for  their 
Id  the  best  coal 
ifluence  of  the 


TuHung,  is  a  depot  for  the  suit  from  the  famous  salines  of  Tzutiii-c/iiiii/,  some  00 
miles  fartlier  north-cant.  This  remarkable  salt  district,  recently  viMitcd  by  (iill, 
comprises  a  tract  over  0  miles  bn)ad,  everj'where  pierced  by  pits  hundreds  of  yards 
deep.  Gill  saw  one  which  had  already  l)eeii  sunk  to  a  depth  of  2,170  ieet  tliiough 
sandstone  and  argillaceous  strata.  The  work,  which  advanced  at  the  rate  of  about 
2  feet  daily,  had  been  in  progress  for  thirteen  years,  although  frequently  interrupted 
by  the  breaking  of  the  boring  nuichines.  Other  wells  have  already  been  carried  to 
a  depth  of  940  yards,  and  Gill  mentions  a  brine-pit  "  two  thousand  and  some 


Fig.  99.— The  Trino-lino  and  Sinoan. 
Aooonling  to  Kluproth.    Boale  1  : 1,700,000. 


,  80  Mile*. 


hundreds  of  feet  in  depth,  and  about  3  inches,  or  perhaps  a  little  more,  in  diameter 
at  the  top." 

Most  of  the  bores  tap  the  brine  at  depths  of  from  600  to  1,000  feet,  beyond 
which  they  reach  the  petroleum  reservoirs.  Inflammable  gases  escape  from  these 
with  great  violence,  whence  the  term  "  fire  well  "  commonly  applied  to  these  pits. 
In  1862,  when  the  country  was  invaded  by  the  rebels,  one  of  the  pits  took  fire,  and 
burnt  for  a  long  time,  illuming  the  whole  country  like  a  lighthouse.  According 
to  Gill,  the  district  is  pierced  by  at  least  1,200  wells,  yielding  from  80,000  to 
120,000  tons  of  salt  yearly.  Most  of  the  mines  belong  to  wealthy  corporations, 
but  the  bulk  of  the  people  are  extremely  poor.  Few  places  present  a  more  wretched 
appearance  than  Tzuliu-ching,  whose  industry  enriches  the  capitalists  of  Chung- 
cheng.  Recently  some  of  the  master  miners,  associated  with  a  company  of 
European  traders,  attempted  to  introduce  English  pumping  engines  to  economize 


<  ■■'■'; 


-! 


'■'■M 


J 


"-ss^ef- 


I- 


224 


KAST  ASIA. 


'^■"h 


m  i] 


time  and  liibour.     Hut  \hv  cxpciimciif  cuuHcd  u  strike  amoiigHt  the  workmen,  who 
drove  tlie  innovators  from  tlie  country. 

Clinxfi-vhciuj  (('hiin;;-kiiij,')  is  the  great  emporium  of  East  Seehuen.  I'ietu- 
re,s(|uely  situated  on  the  U»ft  bank  of  the  Yang-tze  at  the  junction  of  the  navigabh' 
river  I'a-ho  (Kialinj,'),  this  city  has  beeonu*  the  chief  lU'pot  for  all  the  produce  of 
Seehuen  and  for  the  manufacturc'd  wares  imported  from  the  Kast.  It  does  a  larj^er 
trade,  e>'[iecMilly  in  silks,  tobacco,  vefj;etable  oils,  and  nuisk,  even  than  the 
provincial  capital  itself.     This  "  Shanghai  of  West  (.'hinu  "  has  its  exchange  like 

Fig.  100.— CoiHMK  OF  TiiK  Ya.no-tze  above  thk  GonoEg. 
According  to  IllukiKtuti.    8calc  1  :  I.OuO.OOO. 


.  18  Miles. 


the  European  towns,  where  current  prices  arc  regulated,  and  here  is  also  a  silver 
refinery,  which  works  up  ingots  to  the  daily  value  of  some  £4,000.  Chung-cheng 
reiilly  consists  of  two  distinct  towns,  both  ranking  as  administrative  centres, 
Chung-cheng  proper  and  Kiangpeh  (Limin),  west  and  east  of  the  confluence, 
besides  a  vast  suburb  on  the  right  l)ank  of  the  Yang-tze.  Most  of  the  wholesale 
dealers  are  strangers  from  Shensi,  Shansi,  and  Kiangsi,  and  an  English  Consul  has 
been  stationed  here  since  1878.  At  the  beginning  of  the  century  the  population 
was  estimated  at  36,000,  in  1861  Blakiston  raised  it  to  200,000,  and  according  to 


TOrOGRArilY. 


22C 


workiiu'ii,  wlio 

chuoii.  rictu- 
i'  tho  nuvij^ablc 
tlio  i)ntducc  oi 
[t  docs  u  larjifor 
von  thiiii  tho 
i  cxchungo  like 


•F''-  ^v,: 

t'  k 

a 

30' 

■■■■'%:  vim 

l^m 


re  is  also  a  silver 
>.  Chung-clieng 
istrativo  centres, 
the  coniluence, 
of  the  wholesale 
glish  Consul  has 
y  the  population 
and  according  to 


tlio  latcHt  rclurnN  this  figure  has  Immui  more  than  trchlcd.  North  of  rhung-tlMiig 
tho  buHy  town  «>f  Jlo-cltrw  occupii-N  a  convfuicut  position  near  the  junction  oi'  tho 
three  hcad-stnaniH  of  the  I'a-ho.  In  the  neighbouring  hills  "  ,;  fatty  earth,  wliich 
in  times  of  distress  is  kneaded  into  small  loaves,  baked  on  ( li  iicrf-'  tires,  and  larj^ely 
consumed  in  all  the  surrounding  districts. 

Below  Chung-chciig  the  large  emporium  of  Fiicfinr,  stands  at  the  confluenco 
of  tho  Kungtan,  or  Kicn-kiang,  and  thus  conmuinds  all  the  navigable  waters  of  the 
province  of  Kweiehew.  Most  of  the  junks  stop  at  the  Kungtan  Rapids,  beyond 
which  a  few  flat-hottomed  craft  alone  ascend  as  far  as  Km-i-i/anif,  capital  of  Kwei- 
ehew. This  city  lies  near  the  source  of  tlie  river,  and  coiimnmicates  across  low 
water-partings  on  tlie  one  hand  with  the  Si-kiang  basin,  on  the  other  with  that  of 
tho  Yuen,  an  influent  of  Lake  Tungting.     In  the  neighbouring  highlands  are  some 

Tift.  101.— I-CHANO   GOROBII. 
Apcnidiiiff  to  ninkitton.    Scale  I  :  600,000. 


13  Mile*. 


independent  Miaotze  tribes,  who  have  been  partly  evangelized  by  the  Catholic 
missionaries.  In  a  mountain  gorge  near  Nganshun  in  this  region  a  torrent  is 
precipitated  from  a  height  of  several  hundred  yards.  Hero  also  quicksilver  occurs, 
probably  in  greater  abundance  than  elsewhere,  and  in  many  places  lumps  of  cinnabar 
are  constantly  turned  up  by  the  plough.  But  since  tho  sanguinary  outbreak  of  1848 
the  mines  have  been  closed,  and  in  1872  they  were  still  under  water. 

Tho  pleasant  city  of  Ktceichew-fu  is  situated,  not  in  the  province  to  which  it 
gives  its  name,  but  within  the  Scchuen  frontier  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Yang-tze, 
at  the  upper  entrance  of  the  gorges  which  terminate  lower  down  at  I-chang,  in  the 
province  of  Hupeh.  I-chung,  where  is  produced  the  best  opium  in  China,  is  tho 
most  inland  city  opened  to  direct  trade  with  foreigners.  A  European  settlement 
was  established  here  in   1878,  and  since  then  its  trade  has  rapidly  increased. 


'■A 


.  :J#»->-» 


.j^^SiK.. 


:|ii'i?1i 


M 


•ill 


li'iri! ' 


m 


ii? 


f'i*;-  ; 

yinH 

1' 

1 

1 

11 

t 

1 
■      1 

ill 

1 

II 

i 

flM^^B 

y^':  ■  fWlf-, 

i-  'i 


886 


KAST  ASIA. 


Tlic  '  xporlN  conrMHt  jiiiiiiily  in  cfml,  iiu'diciiii'M,  and  dru^s  of  all  moHn.  Alfhouf^h 
lyiiiK  i. '*'*'*  milt'M  aliovc  Sliaii^fliai,  tluH  jilaic  is  now  n-fifularly  visited  hy  a  Yan^j-tzo 
HtniiiKM-,  whirh  usually  finds  '20  foot  of  water  oh  fur  us  the  rapids.  Most  of  tlu> 
Socliucn  Iwuts  discliar>,'o  their  curf^nos  citluT  at  I-('lian>;  or  at  S/iazi,  lower  down, 
wlirncc  tli(>  incrcliandise  is  cojiveycd  in  larjjfcr  craft  to  Hankow.  Jlclorc  tlu'  intrti- 
ductioti  of  stt-anj  nnvi|,'ation,  Slia/i,  which  stretclics  for  over  U  miles  aloiij^  the  river, 
had  a  larj^er  trade  than  I-chan^,  imd  it  slill  enjoys  the  advantaj^e  of  direct  coni- 
niunieation  through  the  navigable  Taipin^  Canal  witli  Laku  Tun^tin^.  Near 
Nhazi  stands  the  stron^j^hold  of  h'itir/irir,  on  the  left  hank  of  the  Yaiiff-tze,  a  place 
already  mentioned  by  ('cmfucius,  hut  now  p'^scHsinf?  merely  un  administrative  an<l 
military  importance. 

The  fijreat  cities  of  Hunan  lie  not  on  the  A  ,iu<r-tzc,  liiit  in  the  interior,  along  the 
routes  between  the  Yung-tze  and  Si-kiang  basins.  Here  cme  of  the  main  water 
highways  18  the  river  Yuen,  fl(jfwing  to  Lake  Tungting,  and  connected  by  camd 
with  other  navigable  waters.  Hut  most  of  the  largo  <junkH  on  the  Lower  Yuen  get 
no  farther  than  C/i'ir/icir-fii,  the  rlii^f  emporium  of  West  Hunan.  Farther  down, 
the  thriving  city  of  C/iniitftr-fii,  <i()  miles  below  the  first  rapids  of  the  Yuen, 
is  accessible  throughout  the  year  to  river  craft  of  tlie  largest  size.  Hut  u  much 
more  important  place  is  Siaiiglan,  which,  lli'tngh  not  the  capital,  is  the  chi(>f  city  in 
Hunan,  and  one  of  the  gnat  marts  of  ih.,-  <mpire.  It  stands  on  u  rapid  of  the 
Siang,  stretching  for  8  miles  along  the  left  hunk  of  the  river,  and  with  vast 
suburbs  radiating  in  every  direction.  Thousands  of  junks,  from  25  to  30  ttms 
burden,  are  constantly  anchored  in  front  of  the  city,  while  lighter  craft  are  able 
to  pass  beyond  the  rapids  much  farther  up.  Siungtan,  which  occupies  the 
most  ceritral  point  in  the  eastern  or  richest  division  of  Hunan,  is  the  natural 
entrepot  of  the  traffic  between  the  central  and  southern  provinces,  through  th(j 
vitally  important  Kwci-ling,  Che-ling,  and  Jlci-ling  Passes.  It  thus  lies  in  the  very 
heart  of  the  vast  triangular  space  formed  by  the  three  great  emporiums  of  Chung- 
cheng,  Hankow,  and  Canton.  It  has  also  become  the  chief  centre  of  the  trade  in 
medicines  and  all  kinds  of  drugs  for  the  whole  of  China.  The  surrounding  tracks 
are  constantly  blocked  by  caravans  exclusively  laden  with  roots,  herbs,  pills,  and  an 
endless  variety  of  nostrums  required  to  meet  the  prodigious  demand  in  a  country 
where  these  things  are  far  more  highly  esteemed  than  amongst  any  other  people. 
The  commercial  revolution  brought  al)Out  by  the  opening  of  the  treaty  ports  und 
the  introduction  of  steam  navigation  must,  no  doubt,  ultimately  diminish  the 
relative  importance  of  Siangtan,  which  lies  off  the  main  line  of  this  traffic.  But 
the  loss  may  he  more  than  repaired  by  the  development  of  the  coal-mining  industry 
in  a  region  where  the  carboniferous  deposits  rival  those  of  Pennsylvania  in  extent. 
The  bituminous  coal  of  the  immediate  neighbourhood  is  little  valued,  but  the 
anthracite  of  Liu'i/ftinf,  in  the  Ijui  basin,  is  amongst  the  best  known.  Thousands  of 
boats  are  employed  in  transporting  it  to  Siungtan  and  the  Y'ang-tze,  whence  it 
reaches  Hankow  and  Nanking.  The  annual  yield  of  the  Lui-ho  mines  has  been 
estimated  by  Richthofen  at  about  150,000  tons. 

Chaiiycha,  capital  of  Hunun,  lies  on  the  Siung,  midway  between  Siangtan  and 


Umm. 


■*K*?b4;- 


Hortw.  Although 
I'd  hy  11  YiiiiK-'zo 
[U.  M<in1  of  llic 
Kizi,  lower  <l(>\vii, 
JU'lorc  tlu«  iiitro- 
M  uloiij;  the  river, 
l^c  of  direct  coni- 
Tungtiiifj;.     Near 

YuiiK-tz''.  'I  I''"*'*' 
dmiiUHtrativo  and 


utorior,  along  tho 
t'  tho  main  water 
)nneeted  by  canal 
3  Lower  Yuen  get 
.     Farther  down, 
ids  of  tho  Yuen, 
lize.     But  a  much 
8  the  chief  city  in 
on  a  rapid  of  the 
pr,  and  with  vast 
am  25  to  30  tons 
iter  craft  are  able 
lich    occupies   the 
in,  is  tho  natural 
nces,  through  the 
lus  lies  in  tho  very 
joriums  of  Chung- 
tre  of  the  trade  in 
mrrounding  tracks 
herbs,  pills,  and  an 
mand  in  a  country 
t  any  other  people, 
le  treaty  porlH  and 
itely  diminish  the 
E  this  traffic.     But 
ul-mining  industry 
sylvania  in  extent, 
e  valued,  but   the 
ivn.     Thousands  of 
mg-tze,  whence  it 
ho  mines  has  been 


veen  Siangtan  and 


.iWuy!,«j-^,.''-.'iii»ji-W'''i,gIgn.'-i';v.:» 


7^ 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


1 

'IteiiiBte'lilltliiiliiHii 


Photographic 

Sciences 

Corporation 


«'  I 


CIHM/ICMH 

Microfiche 

Series. 


CIHM/SCIVIH 
Collection  de 
microfiches. 


Canadian  Institute  for  Historical  MIcroreproductlons  /  Instltut  Canadian  de  microreproductions  historiques 


illWilliJiWIiW 


^SK^BI^m^^^S^w^mm^^^^^^^^ 


V"- 


m 


mil' 


14    '  ' 


TOrOORAPIIY. 


227 


■  \^ 


^1 


\    w*. 


liU 


m 


O 

o 

S) 

6 

■< 
(- 

o 

!?; 

■< 

o 
< 

I 
I 

m 


UM 


Lake  Tungtinfj.  On  a  hill  fnoinf*  tlio  city  stnnda  the  collojjo  of  Yolo,  one  of  the 
most  renowned  in  China,  where  over  one  thousand  students,  from  twenty-two  to 
twentj'-five  years  of  age,  pursue  their  studies  in  private,  consulting  their  teachers 
only  in  the  case  of  extreme  difficulties.  Below  Changcha  a  granite  ridge  crossing 
the  Siang  is  largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of  flags  and  mortar,  while  the 
argillaceous  sand  is  in  great  demand  amongst  the  numerous  potteries  of  Tungkwiin. 
Here  are  produced  enamelled  tiles  of  all  colours,  and  covered  with  fanciful  designs, 
much  used  for  the  roofs  of  temples  and  houses  in  Ilunan  and  the  surrounding 
provinces.  Lower  down  Siuiiiji/in  may  he  regarded  as  tlie  upper  port  of  Lake 
Tungting,  while  its  outlet  is  commanded  by  Yocliew,  which  stands  on  a  cliff  over- 
hanging the  right  bank  of  the  Yang-tze. 

Before  the  middle  of  the  present  century  the  thme  cities  of  Wiichnug-fii,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Yang-tze ;  Hankoic,  over  against  it,  east  of  the  Han  confluence ; 
and  Haiti/ang-fii,  in  the  peninsula  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  two  streams,  con- 
stituted probably  the  largest  collective  urban  population  in  the  whole  world. 
London,  which  now  knows  no  rival  in  this  respect,  had  at  that  time  scarcely  more 
than  two  millions,  whereas,  before  the  Tai'ping  ravages,  these  three  vast  hives 
of  human  industry  are  said  by  some  travellers  to  have  had  a  joint  population  of 
eight  millions !  But  however  this  be,  the  number  had  been  reduced  to  below^  one 
million  when  Blakiston  ascended  the  river  in  LS61.  Of  the  three  cities,  Hankow, 
capital  of  Ilupeh,  is  alone  enclosed  by  ramparts,  which  comprise  un  area  of  over 
15  square  miles.  Beyond  tlie  walls  the  suburbs  stretch  along  both  rivers,  while 
the  connection  with  Hanyang  is  completed  by  a  multitude  of  junks,  forming  a 
living  bridge  from  bank  to  bank.  Even  the  main  stream,  here  nearly  a  mile  wide, 
is  covered  with  craft,  amongst  which  arc  numerous  English  and  Chinese  steamers. 
As  a  trading-place  Hankow  enjoys  special  advantages,  standing  as  it  does  at 
a  central  point  on  the  navigable  course  of  the  Yang-tze,  and  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Han-kiang,  which  gives  direct  access  to  the  Hoang-ho  basin  and  the  province  of 
Shensi.  Hankow — that  is,  "  Han  Mouth  " — may  even  be  said  to  command  the 
course  of  the  Siang  and  the  whole  of  the  Tungting  lacustrine  basin.  Standing  thus 
at  the  converging  point  of  the  great  navigable  arteries  running  east  and  west,  north 
and  south,  Hankow  is  the  true  commercial  centre  of  China.  The  bnlv  drawback  to 
its  advantageous  position  is  the  danger  it  runs  from  the  inundations  of  the  Yang-tze. 
When  the  embankments  give  way  its  streets  are  flooded,  and  the  people  seek  refuge 
on  tlie  surrounding  hills  and  artificial  mounds  scattered  like  islands  in  the  midst  of 
a  vast  inland  sea. 

No  other  city  of  the  interior  has  such  a  large  foreign  population  as  Hankow.  A 
fine  European  quarter,  separated  from  the  river  by  an  extensive  open  space  planted 
with  trees,  overlooks  the  native  city.  Vast  works  have  here  been  undertaken  to 
raise  the  land  above  the  level  of  the  inundations;  and  a  so-called  "bund,"  or 
embankment,  50  feet  high,  now  protects  the  European  concession  from  this 
danger.  Hankow  is  the  chief  centre  of  the  tea  trade  in  China.  The  foreign 
settlement  may  almost  be  said  to  depend  on  the  oscillations  in  the  current  prices  of 
this  article.     The  arrival  of  the  first  crop  is  the  signal  for  a  general  commotion ; 


. t- 


228 


EAST  ASIA. 


crowds  swiinii  in  tlio  warolKtuscs  and  count iiiff-liousoH,  sloaincrs  aro  numrod  along 
the  cndianknicnf,  nijjht  and  day  strocts  and  squares  are  ulivc  with  tlio  busy  throng. 
All  this  bustle  lasts  lor  three  months  during  the  very  hottest  and  most  relaxing 
season  of  the  year;  and  the  (>X('itement  grows  to  fever  heat  towards  the  end  of 
May,  when  the  vessels  boun<l  for  London  have  eonipleted  their  cargoes.  For  the 
betting  on  the  quickest  honiewurd  passage  earns  for  the  winner  not  mei'ely  an 


Fig.  102.— WuciiANO;    View  taken  fkom  the  Toweu  of  thk  Ybllow  Ckane  (IIoano-ho-lew). 


empty  triumph,  but  double  the  ordinary  freight.  After  the  start  silence  reigns  in 
the  European  quarter,  which  is  now  deserted  except  by  a  few  clerks  and  employes. 
The  native  merchants  deal  ex.;iTisively  in  tobacco,  hides,  and  other  local  produce, 
including  opium,  which  is  now  mixed  with  that  of  India  for  consumption  in  China. 
The  Russians,  who  buy  both  the  best  and  the  worst  sorts  of  tea,  have  made  Hankow 
the  centre  of  their  operations  for  the  purcha.se  and  preparation  of  the  brick  tea. 
But  the  direct  overland  trade  between  Hankow  and  Siberia,  through  8ingan  and 


iiioorod  along 
('  busy  ihi'Diig. 
most  relaxing 
•da  the  end  of 
roes.  For  the 
uot  merely  au 

loANO-HO-LEW). 


J'feR 


M^^'' 


-^ 


silence  reigns  in 
ks  and  employes, 
er  local  produce, 
mption  in  China. 
fe  made  llankow 
of  the  brick  tea. 
ough  Singan  and 


iJfll 


IP 


Li 


Id 

u 

H 

O 


en 
(d 

h 

< 


g 


TUl'UOUAl'IlY. 


2*20 


y^ifin,  . '      i 


5 

1        A 


OS 


Moiipdiii,  (liitcH  only  from  tlic  year  \H7\K  The  tons  inttnilrd  for  IfiisMin  nro 
hliipjM'd  at  Sliaiij^'liai  citlicr  diicclly  for  Odessa  or  for  Tientsin,  whence  lliev  are 
taken  hy  caravan  to  I\al;,'an  and  Kiaklita.  Hankow  is  destined  one  day  to  l»e  tlie 
terminus  of  tlie  lii;;liway  from  the  ri)i»er  Irtisli  thron;,'h  Kansn  to  the  Yan;>-tze- 
kianj,'  hasin.  Nej,'(itiations  liave  already  l)een  s(>t  on  fo<it  witli  a  view  to  the  open- 
in;,'  of  this  route,  which  will  itself  l)e  rephieed  sooner  or  later  l)y  tlie  nficat  ('eiitr;d 
Asiatic  trnnk  lin(>  of  railway.  Meantime  the  direct  seaward  trade  of  liankow  is 
represented  hy  over  fifteen  hundred  vessels,  with  a  tonna^'e  of  nearly  ii  million, 
of  which  less  than  one-half  is  Chinese,  and  most  of  the  rest  Uritish. 

Alonj^  tho  banks  of  the  Hun  the  chief  jkjiIs  are  HauvhHiHj-fii,  u  former  imiwiial 
capital;  Siiijm-itdii,  noted  for  its  steel  works;   C/iirhidficii,  at  the  head  of  the  navi- 


Fig.  103.— Hankow  and  siuiiocndino  Lakh*. 
Sciiio  1 :  ;i,7rio,iK)o. 


.  60  MilPS. 


gation,  over  4  miles  in  circumference •.  Tjdo/io-liow,  wi\\i  a  large  cotton  trade;  and 
54  miles  lower  down  the  twin  cities  oi  >-iiing>/ang-fi(  and  Faiig-clidig,  on  the  right 
and  left  hanks  respectively,  near  the  confinence  of  the  Tang-ho  and  l*ei-ho,  which 
give  access  to  the  rich  phvins  of  Honan  and  the  Hoang-ho  basin.  Midway  between 
Fang-cheng  and  Hankow  is  the  busy  port  of  Sliaynug-vhcn,  where  liichthofen  saw 
as  many  as  five  hundred  large  junks  moored  to  the  quays.  Most  of  these  ijlaces 
stand  at  some  distance  from  the  Han  to  avoid  its  disastrous  floodings. 

Below  Hankow  the  narrow  rocky  peninsula  between  liake  Poyang  and  the 
Yang-tzc  is  occulted  by  Kin-Ja'aiig,  or  the  "  City  of  the  Nine  Rivers,"  which  does  a 
large  trade  in  tea  and  tobacco,  and  where  there  is  a  European  quartei-,  protected 
like  that  of  Hankow  by  a  strong  embankment  of  recent  erection.  N(inch((ng, 
cajjital  of  Kiangsi,  lies  in  a  fertile  plain  at  the  head  of  the  delta  of  the  Kia-kiang 


2H(» 


KAST  ASIA. 


(Chiin^j,  1111(1  at  the  ctnivcrj^iiiff  point  of  Hovorul  iiii])oi'taiit  trade  routes.  Hero 
are  noiiic  of  tlin>^i>  triiiiM|ilial  nrclirs  raiMrd  in  no  many  ]>la('(>s  to  the  nieinory  of 
illnstrions  women.  Nanohanjif  is  u  chief  centre  of  the  j)orcehiin  industry,  and  no 
h'ss  than  hve  hundred  fuetories  were  at  work  in  thi-*  district  durinj;  the  hist  century. 
The  porcehiin  of  Kiiiifd-c/icii,  in  the  Chun^-kiun^  valley  east  of  Lake  I'oyanj,',  instill 
tin?  most  hiji^hly  esteemed  in  Chinii,  yet  it  is  now  far  inferior  to  the  Knrope-ui  ware  in 
paste,  form,  and  (U'sij^n.  In  tho  oustorn  und  south-eastern  valleys  towards  the 
Fokien  frontier  tlie  excpiisite  teas  are  ])rodueed  which  ure  nunu<d  from  the  city  of 


Fig.  104.— N,  .NKINO. 
Ronlo  1  :  140.000. 


r%  jr/t/tow  ShaK 


Iia*48' 


Eof  G 


llS'SS' 


0  to  04  Feet. 


04  Feet  anil  npwards. 
^__— ^  3  MilcH 


Hohow.     In  the  north-east  rises  the  8euuglo-shuu  Mountain,  where  was  discovered 
the  art  of  utilising  the  tea-leaf. 

One  of  the  finest  cities  on  the  Lower  Yang-tze  is  Nijanhhig  (Anking),  capital  of 
the  province  of  Nganhwei.  Farther  down  are  the  treaty  ports  of  Tutting  and 
U'k/iii,  both  on  the  riglit  bank.  The  latter  produces  a  red  yarn  known  throughout 
tho  empire,  and  is  also  noted  for  its  knives  and  other  articles  in  steel,  which,  how- 
ever, are  very  inferior  to  those  imported  from  England.  In  the  neighbouring 
district  is  manufactured  some  of  the  best  paper  in  China,  chiefly  from  the  bark  of 
the  tallow-tree  and  mulberry. 


-i. 


TOI'OOIIAI'HY, 


•^}U 


l<«  routes.  1 1  •TO 
I  the  iiK'Uiory  <>f 
industry,  and  no 
the  lust  t'ontury. 
X'  Poyunj^,  is  still 
•iUropc'in  ware  in 
I'yH  towardfi  the 
from  the  city  of 


ere  was  discovered 

\.nking),  capital  of 
rts  of  Tatuiig  and 
known  throughout 
steel,  which,  how- 
the  neighbouring 
[y  from  the  bark  of 


Nanklnif,  capital  of  Kiangsu,  and  rcstdcnn'  of  the  Viceroy  of  Kiangnan — flnit 
is,  of  tlic  two  provinces  of  Kiarigsu  and  Xganliwci— was  furnierly  llie  nietmpolis 
of  the  empire,  and  hmj,'  llie  largest  city  in  tlie  world.  Kven  after  the  removal  nf 
the  court  >  Peking  it  rivalled  the  northern  capital  in  its  pdpnlatidu,  trade,  and 
industry.  In  iM.'iU  it  again  for  a  moment  became  a  ntyal  residence,  the  "  Heavenly 
King,"  or  sovereigji  of  the  Taiping  rebels,  iiaving  chosen  it  for  his  capital.  I  tut 
after  an  obstinate  siege  of  two  years  it  was  captured  in  lS(il  by  the  Imperial  forces, 
its  surviving  defenders  put  to  tin'  sword,  aiul  the  place  converted  into  a  iieajt  of 
ruins.  Yet  a  few  years  of  j)eace  have  sutliced  again  to  restore  Nanking  to  its 
pluco  anxmgst  the  great  cities  of  China.  The  area  imdiidcd  within  its  enclosures, 
some  IH  miles  in  extent,  still  comi»riscs  many  open  spaces,  waste  grounds,  and 
piles  of  debris,  where  the  snipe,  i)hea.sant,  and  even  large  game  are  pursued.  \ 
Government  arsenal  has  recently  been  (>stablished  in  the  neighbourhood,  and 
several  factories  have  again  resunu'd  the  manufacture  of  the  cotton  fabric; 
fonnerly  known  as  "  Nankeen."  Here  are  also  produced  the  finest  satins  in 
China.  Nanking,  or  Kiangning-fu,  as  it  is  ofHcially  called,  has  resumed  its 
position  as  the  metrop(dis  of  letters  and  learning,  and  as  many  as  twelve  thousand 
students  hero  undergo  their  yearly  examinations.  Large  libraries  have  been  again 
collected,  and  new  printing-oHlces  opened,  with  Chinese  and  Kuropean  a])pliances. 
Amongst  the  recent  inunigrants,  the  Mohammedans  are  said  already  to  nund)er 
over  fifty  thousand.  Except  its  rampai'ts,  Nanking  has  lost  all  its  famous  monu- 
ments, including  the  celebrated  "  Porcelain  Tower,"  which  was  destroyed  during 
the  Taiping  war. 

The  commercial  enterprise  of  the  province  of  Kiang-su  has  been  chiefly 
concentrated  in  the  city  of  C/ihxjkinnf/,  lying  east  of  Nanki?ig,  and  also  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Yang-tze,  at  the  southern  terminus  of  the  Grand  Canal.  It  also 
communicates  by  water  with  Shanghai,  and  is  the  converging  point  of  several 
extremely  important  trade  routes.  Hence  the  rapidity  with  which  it  has  recovered 
from  two  disasters  during  the  present  century.  In  1842  the  English  army,  after 
the  victory  followed  by  the  treaty  of  Nanking,  found  Chingkiung  converted  into  a 
city  of  the  dead.  Its  Manchu  defenders  had  destroyed  their  women  and  children, 
and  then  made  away  with  themselves,  in  order  to  escape  the  hated  rule  of  the 
"red-headed  barbarians."  In  1853  the  place  was  taken  by  the  Taipings,  and  the 
inhabitants  four  years  afterwards  massacred  by  the  Imperialists.  As  in 
Nanking,  nothing  remained  except  the  ramparts  and  a  few  of  the  wretched 
survivors  crouching  amid  its  ruins.  Y''et  Chingkiang  has  already  become  the 
second  port  in  China  for  the  importation  of  foreign  goods.  On  the  opposite  side 
of  the  river  formerly  stood  the  largo  city  of  Koaehvic,  where  the  Government  had 
established  its  chief  salt  depot  on  the  Yung-tze.  But  this  place  has  been  washed 
away  by  the  erosion  of  the  stream,  and  now  nothing  remains  except  a  few  houses. 
Yaiifjehcu;  a  little  farther  north,  on  the  Grand  Canal,  was  the  old  capital  of  the 
Yang  kingdom,  which,  according  to  some  etymologists,  gave  its  name  to  the  Yang- 
tze-kiang.  This  is  the  "  great  and  noble  city  "  of  Yanju,  governed  for  three  years 
by  Marco  Polo. 


m 


rf-S^-^f\ »». 


81)2 


MAST  AHIA. 


Sliintijliiii,  the  nniri'sf  Kniport  to  tlic  Vaiijif-t/c  cHfiiiirv,  Iiiih  Itccdiiic  the  firnt 
comnHicial  mart  in  flic  fiii|iirc.  and  in  all  Asia  kiiowf  n  Miipcrior  fxccj)!  n(inil»uy. 
Yrf  wIh'Ii  in  iMj'i  I  lie  Knj^lisli  choHO  this  plact'  iur  tluir  factorit'M,  it  Hccinrd 
(lilliriilt  fu  iiilicvo  that  thrv  coiild  I'vur  convert  it  inlu  a  rival  dl'  Canton  or  Atnoy. 
It  wiiM  iloiiliiloH  the  ontitort  of  Siic/inr  and  tlic  rich  Hurroundinj;  diHtiicf,  and  it 
haci  also  ih*'  important  advanta|;t>  of  commandi'i)^  the  entranc*'  of  the  ^rnat  water 
liij;h\viiy  which  traverses  th<'  whole  empire  from  east  to  west.  Ilul  there  wero 
formidahlc  dillicultics  of  scil  and  climate  to  contend  a^jainst.  The  very  >,M'ound  on 
which  it  stood  had  to  lie  raised  and  consolidated  ;  canals  had  to  he  cnt,  lagoons 
drained,  the  navij^ahle  chunnel  dred«;ed,  the  atmosphen'  pnriliiil  from  its  miasmatic 


Fitf.  lO/J.— Chinukiano. 
s'ftilo  1  ;  iin.'mo. 


^  V  .Ko»tch«iw 


ofG 


English  diuanon 

t.kltU,!!'''' 


,.,  -.  vi- 


M9'3a 


U'3'12 


B 


i:  :     1 


0  lu  80  Feet. 


60  to  100  Feet.         li;o  Feet  mid  iii>wiii'(la, 
^_— — __  2  Milei. 


exhalations.  Most  of  these  improvements  have  Leon  successfully  curried  out;  but 
u  danfiferous  bar  still  separates  the  Yang-tze  estuary  from  the  IIoaiig-j)u,  or  river  of 
♦'  Yellow  Waters,"  on  which  Shangbui  is  situated.  The  evil  has  even  increased 
during  the  last  decade,  and  vessels  of  deep  draught  do  not  now  ascend  the  Iloang- 
pu  to  the  city.  Unless  the  Chinese  Government  allows  the  necessary  works  to  be 
undertaken  to  keep  open  tbe  navigation,  Shanghai  runs  the  risk  of  sooner  or  later 
getting  lost  on  tbe  margin  of  a  marshy  creek  in  the  interior.  To  bring  about  tbis 
result,  all  that  is  needed  is  a  further  slight  geological  change  in  a  tract  where  tbe 
alluvia  of  tbe  Yang-tze  and  the  marine  waters  are  struggling  for  tbe  ascendancy. 
According  to  the  local  tradition,  Shanghai  formerly  stood  on  tbe  aea-coust,  from 


TOPOORAPHY. 


2:1:1 


Fig.    100.— HllANdllAI    ANII   TIIR    IloANO-l'U. 

Hoile  1  !  ITft.mX). 


wliicli   if  in  lit  prcMi'tit  *M    miles  diMfanf.      It   in  iniidi   cxposrd    in  ilic  "villuvv 
wind  "  Irom  the  north  and  north- west,  cliarj^rd  with,  thi'  diisi  ol'  ihi'  di'scrl. 

The  lialHc  ill  Ihi-  hical  prndu(!t> nia(U»  the  fortinuuif  the  KrNt  Kiin.piMii  Hctth'rsat 
Shaiijjfhai,  wIki  fhairiHlii'd,  no  to  say,  <>n  flic   iiafiuiial  disasters.     The  Taipiiij?  war 
drove    thousands     to     take 
reril^;e   on    the    land    eeded 
to  the  I'oreij^iiers,  and  when 
Siiehew    WHS    desfroy«'d    in 
|H(!(),    Shan^rliai     took     its 
place  as   fh(>   I'oreinost  city 
in  the  coinifry.     F5iif  after 
file  overthrow  of  the  reliels 
flic  jjopiilation  flowed  hack 
into  the  inferior,  and  the 
nuinher  (d'  nafivo  inbuhit- 
ants  fi'll  from  half  a  million 
to    ().'),(»()().        Nevertheless, 
Shiinj^hui  l)ocame  the  chief 
(k'lfot     for     flic     disfrihu- 
tion  of    Kuropean    imports 
throii<j^liout      tho     omjnre. 
The  Kurdish  "Concession," 
which  enjoys  tho  jn-ivilcfrc 
of   self-jjoveriniient,  is  tho 
"  model  cohuiy,  tho  ropublic 
of    tho   Iloanf^-pu."      Tho 
territory   conccd«.>d    to  the 
Amoricans  to  tho  north  of 
the  Siioliow  Rivor  has  l)oon 
united  since   IHGli   to   tho 
Hrifish  municipality,  which 
is  also  occupied  by  over  a 
hundred  tbousand  natives, 
as  well  as  by  most  of  the 
French   residents,    glad  to 
take  refuge  hero  from  the 
despotic     power    of     their 
consul.  South  of  the  Chinese 
quarter  lies  the  suburb  of 

To)if/katu,  while  the  opposite  or  east  bank  of  the  river  is  occupied  by  Pitntiing, 
often  called  the  "  Little  Europe,"  from  its  numerous  native  Christian  population. 

Shanghai  does  a  very  largo  export  trade  in  tea,  chiefly  to  England  and  America, 
and  in  silk  mainly  to  France,  while  opium  forms  by  far  the  most  important  item 
in  its  imports.      Five  lines  of  rivor  steamers  have  their  head-quarters   at  this 
48 


0  to  38  Feet. 


83  Icet  and  upwardi. 
— —  3  MUes. 


'"""^ir^ 


I 

ft 


i 


11 

til 
I 


234 


EAST  ASIA. 


station,  which  also  owns  forty  ('oastiii<^  Hteamcrs .  This  is  tho  only  Chinese  city 
whicli  j)oss(>ss(>s  dockyards,  whore  merchant  vessels  are  built  under  the  direction  of 
Europi'an  euf^ineers.  Here  also  a  cotton-spinniiifj;  mill,  a  tannery,  and  some  other 
industries  wore  estahlished  in  1S79  on  tho  I'uropean  model.  The  coal  mines  of 
the  Yaii.2;-tzc  yield  sufficient  fuel  for  all  the  steamers  plying  on  the  river,  and  are 

L'ig.  107. — Shanoiiai. 
Scale  1  .  -11,000. 


E 


SB 


0  to  IB  Feet 


1  fi  to  ,S2  Feet.        82  to  90  Feet    80  Feet  and  upwardg. 

— — ^^  1,100  YarJs 


gradually  replacing  the  foreign  coal  in  Shanghai  itself.  The  city  is  traver.sed  by 
tramways,  and  the  racecourse  is  surrounded  by  fine  avenues,  which  are  continued 
as  far  as  (he  "  Hubbling  Well,"  a  hot  spring  discharging  sulphuric  acid  gas. 
Broad  Tnacadamised  roads  radiate  for  (5  or  7  miles  round  to  the  villas  and  country 
seats   of   the   foreign   and  native  merchants ;    but  the  Government  has  not  yet 


^liinose  city 
(liiTC'tidii  of 
I  some  other 
oul  mines  of 
iver,  und  are 


51- 

15 


^ 


s  traversed  by 
are  continued 
uric  acid  gas. 
8  and  country 
t  has  not  yet 


TOPOORAPIIY. 


285 


allowed  these  routes  to  be  coiitiiuud  farther  inland.  Even  the  short  riiihvav 
(9  miles  Ion-?),  the  only  one  in  China,  recently  built  by  uii  Knj^lish  company 
between  Shanj^hai  and  Wusung,  on  the  Yan<,'-t/e  estuary,  was  bought  up  and 
destroyed  by  the  authorities  after  a  short  and  useful  career  of  six  months.  The 
terminus  and  goods  station  ut  Wusung  have  since  been  replaced  bv  forlitications 
armed  with  heavy  guns.     Nevertheless  the  imperial  administration  must  sooner  or 

Fij?.  lOR. — SuciiEW  iiEFouB  THE  TaVpino  War 


•m  ^  mm  CanulR  unci  Biidyes. 

later  yield  to  the  force  of  circxmi  stances,  and  v  ithdraw  its  veto  from  the  plans  of 
the  foreign  engineers.  The  surveys  for  a  railway  from  Shanghai  to  Suchew,  and 
even  to  Hangchew,  have  already  been  completed,  and  now  only  await  the  imperial 
sanction.  A  telegraphic  line  coimecting  Peking  with  Shanghai,  and  by  submarine 
cable  with  Japan,  was  finished,  after  much  local  opposition,  early  in  the  year  1882. 
Since  18-58  Shanghai  has  been  the  seat  of  the  "North  China  brunch  of  the  Koyal 
Asiatic  Society." 


ml 


if 


"■Hi 


Mi 


fm 


S'lnB  I 


"m^ 


i 


« 


h< 


^H 


286 


EAST  ASIA. 


Five  miles  soutli-wost  of  R1ian<>;hui  lips  Siikia/iirri,  flic  approach  to  which  is 
marked  hy  the  lofty  i)a<i:o(la  of  Loiig-lma.  Hero  is  the  Jesuit  College,  founded  in 
the  seveutoentli  century,  to  which  is  now  attached  a  meteorological  observatory. 
Amongst  the  other  large  places  in  the  thickly  peopled  lacustrine  peninsula 
between  the  Yang-t/e  estuary  and  the  Gulf  of  Hangchew  uro  Htichcic,  noted 
for  'ts  crapes  and  foulards,  and  Niinhin,  a  great  depot  for  the  traffic  in  silk 
cocoons. 

In  the  fertile  region  of  South  Kiangsu  the  chief  industrial  centre  still  is  the 
famous  city  of  Suchcw,  ;^^arc<)  Polo's  "great  and  noble  Suju."  Doubtless  the  place 
has  no  longer  "  a  circuit  of  GO  miles,"  or  "  six  thousand  stone  bridges,  high  enough 
to  allow  the  galleys  to  pass  under,"  nor  arc  its  inhabitants  numerous  enough  "  to 
conquer  the  world."  Nevertheless  this  Venice  of  China  has  already  recovered 
from  the  ruin  wrought  here  by  the  Taiping  rebels,  and  its  citizens,  as  of  old,  arc 
still  noted  for  their  intelligence  and  good  taste.  "Whatever  is  beautiful  comes 
from  Huchew — paintings,  carvings,  tom-toms,  silks,  and  women,"  says  a  local 
proverb ;  and  another  adds,  "  To  be  happy,  you  must  be  born  at  Suchew  and  live 
at  Hangchew."  The  "Great  Lake"  (Ta-hu),  stretching  west  of  Suchew,  and 
fonncn-ly  traversed  by  a  branch  of  the  Yang-tze,  presents  the  aspect  of  an  inland 
sea,  the  permanent  home  of  a  numerous  fishing  community. 

IIfiiiijc/iciv-/u,  at  tlie  west  end  of  the  extensive  bay  of  like  name,  commands  the 
entrance  of  an  old  branch  of  the  Yang-tze,  forming  u  southern  prolongation  of  the 
Grand  Canal.  Ikying  in  a  fertile  district  and  pleasant  climate,  it  was  formerly 
capital  of  the  southern  empire,  and  long  held  out  against  the  conquering  Mongol 
hoi'des.  Since  then  it  retained  for  centuries  the  title  of  Kiugtze,  and  Alarco  Polo 
speaks  of  "  (iuinsay,"  as  ho  calls  it,  in  terms  of  admiratum  inspired  by  no  other 
city  visit(>d  by  him.  Nothing  astonished  him  more  than  this  "most  noble  city 
without  fail  tlie  noblest  and  best  that  be  in  the  world."  But  the  details  given  by 
him  were  received  with  laughter  in  Europe.  For  he  speaks  of  a  circumference  of 
100  miles,  1,600,000  houses,  3,000  baths,  12,000  stone  bridges  high  enough  for 
fleets  to  pass  under,  and  each  guarded  by  a  company  of  10  men.  The  twelve  work- 
ing corporations  are  each  stated  to  have  had  12,000  houses  for  their  industries,  and 
other  travellers  speak  in  similar  terms  of  Quinsay.  Oderico  of  Pordcnone  calls  it 
"  the  largest  city  in  the  world,"  and  Ibn  Batuta  tells  us  that  it  takes  three  days  to 
triiverse  it  from  end  to  end.  Even  in  the  seventeenth  century,  long  after  it  had 
lost  the  rank  of  capital,  Martinus  Martini  gives  it  a  circuit  of  100  Italian  miles, 
and  even  more,  including  the  vast  suburbs.  You  may  walk,  he  adds,  in  a  straight 
line  for  50  li  through  the  place  without  seeing  anything  but  houses  closely 
huddled  together. 

Hangchew  has  still  a  circumference  of  12  miles,  beyond  which  the  ground  is 
strewn  in  every  direction  with  the  ruins  of  temples  and  palaces.  The  great  lake 
(Si-hu),  which  mediicval  writers  speak  of  as  enclosed  within  the  city,  now  lies 
beyond  the  ramparts.  The  delightful  scenery  of  this  lake,  combined  with  the 
g(>nial  character  of  the  people,  has  earned  for  Hangchew  the  title  of  the  "  Chinese 
Paradise."     "Heaven  is  above;  Suchew  and  Hangchew  are  below,"  says  an  oft- 


tai. 


to  which  is 

founded  in 

pbscrvatory. 

peninsula 

choir,  noted 

iffic  in  silk 

.still  is  the 
ess  the  place 
lif^h  enouf^h 
enouj^h  "  lo 
y  recovered 

of  old,  arc 
itiful  conies 
jays  a  local 
lew  and  live 
kichcw,  and 
>f  an  inland 

nnmands  the 
gation  of  the 
was  fonncrly 
;ring  Mongol 
[  ^larco  Polo 
.  by  no  other 
st  noble  city 
ails  given  by 
uniferenco  of 
1  enough  for 
twelve  work- 
idustries,  and 
enone  calls  it 
three  days  to 
g  after  it  had 
Italian  miles, 
in  a  straight 
ouses  closely 

the  ground  is 
10  great  lake 
city,  now  lies 
ned  with  the 
the  "  Chinese 
says  an  oft- 


TOWER  OF  LONUUUA,  8UANUHAI. 


ili 


BBP^'a^,. 


I 


TOPOORAl'IIY, 


S87 


quoted  proverb.  The  ehicf  local  industry  is  silk-woavinf;,  wliicli  employs  60,000 
huuds  in  the  city  and  100,000  in  Jluchvn;  Kiahiiuj,  and  the  iiei},'hl)()uriiig  towns. 
Hut  the  whole  district  bus  suffered  much  from  the  Tuipinf,'s,  the  popula- 
tion of  IIuu{,'chew  alone  having  been  reduced,  according  to  some  writers,  from 
2,000,000  to  less  than  500,000  since  the  middle  of  the  century.  Here  the  Mohair- 
mcdans  arc  more  numerous  than  in  any  other  city  on  the  coast. 

Shaohiiig,  on  the  south  side  f  the  bay,  is  the  commercial  and  industrial  centre 
of  one  of  the  richest  and  most  densely  peopled  lowland  regions  in  the  empire. 
The  hydraulic  works  here  constructed  to  reclaim,  protect,  and  drain  the  land  arc 
clsewliere  altogether  unrivalled.     Amongst  them  is  the  longest  viaduct   in   the 

Fig.     109.— llAKOCllEW    A.NI)   THK    Sl-lll'. 


CuoalB  and  (IridgeR. 

world,  being  86  miles  long,  and  consisting  of  about  40,000  rectangular  arches 
supporting  a  roadway  6  feet  broad,  protected  by  a  graded  parapet.  Mount  Taying, 
lying  between  the  cities  of  Ningpo  and  Yuyao,  contains  probably  the  largest 
quarries  in  China.  They  have  supplied  the  material  for  the  con  truction  of  the 
viaduct,  and  blocks  here  cut  into  columns  and  statues  are  forwarded  as  fur  as  Siam. 
The  viaduct,  which  terminates  eastwards  in  the  red  sandstone  fortress  defend- 
ing the  city  of  Tm'uhai  at  the  mouth  of  the  Yung-kiang,  or  river  of  Ningpo,  dates 
probably  from  a  period  when  the  whole  country  was  a  vast  saline  marsh.  Although 
the  draining  of  the  soil  has  rendered  it  no  longer  necessary,  it  has  been  built  with 
such  solidity  that  it  still  continues  to  be  used  as  a  highway  and  towing-jjuth  for 
the  neighbouring  canal.     An  extremely  fertile  tract  has  also  been  reclaimed  by  an 


lai 


Hgi«..|.;,..~- 


I 


r 


288 


EAST  ASIA. 


enormous  I'luhankini'nt  skirtiiif,'  the  shore,  erected  at  uii  unknown  period.  It  is 
fared  seawards  l»y  dressed  stone  shd)s  botmd  tofjether  with  iron  cramps,  and 
stretches  t'ntm  the  llan«,'ehew  estuary  to  th(^  Nin«,'po  River.  I5ut  Slmohiu};, 
capital  of  this  unheahhy  re','ion,  is  a  (h-cayed  phice,  althouj,'h  still  distin<,niishe(l 
by  the  culture  of  its  inhabitants.  Some  two  thousand  years  a^;o  it  was  the  capital 
of  a  state  which  comprised  all  the  Houth-eastern  lands  from  Kianfjsu  to  ('ant«m. 
Outside  the  wall  is  still  shown  a  tomb,  said  to  be  that  of  the  Emp?ror  Yu.     Hero 

Fig.    110. — NlNOPO    AND   ThlMIAI. 
Sualo  1  :  220,000. 


0  to  16  Feet. 


16  to  32  Feet.    .12  Feet  and  upwards. 
^_^__^^_____  8  Miles. 


is  prepared  the  exquisite  perfumed  li(iueur  known  as  "  Shaohing  wine,"  compared 
by  travellers  to  Sautej-ne.     It  is  extracted  from  a  species  of  rice. 

A  walled  city  on  the  north  side  of  Chekiang  Bay  still  bears  the  name  of  Kampu, 
although  the  true  Kampu  (Ganfu,  Gampu)  spoken  of  by  ^larco  Polo  is  supposed 
to  lie  submerged  in  the  waters  of  the  bay.  Here  the  sea  has  encroached  consider- 
ably on  the  coast,  and  nowhere  else  does  the  caffre,  or  fjoio,  cause  such  disasters. 
From  a  distance  it  seems  like  a  white  cable  stretched  across  the  bay,  but  it  advances 
with  a  velocity  of  over  80  feet  per  second,  constantly  increasing  in  size,  and  pro- 
ducing a  din  like  loud  peals  of  thunder.  Its  daily  attacks  require  the  embank- 
ments to  be  kept  in  constant  repair,  and  during  the  reign  of  Kien-lung  (1736—96) 
the  hydraulic  works  along  Ilangchew  Bay  cost  over  £2,000,000.     All  the  culti- 


I  imiiiMHIIini  riiwin  ilipiilinMiM«g.t- . 


TOPOOHAIMIY. 


230 


riod.  It  is 
ramps,  niul 

Sluu>liin<^, 
stiiif^uishcd 
I  the  cupital 

to  Clinton. 
Yu.     Hero 


vuted  lunds  on  the  coast  und  noiphbourinj?  islands  arc  piotcctod  hy  dykes,  wliicli 
give  to  the disfrict  u  {,'eonu'tiical  aspect,  and  the  sweet  waters  are  retained  by  shiiees, 
which  serve  also  to  keep  out  the  sea  at  hi}:;h  tide.  Most  of  tlic  coast  towns  are 
intersected  by  numerous  canals,  whence  the  title  of  "  Chinese  Venice  "  commonly 
given  to  them. 

The  Tsicntang  basin,  some  1  (!,()()()  sijuare  miles  in  extent,  sulfered  almost  more 
than  any  other  ri'gion  from  the  ravages  of  the  Taipings.  Scarcely  more  than  one- 
thirtieth  of  the  inhabitants  survived  the  massacres  and  ensuing  famine.  Yet  the 
country  soon  recovered  from  these  disasters,  and  its  export  trade  in  silks,  teas, 


Fiff.    111.  — (illAM)   ClllsAN   AM)   Pt'TU. 
Sciile  1  :  50U,000. 


)|'4.5- 


0  to  80  Pent. 


B,"  compared 

le  of  Kampii, 
is  supposed 
hed  consider- 
uch  disasters, 
it  it  advances 
size,  and  pro- 
the  embank- 
er (1736—96) 
VII  the  culti- 


80  Fe«t  and  upwards, 
^i^^—.  12  Miles. 


fruits,  hams,  has  already  revived.  Of  its  twenty-nine  towns,  Lau/d  (!Nanchi,  or 
Lanchi),  although  a  simple  /iie)i,  is  the  chief  commercial  centre.  All  are  accessilde 
by  boats  during  the  floods,  but  large  vessels  are  obliged  to  stop  at  C/iapii,  below 
Ilangcbew.  Hut  by  far  the  most  important  place  strategicallj'^  is  Nuigjm,  which 
stands  at  the  junction  of  two  navigable  streams  and  of  numerous  canals  radiating 
thence  to  all  the  cities  of  Chekiang  and  Kiangsi.  Ningpo  also  enjoys  the  advan- 
tages of  good  anchorage,  abundant  supplies,  and  great  facilities  for  defence.  Hence 
the  district,  has  become  famous  in  the  military  records  of  the  empire.  Within 
5  miles  of  the  city  the  Tatars  were  routed  by  the  Chinese  peasantry  in  1130;  in 


2i() 


E.VST  ASIA. 


n. 


\r)')i  tlio  pliieo  was  hoIzhI  and  occupied  by  .Tapimoso  pirates;  audit  was  again 
capluml  in  IMH  hy  tlie  Hritisli  forces,  who  made  it  the  centre  of  their  operations 
a^rainsl  Niinkinj,'  during  the  "opium  war."  The  Portuguese  also  had  a  settlement 
near  Tsinliai,  which  was  entirely  destroyed  by  the  Chinese  in  1542,  when  eight 
hundred  Europeans  were  nuissacred  and  twenty-tive  vessels  sunk. 

Of  late  y(>ars  a  number  of  missionaries  have  been  settled  at  Ningpo,  which  is 
favoured  by  a  fi-rfile  soil,  a  (Udightful  climate,  and  picturescjuc  surntundings.  The 
blue  mountains  bounding  the  horizon  towards  the  south-west  are  amongst  the  best 
wooded  in  ( 'hina  ;  and  one  of  their  gorges,  the  so-called  "  Snowy  Valley,"  is  famous 
throughout  the  East  for  its  white  rocky  walls,  forests,  and  cascades.  Uelow  these 
ui)Iands  stretch  the  ricdi  jdains  renowned  in  the  history  of  CMiine.se  agriculture, 
wlier(>  the  Emperor  Shun  is  traditionally  supposed  to  have  guided  the  handle  of  a 
plough  drawn  by  an  elephant  over  forty  centuries  ago.  In  the  district  are  also 
shown  his  well  and  stone  bed.  Ningpo  is  a  learned  city,  and  one  of  its  private 
libraries,  with  upwards  of  fifty  thousand  volumes,  is  the  common  property  of  u 
community  of  blood  relations,  every  member  of  which  holds  a  key.  The  local 
industry  is  very  active,  and  the  inlaid  or  lacquered  cubinct-work,  carpets,  and 
nettle  mats  manufactured  in  Ningpo  are  exported  even  to  Japan.  Its  foreign 
trade,  formerly  amounting  to  £'2,000,000  yearly,  was  reduced  in  1880  to  little  over 
£23,000,  most  of  the  .shipping  having  been  removed  to  Shanghai.  Ningpo,  how- 
ever, still  remains  the  chief  mart  in  China  for  fish. 

The  surrounding  district  is  occupied  by  several  large  towns,  such  as  Yiii/ao  and 
Tsrh/c  (Zkiyu).  Tinyhai,  on  the  south  side  of  Great  Chusan  (Chew-shan,  or  "  Ship 
Mountain"),  is  the  capital  of  the  Chusan  Archipelago,  which  has  a  population  of 
fully  one  million.  Although  of  difficult  access,  the  port  of  Tinghai  is  deep  and 
well  sheltered,  and  a  large  export  trade  is  here  carried  on  in  such  local  produce  as 
cordage,  mats,  fans,  cloaks  of  palm  fibre,  and  the  so-called  "  Chinese  orange," 
largely  used  by  the  Canton  preservers. 

The  famous  monasteries  of  Piifo  (Putu),  on  a  small  island  in  the  archipelago, 
consecrated  to  Kwanyin,  goddess  of  mercy  and  protectress  of  mariners,  are  much 
fre(iueuted  by  pious  Buddhist  pilgrims.  These  monasteries,  about  100  in  number, 
with  about  2,000  priests,  serve  in  smnmer  as  hotels  for  visitors,  who  resort  to  this 
place  for  sea-bathing.  The  great  industry  of  the  archipelago  is  fishing,  these 
islands  abounding  in  fish  of  every  kind.  Being  mostly  descended  from  pirates, 
the  natives  have  preserved  a  very  independent  spirit.  So  recently  as  1878  they 
successfully  resisted  the  Imperial  forces,  and  thus  got  rid  of  the  Government 
imposts. 

EASTERN  SLOPES  OF  THE  NAN-SHAN. 
(South  Chekiano  and  Fokien.) 

This  is  one  of  the  most  clearly  defined  regions  in  China,  the  main  ridge  of  its 
mountain  system  sharply  separating  Fokien  from  the  Yang-tzo  and  Tsientang 
basins.      The  Nau-shan  ranges,  all  running  south-west  and  north-east,  indicate 


t  was  again 

ir  operations 

u  Hettlonient 

when  eight 

■po,  which  is 
iduigs.  The 
igst  the  best 
',"  is  famous 
Jleh)W  these 
agriculture, 
I  handle  of  a 
^rict  are  also 
if  its  private 
iroperty  of  a 
.  The  local 
carpets,  and 
Its  foreign 
to  little  over 
fingpo,  how- 
is  Yiiijdo  and 
an,  or  "  Ship 
jopulation  of 
i  is  deep  and 
al  produce  as 
ese  orange," 

archipelago, 
TS,  are  much 
•0  in  number, 
resort  to  this 
Sshing,  these 
from  pirates, 
as  1878  they 

Government 


L  ridge  of  its 
lid  Tsientang 
east,  indicate 


-'"--"n..  .-■■'=■■--•-'  ■ 


:;lffv 


mat] 


m 


n 


^^m^ 


W^^^' 


s 


u 


i 

a. 


9) 


a 
» 

td 

(d 


MM 
mm 


^s 


vN>!! 


i 


IMIAIIITANTS  OF  FOKIKN. 


941 


tho  niitural  diroctjon  of  the  historic  nuiti'  followed  liy  tnido  and  iiiijfintion  l)(t\v«M'n 
tho  Yaiifif-l/c  oMtuary  and  tho  Canton  Uivc>r.  This  routo  was  ni'Cfssarily  dctlcctrd 
iidund  to  tho  went  of  l''oki(>n  and  the  water-part injf.  IW'twccn  Ilanj^chcw-fu  anil 
Canton  it  followo<l  the  vullcy  of  the  navigable  Tsicntang  as  far  as  a  pass  leading 
into  Kianjfsi,  whence  it  trended  southwards  over  the  Mei-linjf  Pass. 

Kast  of  this  fornierly  nuicli-fre(|uentcd  connnereial  hijjhway  the  space  hetwcen 
tho  water-part  in  ji[  and  tho  coast  was  too  narrow  and  ru^'p'd  to  allow  the  sinains  to 
incrgf»»  in  a  coninion  river  basin.  Hence  they  flow  seawards  in  s«>veral  intlependeiit 
clumnels,  Homo  of  which  are  si'parated  from  oacli  other  by  diflicult  intervening 
ridpfOH.  Thus  South  Chekiang  is  naturally  divided  into  two  districts,  watered  by 
the  Taicliew  and  Wenchew  Rivers  respectively.  l*'okien  also  is  distributed  into  a 
number  of  distinitt  re<,'ions  correspondinjf  with  the  basins  of  the  Min  and  i>f  tho 
HtreaniN  flowing  to  the  Amoy  and  Swatow  (>stuaries.  The  axes  of  the  uplands  run 
parallel  with  tho  coast  and  tho  Nan-shan  system,  so  that  the  affluents  of  tho  nutin 
streams  traviTso  intermodiato  valleys  in  tho  same  direction ;  that  is,  either  south- 
west and  north-east,  or  north-oast  and  south-west.  H«'nco  hero  also  tho  natural 
routes,  avoiding  tho  hilly  and  much-indented  sealwiard,  take  advantage  of  tho 
depressions  in  tho  upland  valleys  Iwtween  the  ])arallel  main  ranges.  Intercourse 
between  tho  inhabitants  of  Fokien  has  thus  been  maintaine<l  either  by  sea  or  l)y 
the  uplands  of  the  interior.  Hut  although  thus  cut  oft'  from  the  great  imperial 
highways,  this  region,  thanks  to  tho  fertility  of  its  valleys  and  its  healthy  climate, 
has  iK'como  one  of  the  richest  and  most  densely  peopled  in  China.  Its  seclu<Ied 
]K)sition  has  also  largely  protected  it  from  devastating  wars,  so  that  agriculture 
and  industry  have  been  almost  uninterruptoflly  developed  for  thousands  of  years. 

Tho  Fokien  seaboard,  cut  up  into  countless  headlands  and  rocky  peninsulas, 
and  fringed  by  myriads  of  islets  and  reefs,  presents  a  somewhat  sombre  aspect, 
notwithstanding  the  infinite  variety  of  its  coast-lino.  Most  of  the  granite  hills 
nro  entirely  destitute  of  vegetation  beyond  a  few  clumps  of  dwarfed  conifers. 
In  some  places  the  shore  is  skirted  by  white  sandy  dunes,  and  although  the  flora 
is  mainly  tropical,  it  is  too  scanty  to  form  a  marked  feature  in  the  landscape,  liut 
farther  inland,  and  beyond  tho  marine  winds,  tho  country  assumes  a  pleasant 
aspect,  with  a  rich  spontaneous  vegetation  clothing  even  tho  slopes,  which  are  too 
steep  to  be  cut  into  terraces  and  brought  under  cultivation.  Below  Fuchew  the 
banks  of  the  Min  luifold  a  succession  of  enchanting  prospects,  in  which  a  pleasant 
contrast  is  oft'ored  by  the  tropical  foliage  of  the  lowlands  and  tho  temperate  plants 
of  the  higher  grounds. 

Inhahitants  of  Fokiex. 

Their  relative  isolation  in  their  secluded  valleys  has  enabled  tho  natives  of 
Fokion  to  maintain  their  special  physical  characteristics,  so  that  in  some  respects 
they  contrast  with  all  the  other  inhabitants  of  the  empire.  Here  are  current  at 
least  five  distinct  dialects,  of  which  the  most  marked  seems  to  bo  that  of  Amoy, 
Avhich  has  been  carefully  studied  by  Medhurst  and  Douglas.  Besides  jwssessing 
several  tones  unknown  to  the  Mandarin   variety,  this  dialect  employs  numerous 


M:i;' 


'■ftr;'  — 


mmi^ 


242 


KA8T  AHIA. 


(liK>vlliil)if  ciiiniMMiiHlH,  anil  rvcn  varii'M  the  iiiH(>rtioiiM  i»f  roTnmon  wonN  bv  iiicann 
of  iMiMiil  <»r  coiitrartrd  niiliii^M.  Tlirsc  l-'okicii  dialfcls,  wliich  «'iiciimch  upon  tlio 
iiDrthrrti  and  iMiNtrrii  diHtrictN  of  l\\vmi^;tiiii^,  giv<>  a  certain  national  unity  to  thu 
popidalioiiH  H|M«akin);  them.  Tlicy  huvi'  \h'vu  diMMciuinatt'd  by  migration  ovit  tim 
l'liilip|)in<>s,  MalavHiii,  Indo-Oiina,  and  i>vt>n  parts  of  Anicrit'a.  Tlu*  Anioy  and 
Swalow  varictirs  prevail  in  Han^kok,  Lima,  and  SacranuMito. 

In  l-'okii'ii,  as  wi'll  as  in  Kwan^tiin);  and  tlu>  Cliumin  Arcliiprla^o,  tlicro  Ntill 
exist  certain  despised  elasses  wliieli  are  repirded  us  tin*  survivors  of  an  altorij^inul 
clement.  TIk  \  liv(>  apart  Iron  the  rest  of  tlie  popidation,  and  in  many  districts, 
e(ip<'ciallv  Fucliew,  they  can  neither  «»\vn  prop«'rty  nor  oven  reside  on  the  mainland. 
Deing  <'oinpelled  to  live  afloat,  they  move  about  fntin  iM»rt  to  jM)rt,  exiMisi-d  to  wind, 
rain,  and  storm,  or  taking  shelter  in  the  creeks  and  inlets  along  the  coast.  These 
amphibious  communities  have  even  their  floating  temples  and  Taoist  priests,  who 
celebrate  their  marriages  and  perform  the  ceremonies  in  honour  of  the  "  Nino 
Kings."  Hut  neither  Ituddhism  nor  the  rites  of  Confucius  have  ever  penctratt'd 
amongst  them.  The  outcasts  are  condemned  to  ignorance,  becuuse  their  childn^n  are 
not  admissible  to  the  public  examinations;  while  three  generaticms  nnist  pass 
before  their  descendants,  tolerat(>d  as  barlH'rs  or  palancpiin-btarers  in  the  towns, 
can  acquire  full  j-iti/enshij).  Many  of  the  rompra'/oiTs,  or  agents  of  the  European 
traders,  Ix'long  to  this  class ;  but  however  wealthy  they  may  grow,  they  are 
never  permitttnl  to  become  landed  pmjjrictors.  ('ustom  has  thus  j)roved  stronger 
than  the  beneticent  edicts  of  the  Kmperor  Yungching,  published  in  their  favour  in 
th(>  year  17!10.  In  the  highlands  stretching  west  of  Fuchew  some  almriginal  trilM's 
still  bear  the  nanm  of  Min  ;  that  is,  of  the  chief  river  and  of  the  old  kingdom 
which  ha8  bocomo  the  province  of  Kokien. 


TOPOGKAPHV. 

South  of  Ningpo  the  numerous  inlets  along  the  coast  offer  safe  harbours  of 
refuge  to  the  junks  navigating  these  waters.  S/iipu  is  the  busiest  port  on  the 
South  Chekiang  seaboard,  although  here  the  treaty  |)ort  is  Wr»('lmr,  at  the  head  of 
uu  estuary  formed  by  a  navigable  river.  Wenchcw  was  formerly  a  place  of  much 
imp(jttance,  as  attested  by  the  ruins  of  its  palaces,  sculptured  gateways,  and 
triumphal  arches.  The  "  Feng-shui,"  say  the  natives,  is  no  longer  favourable  to 
the  local  prosjjcrity ;  but  the  true  cause  of  its  decadence  are  the  jieople  themselves, 
who  have  become  probably  the  most  inveterate  opium  smokers  in  all  China.  Even 
the  innuites  of  tlie  numerous  convents  lead  dissolute  lives,  and  to  put  an  end  to  the 
scandals  the  civic  governor  recently  caused  the  nuns  to  be  seized  and  publicly  sold 
"  by  weight."  The  average  price  was  about  £3  per  head.*  All  the  trade  is  in 
native  hands,  and  in  1871)  not  a  single  IJritish  vessel  entered  the  port,  although  the 
imported  goods  are  almost  entirely  of  English  manufacture. 

Of  the  numerous  inlets  following  southwards  the  most  spacious  is  that  giving 
access  to  the  city  of  Funiny-fii.    It  forms  a  broad  land-locked  basin  dotted  over  with 

•  W.  Everard'g  Consular  Report  for  1879. 


1m  1)\    IIU'IIIIN 

(;h  u|Min  tlio 

unity  <<•  tlio 

1)11  ttvcr  tho 

Aiiiiiy  and 

),  there  Htill 
n  alMtri^^inul 
my  (listrictH, 
le  mainland, 
iseil  to  wind, 
Hint.  These 
priestn,  who 
the  "  Nino 
r  peiietrat«>d 
ehildren  are 

I  inUNt    paHH 

II  the  townH, 
ho  European 
w,  they  are 
ved  Htron}»er 
eir  favour  in 
•ipinal  tribes 
Ad  kingdom 


harbours  of 
port  on  tho 
t  the  head  of 
lace  of  nuieh 
iteways,  and 
'avourable  to 
D  themselves, 
!hina.  Even 
m  end  to  the 
pnbliely  sold 
e  trade  is  in 
although  the 

8  that  giving 
ted  over  with 


Pl^s. 


lil 


{'VyHl^^fi^A^Bi 

'  ■'    , ..      j "  ' 

1 

"■■'..,'^ 

1 1'V.'         ,if 

,  *. 

,.t 

/ 

* 

■>'  "'':  ,/" 

■t 

''-■   n^/ 

1/ 

.i^-- 


v,.\  I^'m  a?,,xS 


■', '    '"  .* 


>;.,2,riji 


^rru 


■  \.  ""  n  '' 


-\  :^;  t^ 


■■■.".  VArV'H 


^"^  cU' 


BUDDHIST  MONASTEKY  AT  TITEN-FU  ON  THE  MIN,  SOUTH  OF   FUCHU-FU. 


'll.''tli.lt'.'...t,.   A'-  .   ...A'!! 


r^^-"«'.!i'HUv!RHH4c^.Tr" 


1  Tunrniim^je  wnatm 


TOPOGRAPHY. 


243 


xm-" — 

p    . 

>/ 

..^V     ^ 


:\      C^^.^ 


lita 


^<f 


J-FU. 


islets,  and  completely  sheltered  from  uU  winds.  But  the  chief  seaport  on  the  south- 
east coast  between  Shanghai  and  Canton  is  Fn('hew-/i<,  capital  ot  Fokieii,  and  one  of 
the  great  cities  of  the  empire.  From  its  delightful  surroundings  it  seems  to  take 
its  name,  which  is  usually  explained  to  mean  "Happy  Land,"  althougli  by  the 
natives  more  commonly  called  llokchew,  or  else  Yung-cheng ;  that  is,  "  Hanana 
Castle."  Fuchew  lies,  n(»t  on  tlie  coast,  but  some  -'W  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the 
Mill,  near  its  junction  with  another  large  stream  from  the  south-west.  After  ciosn- 
ing  the  bar,  which  has  Vi  feet  at  h)W  water,  the  shii)ping  passes  through  a  deep 
channel  400  yards  wide,  flowing  between  steep  granite  walls  and  defended  by  the 
Kin-pai  forts.  Higher  up  succeeds  the  Mingan  passage,  also  commanded  by  forts 
on  both  sides,  above  which  the  Min  expands  into  a  spacious  sheet  of  water  '20  feet 
deep  at  the  arsenal  where  the  shipping  stops.     This  arsenal,  constructed  in  hSdf) 

Fig.  112.— Mouth  op  thb  Mix. 

Scule  1  :  &00,000. 


0  to  16  Feet. 


16  Feet  and  upwards 
_^__  13  MilcB 


by  the  French  engineers  Giquel  and  D'Aiguebelle,  is  the  most  important  naval 
establishment  in  the  empire.  It  includes  a  school  of  navigation,  extensive  work- 
shops and  building  yards,  from  which  fifteen  men-of-war  were  launched  within  five 
years  of  its  foundation. 

The  walled  city  of  Fuchew-fu  stands  2  miles  from  the  north  bank  of  the  Min, 
but  the  intermediate  space  is  occupied  by  a  large  suburb,  where  are  concentrated 
all  the  industries  and  trade  of  the  place.  Witliin  the  walls  is  the  '*  Tatar  town," 
where  reside  ten  thousand  descendants  of  the  Manchu  conquerors.  On  the  opposite 
side  of  the  river  lies  the  populous  suburb  of  Ndiitui,  and  the  small  island  of 
Chungchew,  in  the  m'ddle  of  the  river,  is  also  covered  with  houses.  This  island  is 
connected  with  both  bank<»  by  two  granite  bridges,  one  of  which,  the  "  Bridge  of 
Ten  Thousand  Years"  (Wcuchew-kiao),  is  000  yards  long,  and  is  said  to  date  from 
the  eleventh  century.      Unfortunately  some  of  the  huge  granite  blocks  of  the 


"y>iSi^, 


'ihfi, 


244 


EAST  ASIA. 


roadwiiv  liiiv(>  fallen  intd  the  .stmiin,  wliero  tlicy  have  formed  rapids,  barrinj?  the 
fiirthor  pro^rcHs  of  junks.  In  1870  this  bridge,  although  coniplotely  submerged 
by  the  inundations  of  the  Min,  suecessfuUy  resisted  the  violenee  of  the  current. 

The  Eurojjean  quarter  lies  in  the  Nantai  suburb,  where  most  of  the  houses  are 
scattered  amid  t)ld  Chinese  tombs  on  the  slope  of  a  hill  commanding  a  prospect  of 
the  eitv.     The  chief  staple  of  export  has  for  years  been  tea,  forwarded  almost 

exclusively    to    England    and 
Fig.   lia.— Flciie\v-iu. 
Scale  1  :  55,000. 


Nort)lC^tr 


Australia.  Recently,  however, 
the  Russian  traders  settled  at 
Fuchew  have  begun  to  prepare 
brick  tea,  which  is  shipped  for 
Tientsin  and  Siberia.  The  local 
traffic  consists  of  lumber, 
bamboos,  furniture,  papi'r,  rice, 
fruits,  exchanged  for  European 
goods  from  Hongkong,  Canton, 
and  Shanghai. 

Six  miles  above    Fuchew 
the  Min  is  crossed  bj'  another 
bridge  like  the  "Wenchcw-kiao. 
But  all  river  craft  are  arrested 
at  S/nii-kow,  below  the  great 
city  of  Ynufjpiiiy,  which  stands 
at  the  converging  point  of  the 
chief  routes  of  the  Min  basin. 
The  botanist  Fortune  ascended 
the  main  stream  to  visit  the 
districts  where  the  best  black 
teas    of    I'^okien    are    grown. 
Rut  various  obstacles  compellecl 
him  to  retrace  his  steps,  return- 
ing by  a  pass  over  the  "  Rohea  " 
Mountains,     which     attain    a 
mean    elevation   of    0,000  or 
7,000  feet,  with  peaks  rising 
in  the  eastern  ridges  to  10,000 
feet.      The  great  tea  mart  in 
this  upper  regi(m  of  the  Min  is 
Tnoitgnn,  not  far  from  the  isolated  Wi-shan,  one  of  the  most  venerated  mountains 
in  China,  consisting  of  conglomerate  sandstone,  granite,  and  quartz,  and  rising 
1,000  feet  above    the  plain.     Here  is  also  one  of  the  best  tea-growing  tracts, 
extensively  cultivated  by  thc>  Buddhist  monks  of  the  "  999  temples  "  scattered  over 
the  surrounding  hills. 

Refore   Fuchew  the  more  southerly   city  of    Tswanc/ww  was   the   capital  of 


CofG 


116"  59 


2,20'1  Yards. 


"$«*^*SSiW(l!3(.B'E"W«"W^Pl)PHSS5'-a.^*^  . 


■mmmmm'^- 


TOl'OGUArilY. 


215 


barrinj;  tho 
siibiuorgod 
curroiit. 
)  houses  tiro 
prospect  of 
rded  iiliuost 
■  •rlund  uiid 
ly,  however, 
•a  settled  at 
[I  to  ])repiiro 
shipped  for 
.1.  Theloeal 
af  lumber, 
,  papi'r,  riee, 
nr  European 
mg,  Canton, 

vo  Fuehew 
[  by  another 
•nchcw-kiao. 

arc  arrested 
w  the  great 
(vhich  stands 
point  of  the 
e  Min  basin, 
line  ascended 

to  visit  the 
e  best  black 

are    grown. 

es  compelled 
steps,  return- 
the"l{ohea" 
ih  attain  a 
of  0,000  or 
peaks  rising 
?es  to  10,000 

tea  mart  in 
of  the  Min  is 
ckI  mountains 
z,  and  rising 
jwing  tracts, 
icattercd  over 

le   capital  of 


Fokion,  and  is  still  the  residence  of  the  provinciul  militiiry  governor.  Must 
commentators  identify  this  pUuie,  vulgarly  culled  T^ufun;/,  willi  Marco  INilu's 
Zayton  (Zaitun),  which  Ibn  Hatuta  descrilK^s  as '*  the  largest  port  in  tli(  woi-ld." 
In  mediicval  times  it  was  much  frecjuented  by  the  Arab  tradei-s,  and  even  the 
Anncnians  and  (ienoese  had  settlements  here.  Marignoli  saw  "tlirci'  beautiful 
churches"  in  tliis  city  "of  incredible  extent,"  where  an  Italian  bishop  resided 
from  1:518  to  I'-i'-i'i.     Its  harbour  was  crowded  with  vessels  to  such  an  extent  lliat, 

Fipf.  114.— Shlt-kow,  on  the  1'pprr  JIix,  Fokien. 


on  the  occasion  of  a  war  with  Japan,  the  local  merchants  boasted  that  they  could 
throw  a  bridge  of  boats  from  their  port  to  the  archipelago  of  the  "  Rising  Sun." 
Zayton  supplied  the  Western  traders  with  sugar,  velvets,  and  silks,  and  Ibn  liatuta 
expressly  declares  that  the  word  Zdituniah,  or  "  satin,"  is  derived  from  this  place, 
an  etymology  which  Colonel  Yule  seems  half  inclined  to  accept. 

But  the  roadstead  of  Tswanchcw  was  gradually  choked  with  sjind,  and  its  vast 
trade  transferred  farther  south  to  the  great  Bay  of  Amoi/,  which  seems  to  have  also 


246 


EAST  ASIA. 


l)eeii  kiutwii  by  tlic  iiiiine  of  Xaitun,  uh  eoiniiu'rcially  dcponclnnt  on  Tswanchew,  in 
the  (listricf  of  wliich  it  is  Kituatcd.  At  present  the  little  jM)rt  of  Ntjanhai  serves  us 
the  entrepot  of  traIKe  between  the  ohl  iM>rt  of  Zaitun  and  its  sneeessor. 

Anioy  (Ilianien,  or  Ilianiun),  now  open  to  the  trade  of   the  West,  lies  on  an 
island  apparently  at  one  time  conneeted  with  the  mainland,  in  one  of  the  very 

Fig.  116.   -Amov. 
BniUe  I  :  ISO.Ono. 


Ii8"iff 


0  to  64  Feet. 


CI  Feet  and  upwards. 
—_— ^_^  6  Miles. 


fine.st  harbours  in  the  world.  It  was  already  the  chief  port  in  the  province  of 
Fokien  when  the  Portufj^uese  arrived  here  in  the  boj^inning  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
It  remained  acces.sible  to  European  shippin*^  till  the  yQnx  1730,  after  which  it 
was  clo.sed  till  reopened  by  the  f>;uns  of  the  Knjjlijsh  in  1840.  The  colony  of  the 
"  ivd-haired  devils,"  Avhieh  numbered  three  hundred  souls  in  1880,  has  bt^en 
established  in  the  little  island  of  Kulang-su,  over  half  a  mile  from  Amoy,  and 


.-IWl'SWiJCtBM'WillW'Jat  •- 


^^-mcsmsm-'- 


BASIN  OF  THE  SI-KIANO. 


247 


rtiiiu'how,  in 
lini  serves  us 

,  lies  on  all 
of  the  very 


ys4 


,^^l 


S^ 


province  of 
iith  century, 
ter  which  it 
olony  of  the 
0,  has   bt^en 

Amoy,  and 


round  nlwut  this  settloinont  quite  a  hirj^e  native  city  has  sprunj*  up.  TTore  the 
naturalist  Swinhoe  founchnl  a  U'arned  society  in  IHo?,  which  has  done  much  gmtd 
work  in  various  branches  of  natural  history. 

The  trade  of  Amoy,  about  as  extensive  as  that  of  Fuchew,  consists  mainly  in 
opium  taken  in  exchan<»e  for  tea  and  sjijyar.  Here  also  emifj^rants  arc  sliipj)(<d,  and 
a  large  passcnj^er  traffic  has  been  developed  between  this  place  and  Sinffiiporo. 
Amoy,  which  is  one  of  the  most  cnterprisinf^  cities  in  China,  is  now  provided  with 
repairing  docks  largo  enough  to  accommodate  steamers  of  2,000  tons  burdi'n. 
The  chief  island  in  the  harbour  consists  partly  of  a  barren  mass  of  granite, 
but  the  rich  district  on  the  mainland  round  about  the  large  cities  of  Chaiujchcw 
and  Tuiigan  has  been  converted  into  a  vast  garden. 


BASIN  OF  THE  SI-KIANG. 
(Pkovinces  op  Kwanosi  and  Kwanotuno.) 

Within  the  torrid  zone  is  comprised  about  one-half  of  this  region,  which  in  its 
climate,  products,  and  inhabitants  presents  the  sharpest  contrasts  to  the  rest  of  the 
empire.  During  the  historic  period  the  Si-kiang  basin  has  been  more  than  once 
politically  independent  of  the  northern  rulers,  and  here  the  formidable  Taiping 
revolt  had  its  origin  about  the  middle  of  the  present  century.  The  province  of 
Kwangtung,  comprising  about  one-twentieth  of  all  the  inhabitants  of  China,  still 
exercises  a  political  influence  out  of  proportion  to  its  population,  and  its  capital, 
said  to  be  the  largest  in  the  empire,  is  regarded  us  in  many  respects  acting  as  a 
counterpoise  to  Peking,  at  the  opposite  extremity  of  the  state.  While  the 
"  Northern  Residence "  watches  over  the  Mongolian  plateaux,  the  cradle  of  so 
many  invasions,  Canton,  or  "  the  Eastern  City,"  almost  half  Indian  in  its  climate, 
maintains  the  relodons  of  the  Chinese  world  with  the  peninsulas  and  islands 
watered  by  the  Indian  Ocean. 

North  of  the  Si-kiang  valley  the  various  mountain  ranges,  known  by  a 
thousand  local  names,  and  to  which  Richthofen  gives  the  collective  name  of  Nan- 
shan,  develop,  as  in  the  Yang-tze  basin,  a  series  of  parallel  ridges  running 
south-west  and  north-east,  with  large  intervening  breaks.  Conspicuous  amongst 
these  is  the  Ping-yi-shan,  said  to  rise  above  the  snow-line.  The  northern  chains 
are  believed  to  have  a  far  greater  mean  elevation  than  those  in  South  Kwangtung, 
which  skirt  the  course  of  the  Yu-kiang,  stretching  thence  parallel  with  the  gulf 
far  into  Tonking.  Beyond  the  lofty  and  massive  Loyang  they  are  pierced  by  the 
Si-kiang,  the  gorges  here  formed  by  this  river  constituting  the  natural  frontier 
between  the  two  provinces  of  Kwangsi  and  Kwangtung.  Other  ridges,  running 
mostly  in  the  same  north-easterly  direction,  occupy  the  eastern  region  of  Kwang- 
tung, whence  they  are  continued  into  Fokien.  One  of  these  begins  at  the  very  giites 
of  Canton,  here  forming  the  picturesque  group  of  the  Peiyun-shan  (Puk-wan-shun), 
or  "  White  Cloud  Mountains,"  whose  slopes  are  covered  with  countless  tombs. 
Farther  on  the  Lofu  Hills,  4,000  to  5,000  feet  high,  are  clothed  with  a  forest 
vegetation,  in  the  shade  of  which  the  Buddhist  monks  have  built  their  monasteries. 


ircviii-saErtSaEiii^.A: 


248 


EAST  ASIA. 


Still  fart lior  oasf  these  clmiiiH  arc  comu'rtt'd  hy  uii  unsurvoyod  hi}?hlan(l  roj^ion 
with  tilt'  ])arall('l  Fokicn  ranj^oa.  According  to  the  reports  of  the  inisMioiiaries 
some  of  these  or(>sts,  especially  between  the  Han-kiang  andTun-kiung  river  basins, 
are  lofty  enough  tt)  be  covered  with  snow  in  winter. 

South  of  Fokien,  iho  copious  TTan-kiang,  collecting  the  drainage  of  "West 
Kwaiigtung,  flows  from  the  Kiangsi  frontier  due  south  through  the  breaks  in  the 
parallel  rang(>s.  ]5ut  its  chief  aflluent,  the  Mei-kiang,  foHows  one  of  the 
intermediate  north-easterly  depressions,  thus  offering  u  transverse  route  from 
Fokien  to  the  Si-kiung  basin. 


The  Si-KiANfi  River  System. 

The  Si-kinng,  or  Sei-kong,  as  the  Cantonese  pronounce  the  word,  which  means 
"  West  River,"  contains  a  large  volume  of  water,  due  mainly  to  the  summer 
monsoons.  These  trade  winds  send  to  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Nan-shnn  an 
abundant  rainfall,  which  in  the  province  of  Kwangtung  is  estimated  for  the 
whole  year  at  over  20  inches.  The  Si-kiang,  knowni  also  as  the  Pu^-kiang, 
or  "  River  of  I'ue  " — that  is,  of  the  two  southern  ])rovinces — receives  its  fartliest 
head-streams  from  Yunnan  and  the  Kweichew  uplands  occupied  by  the  Miaotze 
tribes.  The  Ilung-shui,  its  main  branch,  flows  under  various  names  before 
receiving  from  the  Cantonese  the  designation  by  which  its  lower  course  is  known. 
This  want  of  a  more  precise  nomenclature  has  enabled  every  traveller  to  regard 
the  head-stream  visited  by  himself  as  the  main  branch.  Thus  Hue  and  Gabet, 
who  embarked  on  a  stream  rising  at  the  foot  of  the  Mei-ling  in  the  north  of  the 
province  of  Canton,  and  Moss,  who  ascended  the  Yu-kiang,  which  rises  in  Tonking, 
all  supposed  they  had  explored  the  chief  branch  of  the  Si-kiang.  Below  the 
confluence  of  these  two  tributaries  the  main  stream  is  joined  by  the  Kwei-kiang, 
after  which  it  penetrates  through  a  series  of  defiles  into  the  province  of  Kwangtung. 
At  some  points  it  is  obstructed  by  shoals,  and  at  low  water  there  is  little  more  than 
6  or  7  feet  in  the  channel.  Rut  during  the  summer  rains  it  rises  from  25  to 
30  feet  and  upwards,  while  the  tides  are  felt  in  Kwangsi,  180  miles  from  its  mouth. 
In  some  parts  of  the  channel  the  plummet  reveals  depths  of  from  150  to  170  feet. 

After  emerging  from  its  last  narrow  gorge,  where  it  contracts  to  630  feet 
between  its  rocky  walls  nearly  1,200  feet  high,  the  Si-kiang  is  joined  by  the 
Pc-kiang,  or  "  River  of  the  North,"  at  the  head  of  the  delta.  From  its  source  to  this 
point  it  develops  a  course  of  about  800  miles,  throughout  which  it  presents  the 
only  commercial  highway  from  Canton  to  the  three  provinces  of  Kwangsi, 
Kweichew,  and  Yunnan.  Through  the  same  channel  a  portion  of  the  traffic  is 
carried  on  with  the  regions  of  Indo-China,  watered  by  the  Red  River  and  the 
Mekhong.  Yet  the  Pe-kiang  is  still  more  important  than  the  main  stream  as  a 
trade  route,  for  it  forms  a  section  of  the  great  highway  conn^  -^  mg  Canton  w^ith 
the  Yang-t/  3  basin,  where  the  only  interruption  is  the  Mei-liuj,  i'ass.  Thi«  is  the 
route  followed  by  most  European  travellers  who  have  visited  the  southern  regions 
of  the  empire.     The  Pe-kiung  was  explored  in  1693  by  the  missionary  Bouvet,  and 


.'umi&^imtm.i 


-asiKWisssaiKP' 


land  roj^ion 
iiiissi(»iiiiru!S 
river  basins, 

»o  of  "West 
roaks  in  the 
mo  of  the 
route   from 


rliich  means 
the  smnmer 
'J^an-slirm  an 
itetl  for  the 

Pud-kianpf, 
s  its  fartliest 
the  Miaotze 
amcs  before 
se  is  known. 
er  to  repird 

and  Gabot, 
north  of  the 

in  Tonking^, 
Below  the 
K-.vei-kiang, 
Kwangtmig. 
le  more  than 
8  from  25  to 
m  its  mouth, 
to  170  feet. 

to  630  feet 
(ined  by  the 
source  to  this 
presents  the 
)f  Kwangsi, 
the  traffic  is 
iver  and  the 
(1  stream  as  a 
Canton  with 
Th:«  is  the 
hern  regions 

Bouvet,  and 


1^^ 


•  >-i<tk<«^i<^,i'u^1^j.-m.,n^^ 


CANTON    AND   THE   P 


Si 


r  'V  r r ; 

'     ]]J 


^ 


ttllokaihan 


■  t0 


/  ." ;      ^.    s,      y  _„.'.©  Ho utishuii 

.  .mom  -jji  y,.,,       ./  ' 


— S'       If-.^-''^ 


-1 


\ 


V, 


,,i'  ^Smc 


. . __£ -nM'r-^ "   "  "-"■'■^~''--  .\ — I 

na' 


jlia'E.ufGr. 


I ---  -' 

0  to  leFf 


16  to  sa 


NEW  YORK    ;.'    ■•' 


NTON   AND  THE  PEARL   RIVER. 


m 


KWANAT.IIlKy  KIJI'tfANTttN)     ■'*  \  •'l'^"'^. 


J»f~*S~ 


-■■IHolo 


■hi 


shin 


i 


/ 


) 


4 


V 


■.^.;iv 


■Bhiui 


.t'.  r 


S^'.IS; 


..N...*y^ 


r-f: 


■".>^ 


(      i. 


2  ^'~Jv^  -iV^'-^  -> 

•4    vr-^^^rsl^-^^V'' 


Wl«u^%- 


/&  to  ;)7 


3'i  U 
1  :  «7  I   000 


NEW  YORf-C    ;-.  .^  ■•-  1-ETON  8c C9 


.V6   to  160  ISO  S  upwttrda. 


St'Milei 


rtfe^Hi'i'iVya.v-. 


TlIK  canto: 


J.TA. 


24U 


in  17'.2'2  Oiiul)!!  survoy«Ml  tin?  Imniii  iiNtranmnic.    ty.    0     A\  th>'  historic  roiitcN  of  tbr 
eiiipin'  lliis   is  llu*  niost   iiiiiMirtaiit.  an  Init  fui       tin    *•)»••!       i  the  nouIIutii  rcji^if  u 
would  remain  (Iftacla'd  from  tlio  "Middle   K     ,'<loin."     S    .  <   tlie  d<  v'loiimeut  i 
Bteam  nuvi^atioii  on  the  eou«t  the  traflie  on  the    l'«'-kiang  ■    -  li>    u  i      -h  rcfiucw 
nlllioii<i;h  the  overland  intercourse  between  the  ISi-kiuug  and  Yung-i/      .,*uii  i»  Uti'-^ 
very  considerable. 

TiiK  Canton   Dki.ta. 

Ik'low  the  confluence  of  the  Si-kiang  and  "  lliver  of  the  North  "  the  united 
Btreum  in  again  divided  ulmost  at  right  unglcH.  The  main  <-hannel  tlowN  soutli- 
wurds  to  the  count,  while  a  second  brunch  trends  eastwardn  to  the  network  of 
countless  branches  and  backwaters  everywhere  intersecting  the  alluvial  jdains  of 
Canton.  This  labyrinth  of  waters  is  joined  from  the  east  by  another  great  stream, 
the  Tung-kiang,  or  "  lliver  of  the  Kusf,"  whose  furthest  sources  rise  in  tluf  north- 
east on  the  frontiers  of  Kiangsi  and  Fokien.  This  is  also  an  important  highway, 
e»j)ecially  for  the  transport  of  sugar,  rice,  and  other  agricultural  pioducc. 

Thanks  to  the  tides,  nearly  ull  the  channels  of  the  delta  are  navigable,  and  so 
numerous  urc  these  watercourses  that  in  u  region  over  ^,000  M[uare  miles  in  extent 
land  routes  are  scarcely  anywhere  required.  Thus  the  whole  population  has  almost 
become  umphibious,  living  indifferently  on  land  und  afloat.  liurge  water  fairs 
have  even  been  held  in  the  deltu,  when  reaches,  at  other  times  almost  deserted, 
huvc  been  teniporurily  converted  into  extensive  flouting  cities.  Other  industries 
beside  fishing  are  pursued  by  the  inhabitants,  and  many  even  of  the  agricultural 
classes  reside  permanently  in  boats  moored  to  the  shore.  This  region  bus  thus 
naturally  Ix'conie  the  great  centre  of  commerce  in  the  empire.  lUit  here  also 
during  times  of  disorder  piracy  has  found  u  ccmveniont  home  umid  the  intricute 
nujze  of  chunnels  ramifying  over  the  deltu.  Even  the  Kuropeun  war  vessels  found 
it  difficult  to  rid  this  region  from  the  daring  corsairs  by  whom  it  was  infested. 

The  city  of  Cunton  stands  about  midway  between  the  two  heads  of  the  deltu 
which  is  formed  on  the  west  by  the  united  Si-kiang  and  Pe-kiang,  on  the  east  by  tho 
branches  of  the  Tung-kiang.  Thus  from  this  point  junks  reach  the  two  estuaries 
by  the  shortest  channels.  Of  these  the  broadest  and  deepest,  ramifying  eastwards, 
is  known  as  the  "  River  of  Canton,"  or  the  "  Pearl  River  "  (Chu-kiang),  a  name 
8uppo.sed  to  bo  derived  from  that  of  Fort  Hai-chu,  or  "  Pearl  of  the  Sea,"  better 
known  as  the  "  Dutch  Folly."  *  But  even  by  this  channel  large  vessels  urc  unuble 
to  reach  Cantcm,  junks  of  deep  draught  and  ordinary  steamers  stopping  8  miles 
lower  down  at  Iloang-pu  (Whampou),  while  lurge  men-of-wur  are  arrested  much 
farther  down  by  a  bar  which  has  only  Vi  feet  at  ebb  tide.  The  limit  of  the  Pearl 
River  and  of  the  estuary  is  clearly  marked  by  the  rocky  cliffs  confining  the  channel 
on  both  sides,  and  the  fortified  headlands  of  which  have  been  compurcd  by  the 
Chinese  to  the  jaws  of  a  tiger.  Hence  the  expression  Hitmen,  transluted  by  the 
Europeans  into  "Bocca  Tigris,"  or  the  "  Bogue."  The  shoals  and  even  the  banks 
of  the  stream  are  subject  to  constant  shiftings,  the  land  generally  encroaching  on 
•  Thut  is,  the  "  Dutcli  Foit,"  from  Fo-li,  the  Pigeon  Englith  pronunciation  of  the  word./bW. 
49 


■"VTS^ 


2rj() 


EAST  ASIA. 


thi>  «'lmniit'l,  (iwiiij;  to  a  lino  of  liilln  wliicli  run  Houth-woNt  iind  north-oiiHt  iktosh  iho 
alluviiil  soil,  mill  wliicli  serve  to  retiiiii  llie  sedimeiitin y  inatter  broii;;lit  down  hy  tlit> 
Ml  ream  ami  waHJiid  haek  l)y  llie  tid»'s.  Tlu-  iioilheriinioMf  oi'  tluse  iidj,'.'K  coiisiNtH 
of  lar;^e  inlands,  al)ove  Honie  of  wliicli  rinc  elevated  eiestn,  Nueli  us  the  twt)  peaks  of 
the  island  of  Wun^fkiini  at  the  entry  of  the  Canton  estuary,  In'tter  known  hy  its 
I'ortu^niese  nanu  of  Montanha.  The  l.adrones,  or  "  Hohher  "  Islands,  like  Ifonj^ 
Kon^  itw<1f,  form  itortions  of  un  intermediate  ehain,  while  still  further  seawards 
Htretuhes  th(!  h)n|;  urchipela^o  of  thu  Luiping  and  Lenui  j^roups. 

ri.iMATK  ni'  SoiTii  China. 

Tn  the  Si-kiau)?  hasin  the  torrid  und  teinperuto  zones  are  intonninj»led.  With 
the  alternation  of  the  monsoons,  Cunton  oseillutes  hetwin-n  the  two,  so  tlnit  its 
climate  is  far  less  ocpiuhle  than  that  of  Cuhuttu,  Honolulu,  Havana,  und  other 
places  situated  under  the  same  parallel.*  During  the  moist  summer  monsoon  the 
southern  provinces  ure  us  hot  us  Indiun  cities  equally  distunt  from  the  equator. 
Hut  the  temi)erature  rapidly  falls  in  winter,  when  the  dry  uorth-eust  polar  winds 
("Weep  down  In'tween  the  parallel  mountain  iunp;es,  running  mainly  north-eust  und 
south-west.  Rain  seldom  falls  in  January,  when  the  nij;;hts  are  clear,  und  even 
frosty.  At  the  same  tin.e,  the  re<,'ulur  alternation  of  moist  sunnner  und  dry  winter 
winds  is  occasionally  disturhed  by  atmospheric  currents,  del'i-ctcd  in  varioutj 
directions  by  the  relief  und  contour  of  tin;  seubourd.  Thus  the  south-west  monsoon 
bt'comes  ut  Tanton  u  south-easterly  j?ule,  und  the  lofty  Mount  Lantuu  is  duily 
exposed  to  fierce  storms  for  months  together. 

These  climutic  disturbances  arc  ulso  reflected  in  the  flora  of  the  southern 
provinces.  Here  the  ])luins  are  bare  in  winter,  when  nuture  presents  the  same 
bleak  us])ect  as  in  more  northern  regions.  Hut  all  is  changed  with  the  return  of 
the  hot  moist  monsoons,  under  whose  influence  the  tropical  vegetation  is  reveaU^ 
in  all  its  splendour.  Now  the  palm  und  camellia  flourish  by  the  side  of  the  ouk, 
chestnut,  und  sombre  pine,  while  the  bununu,  mungo,  litchi  [Ncj/fidium  liic/ii),  orunge, 
and  citrons  of  divers  species  are  intermingled  with  the  fruit  trees  of  the  temiwrate 
zone.  Many  leafy  shrubs,  confined  in  Europe  to  the  conservatory,  here  thrive  in 
the  open  air,  decking  the  landscape  Avith  their  brilliant  blossom,  charging  the 
utmos2)here  with  a  balmy  peifume.  The  small  island  of  Hong  Kong  contains,  so  to 
say,  un  epitome  of  this  varied  und  beautiful  southern  flora. 

In  this  favoure<l  region  the  unreclaimed  tracts  are  far  too  limited  to  afford 

shelter  for  many  wild  animals  of  large  size.     Few  mammals  are  met  besides  the 

wild  goat  and  fox  tm  the  coast  and  islands,  and  in  the  interior  the  rhinoceros  and 

tiger.      Smaller  animals,  as   well  as  birds,  insects,  and  butterflies,  are  numerous, 

and  mostly  of  species  allied  to  those  of  India. 

"  Conipanitivo  tompcraturo  of  various  tropical  cities :  — 

AuKU8t. 

Canton 81'  F. 

Cnlcutta 83 

lloiioliilii 77 

Havana 80 


Fehninry. 

Mean. 

o»°  V. 

70^  F. 

74 

79 

70 

7» 

72 

77 

.7,'SE»SgRJ.ii 


1st  aci'dSH  ilio 
down  Ity  tliu 
(|j;,'M  rniiHistH 
two  pcnkM  (tf 
Liiown  by  itH 
M,  like   Hniijj; 

IIT    Ml'UWUnlM 


gU«(l.  With 
(),  HO  that  its 
a,  and  other 
nioiiKooii  thi) 
the  i>(iuator. 
pohir  winds 
)ith-ou«t  und 
[ir,  and  ovc>n 
id  dry  winter 
i  ill  various 
ft'cst  raoiifiooii 
ntuo  iH  daily 

the  Houthem 
eiits  the  same 
the  return  of 
on  is  revealed 
3  of  the  oak, 
'itrhi),  orange, 
the  temperate 
here  thrive  in 
charging  the 
contains,  so  to 

itcd  to  afford 
>t  besides  the 
hinoceros  and 
ire  numerous, 


Meun. 
70^  F. 
79 
75 
77 


INIIAUITANTS  OP  SOUTH  ('NINA.  2BI 

Tmiaihiants  ok  Soi  th   fiiiw, 

Southern  and  csiuM'ially  Malay  .•l.-inenls  Nrcn.  to  have  Imtomio  int.-rniinj7l..d 
with  the  populations  of  South  Cl.ina,  although  no  trace  of  th.-ir  pivsnic..  can  now 
be  detected  in  the  customs  or  spcccli  of  the  natives  of  Kwaiigtiuig.  Her,,  tho 
purely  Chineso   dialect  is  even   of  a  more  arehai(!  character  than    the   present 

FiK.    llfl.-  roMrAHATIVK  TrNfrPUATIHR  oi-  PantoN  AMD  OTHKR  ToWNd. 


Mandarin  variety,  while  all  local  geographical  names  belong  to  tho  same  stock  as 
those  of  other  parts  of  China.  It  is  now  ascertained  that  the  number  of  original 
terms  unrepresented  by  particular  signs  in  the  literary  standard  is  far  more  limited 
than  was  formerly  supposed.  But  in  the  interior  there  still  survive  certain 
aboriginal  communities  which  have  not  yet  become  amalgamated  with  the  Chinese 


ir,' 


V>*.iS6S<iS"-- 


m 


251 


EAST  ASIA. 


proper,  and  which  by  them  are  rep^nrded  as  barbarians  of  alien  blood.  Thus  some 
liliaotze  tribes  arc  found  in  the  north-west  of  Kwangtung,  about  the  sources  of  the 
Lienchu,  a  western  afHuent  of  the  Pe-kiang,  Others  occupy  parts  of  Kwangsi, 
where  they  form  autonomous  eoinnninities,  settled  on  lands  conceded  to  them  by  the 
Emperor  Yungching  in  1730.  In  the  seventeenth  century  other  Mi-  otzc  tribes 
seem  to  have  peopled  the  uplands  about  the  head-waters  of  the  Ilan-kiaug,  but 
all  this  region  on  the  Fokien  frontier  is  now  settled  by  Chinese  colonists.  The 
Yao  (Yiu),  a  large  group  said  to  be  of  Burmese  origin,  occupy  a  highland  district 
in  the  south-west  of  the  province,  near  the  Annam  frontier.     The  Yuo  of  distinct 

Fig.  117. — Inhabitants  of  Kwanotcno. 

Scale  1  :  8  000,000. 


PnnU. 


Unkka. 


Yno.  Minkio,  or  Tankia. 

.  150  MUes. 


speech  appear  to  number  altogether  less  than  30,000,  yet  they  have  hitherto 
succeeded,  more  by  policy  than  open  force,  in  maintaining  their  independence.  The 
custom  of  the  vendetta,  or  blood  vengeance,  pursued  from  generation  to  generation, 
common  amongst  the  Cherkesses,  Albanians,  Corsicans,  and  some  other  Western 
peoples,  but  extremely  rare  in  the  far  East,  still  survives  amongst  the  Yao  tribes. 

Although  belonging,  if  not  to  one  original  stock,  at  least  to  one  nation  fused 
together  by  a  common  language  and  historic  development,  the  natives  of  Canton 
and  surrounding  regions  are  divided  into  three  distinct  groups — the  Iloklo,  Punti, 
and  Hakka. 

The  Hoklo  (lliolo,  Hiaolo)  dwell  chiefly  on  the  seaboard  and  about  the  river 


*-^iii;  f  ^r^'S'-;^' 


•'7r.g!9WsB5K9ir.';SSS4.^§^*«£:rraJvV,qeiiW7,T^^ 


•'-'■"mrn^'"^" 


TOPOGRArilY. 


25a 


Thu8  some 
iiirc'cs  of  the 
i)f  Kwaii«?si, 

thcni  by  the 
i  otzo  tribes 
n-kiung,  but 
oiiists.  The 
luud  district 
o  of  distinct 


ofG 


aiikta. 

have  hitherto 
■ndence.  The 
to  generation, 
ither  Western 

Yao  tribes. 

nation  fused 
es  of  Canton 
Iloklo,  Punti, 

out  the  river 


estuaries.  The  Chinese  sign  for  their  name  means  "  Anoiont  in  Study,"  apparently 
implying  a  civilisation  anterior  to  that  of  the  other  inhabitants  of  the  land.  Yet 
amongst  the  Iloklo  persons  devoted  to  the  learned  professions  arc  at  present  less 
numerous  than  elsewhere.  They  are,  however,  aIso  known  by  the  name  of  Fo-lo,  or 
"Ancient  in  Prosperity,"  and  these  terms  Ilok  and  Fo — that  is,  "  Study  "  and 
"  Prosperity  " — are  comjjonents  in  the  name  of  the  province  of  llok-kicn  ov  Ft>-kii'i>. 
Hence  the  true  meaning  of  Ifoklo  is  probably  "  People  of  Fokien."  According  to 
the  Chinese  tradition,  they  migrated  in  the  fourteenth  century  into  the  adjacent 
province  of  Kwangtung,  and  it  is  noteworthy  that  here  the  floating  population 
about  the  creeks  and  inlets,  who  have  the  greatest  affinity  with  the  Hoklo,  are  also 
sujjposed  to  have  come  originally  from  Fokien.  Their  peculiar  manner  of  life  has 
made  them  a  special  caste,  no  less  despised  than  that  of  the  Fuchew  waters,  and 
also  stigmatized  by  abusive  appellatives.  In  Canton,  us  in  Fuchew,  the  members 
of  this  caste  would  appear  not  to  be  admitted  ashore,  so  that  they  live  from 
generation  to  generation  grouped  in  floating  villages  along  the  river  banks.  In 
the  I'earl  lliver  the  moorings  become  hereditary  jjroperty,  and  when  a  junk  falls 
to  pieces,  it  is  immediately  replaced  by  another. 

The  Punti — that  is,  "  Roots  of  the  Soil  " — are  the  most  numerous  element  in 
the  southern  provinces.  Although  priding  themselves  in  the  title  of  autochthonous, 
they  probably  represent  a  fusion  of  northern  immigrants  with  the  aborigines,  and 
now  regard  themselves  as  the  natural  masters  of  the  land.  Even  in  Yunnan  they 
reject  the  name  of  Chinese,  and  claim  to  be  considered  as  a  distinct  race.  Repre- 
senting a  sort  of  southern  aristocracy,  they  affect  to  despise  not  only  the  plebeian 
Ilakka  and  Hoklo,  but  even  the  people  of  the  north,  whom  they  certainly  surpass 
in  elegance  and  refinement.  Their  beautiful  dialect,  which  is  the  current  speech 
of  Canton,  takes  the  title  of  pe-hoa — that  is,  "  white  language  " — in  the  sense  of 
the  pre-eminent  speech,  and  in  it  have  been  composed  many  literary  works. 

The  Punti  have  a  numerical  majority  in  the  Canton  district,  where,  however, 
they  are  now  threatened  by  the  proletariate  Ilakka  element,  descended  from 
colonists  originally  settled  in  the  north-east  of  Kwangtung.  The  Ilakka  dialect 
differs  greatly  from  the  Punti  ond  Fokien,  and  appears  to  be  a  variety  of  the 
"  true  language ;  "  that  is,  of  the  Nanking  form  of  speech,  although  now  afTcctod 
by  numerous  Punti  elements.  The  Ilakka  are  a  hardy,  laborious  race  of  agricul- 
turists, who  supply  a  large  proportion  of  the  coolies  now  employed  in  Formosa, 
Java,  Saigon,  Bangkok,  the  Sandwich  Islands,  Peru,  and  California.  Their  dialect 
also  prevails  in  Singapore,  and  amongst  the  Chinese  villages  in  Borneo.  Thus, 
although  despised  by  the  haughty  Punti,  to  their  industrious  enterprise  is  largely 
due  the  share  at  present  taken  by  the  Chinese  nation  in  the  common  work  of 
humanity. 

ToPOORAPHY. 

East  of  Canton,  and  in  that  part  of  Kwangtung  which  belongs  ethnically  to 
Fokien,  the  chief  trading-place  is  Shasfinnfow,  which  the  English  call  Sinifoir.  A 
mere  fishing  hamlet  in  1840,  thanks  to  its  happy  situation  on  a  navigable  river 


% 


ft- 


^■■mmm^m^ 


254 


EAST  ASIA. 


ostuary  in  a  rich  alluvial  plain,  it  soon  ro8c  to  prosperity  after  beinp;  tlirown  open  to 
the  trade  of  the  West.  Even  before  this  time  some  l']n}j;lish  nierehants  had  settled  on 
"Double  Island,"  at  the  mouth  of  the  llan,  which  they  converted  into  an  entrepot 
for  opium  and  all  kinds  of  merchandise.  Jlere  they  Mere  encircled  by  a  cordon  of 
pirat(>s  and  smufj:}>:lers,  forminj?  a  sort  of  republic,  with  its  head-quarters  on  the 
island  of  Xaniao  (Nan<i;ao).  Having  also  taken  i)art  in  the  detested  coolie  traffic, 
the  traders  of  Double  Island  were  very  badly  received  at  Swatow  when  this  place 
was  made  a  treaty  \K»rt  in  1S5H.  Ilenco  most  oi  the  countin(»-houses  beUmg  still 
to  merchants  from  Cajitcm  or  Singapore,  who  have  formed  themselves  into  a  sort  of 
trade  guild,  which  regulates  current  prices  even  for  other  ports  along  the  coast. 
Swatow   exports   chiefly   sugar,    lac(pier-ware,    and   other    prcMluets   of   the   local 

industries.     At  high  water  the  Imr- 
Fig.  U«.-Femaip  CoiFFruE,  Swatow.  |„,u,.^  lyj^g  5   j^jj^.^  f^om  the  sea,  is 

accessil)le  to  vessi-ls  drawing  20  feet. 
Swatow  is  one  of  the  healthiest  ])Iacos 
on  this  seaboard,  but  it  has  suffered 
much  from  the  typhoons,  to  which  it 
is  cxj)oscd. 

In  the  Si-kiang  basin  the  only 
routes  being  the  rivers  and  portages, 
all  the  cities  have  been  built  on  the 
banks  of  streams,  and  esjK'cially  at 
^H)ints  where  confluents,  rupids,  and 
'•  portages  required  depots  of  mer- 
chandise to  be  established.  Thus 
Kirci-liiKj,  capital  of  Kwangsi,  stands 
at  the  issue  of  a  mountain  gorge  on 
the  banks  of  a  canal  connecting  the 
Yang-tze  and  Si-kiang  basins  through 
the  Siang  and  Kwei-ling  Itivers ;  but 
the  latter  is  so  obstructed  by  rapids 
as  to  Ik^  scarcely  navigable  except  during  the  floods.  Hence,  notwithstanding  its 
administrative  rank,  Kwei-ling  itself  is  a  place  of  no  importance.  The  great  city  of 
Kwangsi  is  Wtivltcw,  or  Nijcliew,  lying  below  the  confluence  of  the  Si-kiang  and 
Kwei-ling  on  the  north  side  of  the  main  stream.  Here  the  salt  and  manufactured 
wares  from  Canton  are  taken  in  exchange  for  the  copper  ore,  lumber,  cabinet 
woods,  rice,  and  other  produce  of  Yunnan  and  Kwangsi.  In  1859  the  Anglo- 
French  expedition,  under  MacClavertj*  and  Aboville,  ascended  the  Si-kiang  as  far 
as  Wuchew. 

SIndtiug,  or  Shaohlny  (("haoking,  Shakoing),  (m  the  left  bank  of  the  Si-kiang 
l)elow  the  last  gorge  above  its  delta,  was  long  the  residence  of  the  Viceroy  of 
Kwangsi  and  Kwangtung.  Hut  the  administration  of  the  two  provinces  was  after- 
wards removed  to  Canton,  with  which  it  can  no  longer  company  in  extent  <»r  imjM)r- 
tunce.     Yet,  although  sucked  by  the  Taipings,  it  still  does  u  large  trade  in  teu, 


msmfff^r":---r?vmimmi^mm 


"^A^'W^ 


TOPOORAl'nY. 


250 


•own  open  to 
1(1  settled  on 
an  entrepot 
u  cordon  of 
rfers  on  the 
•oolie  trufKc, 
II  this  pluco 
i  belong  still 
nto  a  sort  of 
g  the  coast. 
)f  tlio  local 
ter  the  har- 
11  the  sea,  is 
in$?  20  feet, 
thiest  ])lace8 
has  sutfcred 
,  to  which  it 

in   the  only 
nd  portages, 
built  on  the 
esj)ecially  at 
rapids,  and 
>ts    of    mer- 
;hed.      Thus 
angsi,  stands 
ain  gorge  on 
nnecting  the 
isins  through 
Rivers;  but 
ed  by  rapids 
istanding  its 
great  city  of 
Si-kiang  and 
iianufactured 
iber,    cabinet 
)  the  Anglo- 
-kiung  as  far 

the  Si-kiang 
e  Viceroy  of 
3es  was  after- 
ent  or  in>iM)r- 
trade  in  teu, 


porcelains,  and  marble  slabs  from  the  neighbouring  hills.  Hcyond  this  point  the 
trafhc  and  population  increase  continually  on  both  sides  of  the  river,  coming  to  a 
focus  at  the  confluence  of  the  Si-kiang  and  I'e-kiang,  where  stand  the  cities  of 
Saiis/i III  and  Si  nan,  near  the  head  of  the  delta.  Fnr/iaii  (Fu-shan),  although  rank- 
ing as  a  simple-  village,  without  walls  or  fortifications,  is  no  less  than  12  miles  long, 
and  is  classed  among  the  "Four  Marts  "of  the  ^liddle  Kingdom.  It  forms  the 
largest  centre  of  population  in  the  district  connecting  the  Sanshui,  or  "  Three 
Waters,"  with  the  Pearl  Kiver.  Here  the  channel  seems  to  have  become  much 
shallower  than  formerly,  whence  probably  the  decadence  of  Fachan,  whoso  popu- 
lation has  fallen  from  about  one  million  in  the  seventeenth  century  to  half  that 
numl)er.  It  may  now  l)e  considered  not  so  much  a  rival  as  a  dependency  of 
Canton,  where  silks,  hardware,  mats,  paper,  sails,  and  all  sorts  of  wares  are  manu- 
factured. Another  dependency  of  Canton  is  SIiUiIiiikj  (^S/nik/ini;/'^,  at  the  head  of 
the  delta  formed  by  the  Tung-kiang,  which  is  the  great  depot  for  the  sugar  and 
other  pnxlucc  of  the  Fast  destined  for  the  capital.  In  the  l*e-kiang  valley  there 
are  also  several  large  places,  such  as  Nankiiiny,  at  the  foot  of  the  3Iei-ling,  and 
Shaoclivw,  a  much-frequented  riverain  port. 

Mention  is  made  of  Canton  in  the  Chinese  records  as  far  back  as  the  fourth 
century  before  the  vulgar  era,  at  which  time  it  bore  tlie  name  of  Xanwu-cheng,  or 
"  Warlike  City  of  the  South,"  a  title  fully  justified  by  its  frequent  revolts.  In 
A.n.  250  it  succeeded  in  expelling  the  Imperial  forces,  and  maintained  its 
independence  for  half  a  century.  At  the  beginning  of  the  tenth  century  it  became 
the  capital  of  a  separate  state,  paying  an  annual  tribute  to  the  empire,  but  sixty 
years  afterwards  it  was  again  conquered  by  the  founder  of  the  Sung  dyiuisty.  In 
1(548  it  rose  against  the  Manchus  in  the  name  of  the  Ming  dynasty,  and  held  out 
for  over  u  year.  Upwards  of  700,000  Cantonese  perished  during  the  siege,  and 
the  city,  given  up  to  plunder,  became  a  heap  of  ruins. 

At  ])resent  Kwangchcw-fu,  or  Shencheng,  as  Canton  is  called  in  the  local  dialect, 
is  one  of  the  most  thoroughly  Chinese  cities  of  the  empire,  although  lying  on  its 
southern  limits  over  against  the  great  southern  peninsulas  and  archipelagos.  It 
probably  exceeds  all  the  other  imperial  cities  in  population,  as  it  certainly  does  in 
the  originality  of  its  appearance  and  fidelity  to  the  national  types.  It  lacks  the 
broad  dusty  streets  and  tent-shaped  houses  of  Peking,  recalling  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  Mongolian  steppes.  It  presents  no  such  imposing  aspect  as  Shanghai  or 
ITankow,  with  their  new  European  quarters,  houses,  quays,  and  shipping  ;  nor  has  it 
had  to  be  rebuilt  in  recent  times,  like  Hangchew-fu  and  so  many  other  cities 
destroyed  by  the  "  long-haired  "  rebels.  Canton  is  still  what  it  was  over  four  hundred 
years  aro,  when  first  visited  by  Europeans,  altogether  a  unique  city  as  approached 
through  a  floating  quarter,  where  are  anchored  all  kinds  of  craft,  disposed  in  blocks 
like  the  houses  ashore,  with  intervening  water  streets  crowded  with  trafhc.  Although 
at  this  point  nearly  three-quarters  of  a  mile  broad,  the  river  is  completely  covered  by 
this  city  of  Iwats,  no  less  animated  by  its  dealers,  artisans,  innkeepers,  pleasure- 
seekers,  than  the  city  on  terra  firma. 

Canton  proper,  lying  on  the  north  side  of  the  Chu-kiang,  is  enclosed  by  a 


''^^Mm^.^^smmt- 


256 


EAST  ASIA. 


rampart,  and,  as  is  usual  in  China,  divided  bj-  another  enclosure  into  two  distinct 
cities.  Within  these  spaces,  with  a  joint  area  of  several  scpiarc  miles,  the  population 
is  crowded  together  in  narrow,  tortuous  streets,  lined  by  rickety  houses,  with  their 
lacquered  or  gilded  signboards  still  further  shutting  out  the  prospect.  In  many 
alleys  mats  are  stretched  from  house  to  house,  the  finer  shojjs  are  exjiosed  fully  to 
view,  the  motley  throng  is  jostled  by  the  rude  bearers  of  i)alan(iuins.  Heyond  the 
walls  vast  suburbs  stretch  right  and  left  uhmg  the  river,  while  the  south  side  is 
occupied  by  the  city  of  Jlonan,  on  the  island  of  like  name.  Canton  is  one  of  the 
most  insalubricus  places  in  China.  Amongst  its  inhabitants  there  arc  no  less  than 
8,000  blind  and  0,000  lepers,  while  the  general  type  of  features  seems  exceptionally 
repidsivo  to  the  P^uropean  eye.  The  English,  by  far  the  most  numerous  and 
wealthiest  of  all  the  European  settlers,  have  converted  their  quarter  on  the  island 

Fig.   119.— Cantov,  Whampoa,  and  Hoxan  Island. 
Scale  1 :  200.000. 


,<)  Milos. 


of  Shamin  into  a  sumptuous  city,  far  more  healthy  than  the  native  town,  provided 
with  promenades,  shady  avenues,  and  a  racecourse.  The  site  of  this  "  Concession  " 
has  been  well  chosen,  at  the  diverging  point  of  the  two  deepest  branches  of  the  Pearl 
River. 

For  its  industries  Canton  takes  the  foremost  rank  amongst  Chinest  cities.  Its 
artisans  are  engaged  in  the  most  varied  pursuits,  such  as  silk-spinning,  dyeing, 
paper,  porcelain,  and  glass  making,  lacquer-work,  ivory  and  wood  carving,  cabinet- 
work, metal  casting,  sugar  rcHuing,  and  in  the  production  of  the  thousand  knick- 
knacks  known  as  Canton  fancy  goods.  The  embroiderer's  art  has  been  brought  to 
great  perfection,  being  elsewhere  absolutely  unrivalled  in  the  disposition  of  the 
colours,  its  exquisite  designs,  and  delicate  execution.  Canton  is  the  great  mart  for 
the  silks  of  the  8outh,  as  lluugchew  is  for  those  of  Central  China. 


ir»5?S»J'«-'»;«'SS?iB0Bii|*A-KaS8fo-i;, 


-'t&im^m^,:. 


IIOXO  KONG. 


257 


tt'o  distinct 

jjojiulation 

with  their 

In  many 

sod  fully  to 

lieyond  tho 

juth  side  is 

one  of  the 

uo  less  than 

nceptiouuUy 

merous  and 

n  the  island 


Nearly  nil  tho  trade  of  Canton  is  in  tho  hands  of  native  morohnnts,  the  Europeans 
of  (Shuniin  haviuf*  sunk  to  tho  position  of  mere  hrokors.  Ilefore  Lord  Amherst's 
mission  of  1810,  Kuf^Iish  eommeree  was  harely  tolerated,  and  at  that  time  there 
were  no  capitulations,  as  with  Turkey,  nor  any  treaties  as  araonj^at  the  different 
European  states.  IJut  when  intercourse  was  permitted  with  the  West,  Canton, 
already  enjoying  a  monojwly  of  the  foreipfn  exchanges,  soon  aiHjuired  an 
extraordinary  develo])ment.  Tho  opening  of  Shanghai  and  the  other  treaty 
ports  doubtless  reduced  it  to  the  second  rank  amongst  tho  em])oriums  of  tho 
empire,  but  it  seems  to  bo  gradually  recovering  tho  foremost  position.  Here  was 
first  developed  the  curious  liHffna  fratirn  known  as  "Pigeon  (Hiisiness)  Englisli," 
some  expressions  from  which  have  entered  into  the  familiar  speech  of  tho  English 
themselves.  lUit  the  constant  relations  of  Europeans  with  the  natives  rcem  to  have 
produced  a  general  lowering  of  the  moral  standard.  A  national  proverb  warns  tho 
aged  from  Sechuen  and  youth  from  Canton,  implying  how  laborious  life  is  in  the 
western  highlands,  how  corrupt  in  the  great  southern  capital. 

W/ini)i/>oa  (^lIoaii(/-pu),  tho  outport  of  Canton  on  the  Pearl  River,  is  also  a  largo 
place,  stretching  some  3  miles  along  tho  islands  which  enclose  its  harbour. 
Notwithstanding  its  proximity  to  European  structures,  Whampoa  has  preserved  all 
its  originality,  and  is  still  little  more  than  a  vast  aggregate  of  wretched  bamboo 
hovels  overlooked  by  a  lofty  pagoda.  Building  yards,  repairing  docks,  and  exten- 
sive warehouses  cover  a  largo  space  ;  but  a  great  portion  of  the  trathc  has  fallen 
into  tho  hands  of  smugglers,  who  infest  the  neighbouring  creeks.  Old  towers  rise 
at  intervals  along  the  shore,  raised  at  an  unknown  date  against  enemies  whose  very 
name  has  been  forgotten. 


wn,  provide<l 
Concession  " 
of  the  Pearl 

cities.  Its 
ling,  dyeing, 
'ing,  cabinct- 
usand  knick- 
in  brought  to 
tsition  of  the 
reat  mart  for 


HoxG  Kong. 

Since  1841  the  neighbouring  island  of  Hong  Kong  (Iliong-kong,  or  Hiang- 
kiang)  has  belonged  to  the  English,  in  whose  hands  it  rapidly  became  one  of  the 
most-frequented  places  in  the  East.  This  little  granite  and  basalt  island,  some 
33  square  miles  in  extent,  forms  a  world  apart,  infinitely  varied  with  hill  and  dale, 
woodlands  and  watercourses,  rocky  creeks,  sandy  beaches,  groups  of  reefs,  and 
islets.  When  first  occupied  it  had  a  fishing  and  agricultural  population  of  about 
2,000  souls.  Now  the  large  city  of  Victoria  (Kwantailu)  stretches  along  the  north 
coast  around  the  roadstead  formed  by  the  strait,  about  1 J  miles  wide,  separating 
it  from  tho  mainland.  Large  villages  have  also  spnmg  up  at  the  outlets  of  all  tho 
valleys,  while  every  headland  is  crowned  with  country  seats  or  handsome  buildings 
enframed  in  a  dense  vegetation  of  conifers,  bananas,  and  bamboos.  A  fine  roadway 
winds  up  to  the  culminating  jwint  of  the  island,  whence  a  varied  prospect  is 
commanded  of  the  busy  city  of  Victoria,  with  its  spacious  quays,  and  of  the  broad 
roadstead  crowded  with  shipping.  During  the  first  years  of  the  settlement  Victoria 
had  the  reputation  of  being  a  very  unhealthy  place  :  now  it  has  become  a  sanatorium 
for  the  English  residents  in  the  East.  Unfortunately,  Ilong  Kong  lies  within  the 
range  of  the  typhoons  which  sweep  the  Chinese  waters.     In  1874  one  of  these 


"■%#■ 


.  jizu.'uaffit'A'i': 


Mj.--.'a-.rf.',:s 


Jtai^ 


*% 


r 


258 


EAST  ASIA. 


terrific  Htorins    blow    down  over  a  thousand  houses,  wreeked  thirty-three  largo 
vessels,  witii  hundreds  oi'  junks,  and  destroyed  several  thousand  lives. 

Forniin},'  the  outpost  of  Kugland  in  the  Chinese  worhl,  llong  Kong  presents  as 
great  a  variety  of  types  as  almost  any  other  spot  on  the  glolx*.  The  I'arsees,  the 
most  respected  of  all  strangers,  are  thoroughly  domiciled  in  these  waters,  where 

Fig.  120. — lIoNO  Ko.NO. 
Scale  1  :  lUO.OOa 


'oFG 


II5'I0' 


ii.V  15 


0  to  32  Feet. 


!  to  ira  Feet.  IflO  Fret  and  upwards 

——^-^  S  Miles. 


their  traditional  probity  has  at  all  times  sccm-cdthema  friendly  welcome,  Hindus 
of  every  branch,  Malays,  IJurmese,  Polynesians,  and  half-caste  Portuguese  have 
also  been  attracted  to  the  i.sland,  while  the  bulk  of  the  popidation  consists  of 
Chinese  fi-om  every  province  in  the  empire.  The  exchanges  Ix'tween  Canton  and 
Kntrland  arc  chieflv  effected  at  Hon};  Koii"-,  whence  also  is  forwardecl  much  of  the 
European    merchandise    destined    for    Shanghai,    Hankow,    and  Tientsin.      The 


'>5SSK^^«p?SgSe«!!S»«SS»'-- 


MACAO. 


2a0 


■thrpc  lurgo 

prt'soiits  us 
I'arst'fs,  tho 
uters,  whero 


II.VI5 


me.  Hindus 
tuguese  Lave 
n  consists  of 
n  Cunton  und 
much  of  the 
cntsin.      The 


shipping  in  tho  roiidstead  oxcoods  4.000,000  tons  yciirly,  wliilr  the  cxclianfros 
uiiiount  altogether  to  about  i;i'.>,000,000.  Victoria  still  ri'taius  its  inonoiMily  in 
the  niovonicnf  of  the  precious  nu'tals;  hut  much  of  its  goiwral  frath'  has  already 
passed  into  the  bands  of  the  native  dealers,  those  especially  of  Koirhm,  on  theopposite 
ride  of  the  strait.     At  Aberdocn,  known  also  as  "  Little  Ilong  Kong,"  a  small  town 

Fipf.  121.— Ho.No  KoNO  :  ViKW  takkn  kkom  Kosvll.n. 


on  the  south-west  side  of  the  island,  several  building  yards  and  repairing  docks 
have  been  built,  and  some  large  sugar  refineries  have  also  recently  been  erected 
here. 

Macao. 

The  Portuguese  settlement  of  Macao  (the  Ngaoraen  of  the  Chinese),  lying  over 
against  Hong  Kong  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Pearl  River  estuary,  is  not  othcially 
detached  from  China.  The  Imperial  Government  has  never  recognised  tho 
absolute  sovereignty  of  Portugal  over  this  peninsula,  and  has  always    enforced 


■lii.'Sftijt.i^' 


2fiO 


EAST  ASIA. 


paytncnt  of  tho  trihuto  of  £150  imposofl  hy  tho  Emperor  Kanf»-lii,  and  oollcctcd  hy 
a  inandarin  resident  on  tho  spot,  Xevertlu'Iess  Macao  is  praelirally  a  I'ortii^uese 
possession,  and  the  European  quarter  of  J'ruya  (irande  presents  tlie  aspect  of  a 
town  in  Kstreniadura,  with  its  hir}?e  red  or  yellow  houses,  heavy  balustrades,  nnd 
vust  monasteries  now  converted  into  barracks.    Its  so-called  Portuguese;  inhabitunta 


'I' 


m 


Fiff.  122.— Macao. 
Scale  1  :  40,000. 


II3*33 


II3'34- 


El 

0  tu  H  Feet. 


b  to  in  Feet  16  to  32  Feet. 

._ ^^1^  1,100  VanlR. 


are,  however,  almost  exclusively  half-ciistes,  and  even  these  are  now  encroached  upon 
by  the  natives,  who,  althouj^h  forbidden  to  build  houses  in  this  quarter,  buy  up 
those  of  the  old  Lusitanian  owners,  replacing  the  image  of  the  Madonna  with  their 
ancestral  phrines. 

Macao  is  conveniently  situateil  for  trade,  occupying  a  district  some  12  square 
miles  in  extent  at  the  southern  extremity  of  a  large  island  in  the  delta,  which  is 


^"%'«?«l^WftS8*^S^-^s*^ 


MACAO. 


2(11 


rdllcctffl  l>y 

INtrtii)4:ucse 

nsjM'ct  of  ft 

strndcs,  and 

iiihuhituntH 


13' 


IS' 


poached  upon 
irtcr,  buy  up 
la  with  their 

lie  12  square 
3lta,  which  is 


coiiiu'ctcd  with  the  niainland  by  a  sandy  diiiio  loniuTly  forlilicd.  The  roadstead, 
bciii^  Nhcltcivd  by  liilly  isK'fM  from  the  full  fury  of  the  typhoons,  is  ucci'ssibU.  to 
lurjf<»  vc'hmoIh  from  the  Hca,  as  well  as  to  river  craft  l)otli  from  the  l*carl  Itivcr  and 
the  western  estuary  of  the  Si-kianjj;.  I*'or  nearly  tliree  hundred  years  Macao 
onjoyefl  a  monopoly  uf  the  Kuroj)ean  trade  with  C'hin:i,  but  the  op<'nin>r  of  the 
treaty  ports  at  hnt  depiived  it  of  its  (exclusive  advantages.  Since  then  its  dealers 
turned  to  tlie  traflic  in  slave  lalHuir,  and  the  "  barracoes  "  of  Macao  became  a  depot 
for  the  c(M)lies  captured  or  purchased  on  the  sj'alwtard,  and  forwarded  as  voluntary 
hirinl  laliourers  to  IVru  and  the  West  Tndies.  The  protest)*  of  the  Pekinj;  (lovern- 
inent  put  un  end  to  this  shumeful  traffic,  and  sine  •   1H7.'{  most  of  the  contracts  are 

Fin.  123.— Pakiioi. 

Prnle  I  :  lUo.iNlo. 


::  El' 


I09r5- 


'Ot:s 


oFG. 


0  to  10  Feet  16  to  AS  Feet.  Hi  Feet  and  upwiinla. 

.<_^— — ^_^.^— ^  3,300  Yard» 


signed  at  Wham|K)a,  with  every  guarantee  against  fonner  abuses.  And  now  Macao 
has  turned  to  gambling  and  lotteries,  its  notoriety  amongst  Ea.stern  cities  iH'ing 
chiefly  due  to  these  attractions.  The  local  trade,  almost  exclusively  in  the  hands 
of  native  dealers,  consists  chiefly  in  tea,  rice,  sugar,  silks,  and  indigo,  mostly  shijiped 
on  Chinese  junks.  The  few  EuroiK'aa  vessels  that  take  part  in  the  traffic  import 
salt  from  Cochin-china.  The  Municipal  Council  (ZtY//  Svitado,  or  Loyal  Senate)  is 
elected  by  universal  suffrage. 

Macao  is  famous  in  the  literary  world.  Canioens  resided  for  eighteen  months, 
in  15o0  and  1560,  in  this  place,  where  he  is  said  to  have  composed  a  jxirtion  of  the 
"  Lusiad."     A  rent  rock  forming  a  sort  of  grotto  is  still  shown,  where  he  is  trudi- 


^m 


202 


KAHT  ASIA 


tioiiiilly  mii>|MiN(<l  to  liavc  rosidnl.  Tii  flic  fowii  <Tiii('t('rv  in  tl\r  tuiiil>  <»l'  MorriKon, 
one  of  the  iiKisf  (listiiij:\ii^<li(«l  lalMninr-i  in  tin-  Held  iil'  Cliiin'st'  |»liiln|(i;ry  atid 
m'.)).rni|)liy.  Kruiicis  X.ivin-,  \hv  vv]v\mi\rt\  .loMuit  ir.isHinnary,  wJio  introduced  tho 
Ciitholic  nli;,M(»n  info  .lapiin,  di.-d  in  lAW  on  tiu'  nciKlilx'iirinj?  island  of  St. 
.John  ((•lianj,'cliw(Mi,  or   Sancian).      The   Kurdish   of    llonj,'   K(mj?  have*  ac(iuiml 


If 


M 


V 


h"n[.  I'Jl.     NVm-c  iiKw. 
bcule  1  :  la.im. 


0  tr  10  Feet. 


lU  to  a-i  Fiwt.  :VJ  IVet  mid  uijwiiiils. 

^_^_^___  2,200  Yards. 


niun(:fous  villas  near  ilacao,  to  onjoy  the  seu  breeze,  which  blows  rogulnrly  on  this 
coast. 

West  of  Macao  follow  a  number  of  seaports  on  both  sides  of  the  peninsula 
projcctinp;  towards  Hainan.  Hut  here  the  only  treaty  port  is  Pakliui  (^Poi-hai^,  or 
"  White  Sea,"  on  a  lagoon  connuunicating  at  high  water  with  the  Gulf  of  Tonking 
through  the  Lienchew  estuary.     Here  the  chief  staple  of  the  local  trade  is  salt  fish, 


:m'^^^^^^'!^!^i!^mmmmsm^t. 


.>..-s^r3^pi3es?sgj-p=^- 


YUNNAN. 


20B 


>  of  Morrinon, 
|)liil(>l<i;i:y  1111(1 
iitroduciMl  th<> 
iHliiiul  of  St. 
biivn  ii('(iuir(Hl 


EaPG. 


^iilnrly  on  this 

the  peninsula 
It  (^Pci-hdi^,  or 
ilf  of  Toiikinj? 
ide  is  salt  fish, 


und  ulthouffh  no  Kuioiwiin  vcssrls  visited  th<'  place  till  the  year  ls:!>,  I'aklioi 
seeniH  destined  to  u  hrilliant  future.  It  is  liic  Icruiinus  of  u  lii>,'luvay  rutiniu); 
directly  through  LiniHtric  and  Yiilin  to  the  fertile  districts  (.f  the  Vu-kianjf,  whose 
produce  is  at  present  forwanU'd  hy  the  h.n^  and  <liflieull  mul.-  of  the  Si-kian^  to 
Canton.  Owinj;  to  the  danj?erous  sand-hanks,  vesm-ls  arc  ohlij^ed  to  anchor  in  tlie 
oiling'  nearly  a  mile  fn.ui  the  coast,  where  they  are  sheltered  at  ehh  hy  the  Aloiijr 
hank,  hut  exposed  at  hifrh  water  to  a  heavy  surf.  These  waters  are  alsotM-casionally 
swept  hy  the  typhoons,  which,  however,  pass  mostly  to  the  south  of  the  Kwaii-tau 
headland.  Ileyond  this  point  the  iidet  hetween  the  (iulfs  of  Licchew  and  I'akhoi 
is  ohstructed  in  many  places  hy  the  stockades  of  the  fishers,  rows  of  which  ari« 
«unk  even  in  depths  of  ">()  or  (50  feet. 

South  of  Takhoi  the  volcanic  island  of  Wei-chew  ruisos  its  hlackened  walls  in 
the  middle  of  the  jrulf.  At  its  southeru  extremity  the  crater,  whi.h  has  fallen  in. 
forms  a  regular  cinjue,  facinj,'  soutiiwards,  and  nearly  ;>  miles  in  diameter  from 
headland  to  headland.  Till  the  mi(hlle  of  the  present  ccnitury  this  island  was 
exclusively  inhahited  by  pirates,  hut  is  now  occupied  hy  a  peaceful  population  of 
about  ;{,0()0  souls,  mostly  innni|,'rants  from  the  liiechew  peninsula,  engaged  chiefly 
in  agriculture  and  fishing. 


YUNNAN. 

Tins  province,  the  richest  in  mineral  wealth  and  one  of  the  most  important  in 
the  variety  of  its  produce,  is  at  the  same  time  the  least  solidly  attached  to  the 
empire.  A  portion  only  of  the  land,  and  that  the  most  rugged  and  thiidy  peopled, 
behmgs  to  the  Yang-tze  basin,  while  the  western  half  is  drained  by  the  two  great 
rivers  of  Indo-Chinu,  the  Sahvin  and  Mekhong,  and  the  southern  extremity  sends 
its  waters  through  the  Ilung-kiang  ("l{ed  River")  to  the  Gulf  of  Tonking. 
Recently  a  large  part  of  the  province  had  even  become  politically  independent, 
cutting  off  the  communications  between  the  loyal  inhabitants  and  the  rest  of  China. 
The  authorities  then  turned  for  assistance  beyond  the  frontier  through  the  Red 
River.  This  route  thus  for  a  time  acquired  a  vital  importance,  and  the  oppor- 
tunity was  turned  to  account  by  the  explorer  Dupuis,  who  followed  the  course  of 
the  stream,  and  opened  it  to  trade  and  science.  But  after  the  suppression  of  the 
Panthay  rebellion  the  imperial  highways  have  been  reopened,  the  peasantry  are 
now  returning  to  their  villages,  and  the  gaps  made  by  massacre  and  famine  are 
being  filled  up  by  fresh  settlers  fro.n  Sechuen,  Kweichew,  and  Kwangsi.  Rut 
although  it  has  thus  again  become  an  integral  part  of  the  empire,  Yunnan  remains 
none  the  less  an  outlying  region,  of  difficult  access,  and  far  removed  from  the  seat 
of  power.  Of  all  the  provinces  it  has  always  been  the  most  thinly  peopled,  and 
since  the  recent  disasters  its  population  has  been  reduced  probably  hy  one-half. 
Its  area  is  somewhat  vaguely  estimated  ut  127,000  square  miles,  but  the  frontier- 
line  is  ill  defined  towards  Tibet,  Rurma,  Siam,  and  Annam,  where  numerous  inde- 
pendent hill  tribes  occupy  the  border-lands. 

Broadly  speaking,  Yunnan  may  be  describcnl  as  a  rugged  plateau  inclined  in 


■H--jfef^ 


.aWj3>^^^       lw 


W^V»-t-  a- 


J  t  #" 


» 


-2iyi 


KAST  ASIA. 


^^,  I! 


dirt'ctioii  from  llic  iiorth-wt'Ht  l<»  the  nonth-rast.  On  tlio  TilM'taii  and  Hechuen 
frontici'H  t)it>  uiu'X|>l<>n>«l  ran^oN  riHi>  alMtvo  tli«<  Nnow-linc,  whili>  tho  central  part  of 
the  i)lafcau  lian  a  int'un  I'lfvatiim  of  |M'rlia|tN  T.OOC  fret,  al)ovo  which  the  red  wind- 
Ntoiie  rid^fCM  maintain  u  nniform  ch'valion.  Lar^e  hikes  till  the  de|)res.sionN  of  thin 
talilcland,  liie  outer  Ncarp  of  which  is  furrowed  h\  deep  river  n;orj<:es,  while  Koutii- 
wards  I  lie  Irawadi  and  lied  Uiv(>r  Ijasins  expand  into  liroad  plains,  scarcely  moru 
than  fl'M)  fi>et  al)ovo  tho  sea.  Kvery  transition  of  teni|H>rature  is  met  betwi'en  iho 
northern  uplands,  with  their  Hnuw-clad  ranges,  and  these  southern  lowlands,  which 
penetrate  into  thu  torrid  /.one.  At  Vunnan-fu,  on  the  inti>rniudiuto  plateau,  thu 
snow  lies  at  times  for  weeks  together  on  the  ground. 

A  pri'-eminently  mineral  region,  Yunnan  exported  wrought-m»'tal  wares  even 
In'fore  tlie  arrival  of  the  Chinese.  Tho  aborigines  had  everywhere  niincH  and 
workshops,  oHiK'cially  for  the  treatment  of  iron,  which  of  all  minerals  is  here  the 
nntst  abundant.  Itich  copper  orcH  are  also  found,  and  tho  ini|H>rial  taxes  raised 
from  the  mines  and  metal  workers  amounted  Ind'orc  tho  relH'lIion  to  nearly  {>,{){)() 
tons  of  copper  yearly,  (iold-washings  are  also  nuniorous  along  tho  Kin.sha-kiang 
ami  other  watercourses.  Hut  far  more  productive  aro  tho  silver  mines,  besides 
which  Yunnan  also  possesses  deposits  of  cinnal>ar,  zinc,  lead,  and  in  tho  Red 
Uiv«>r  basin  a  rich  tin  hxle,  while  its  coal  measures  aro  both  extensive  and  of 
excellent  (piality.  "NYith  such  vast  and  varied  treasures,  the  province  promises 
to  lu'conu;  some  day  tho  great  mineral  mart  and  metullurgie  workshoj)  of  the 
empire.  It  also  abounds  in  precious  stones,  such  as  rubies,  topazes,  sapphires,  and 
emeralds,  while  costly  varieties  of  jade  and  nmrble  are  found  in  the  highlands. 
I'arts  of  these  highlands  are  still  covered  with  vast  forests,  supplying  valuable 
timbers,  notably  the  nunmu  laurel,  which,  owing  to  its  extreme  hardness  and 
])enetrating  perfume,  is  much  enudoyed  in  temples  and  ])alaces.  Since  tho 
suppression  of  the  Mohanunedan  insurrection,  Yunnan  has  become  tho  chief  seat  of 
the  oi)iinn  industry,  and  notwithstanding  tho  pretended  Government  edicts,  at 
least  one-third  of  the  cultivated  land  is  now  under  tho  poppy.  The  upland 
pastures  support  large  Hocks  of  sheep,  whoso  wool  is  utilised,  but  whoso  flesh  is 
never  eaten. 

There  uro  few  Asiatic  regions  where  an  improved  system  of  communication 
would  be  attended  by  greater  results  than  in  \''unnan.  Not  only  does  this  province 
rc(piire  good  routes  and  railways  to  export  its  minerals  and  other  pro<luce  to  China 
and  abroad,  but  it  also  offers  the  most  direct  line  of  communication  between  India 
and  the  Yang-tzo  basin.  The  Brahmaputra,  Irawadi,  Salwin,  ^fekhong,  and  other 
rivers  diverging  from  East  Til)et  and  Y'unnan,  point  out  in  a  general  way  tho 
direction  of  all  the  routes  whose  natural  centre  is  on  the  Yunnan-fu  plateau.  A 
straight  line  drawn  from  Calcutta,  through  the  cities  of  Y^unnan  to  Hankow,  may  at 
some  future  day  get  rid  of  the  tedious  circumnavigation  of  Further  India  and  South 
China,  whereby  a  saving  of  8,000  miles  would  be  effected.  Ilcnco  the  efforts  that 
have  in  recent  times  been  repeatedly  nuidc  to  establish  regular  relations  between 
India  and  China  acro.sH  Yunnan.  In  1807  the  memorable  French  expedition  up 
the  Mekhong  threw  open  tho  southern  frontier  of  this  province,  and  Y''unnau-fu 


Mi 


M 


YUNNAN. 


2(15 


1111(1  S<>c)uiPn 
■lit ml  part  of 
tho  ic«l  Mind- 

'HMIOIIH  of    tlllH 

whikt  Hoiitli- 
cai'ccly  iiiort) 
t  bftwrcii  llu« 
vlaiulM,  wliicli 
)  plutcuu,  thu 

111  wuros  even 
1-0  niincM  and 
iIh  in  hero  tlio 
1  tuxoH  riiiM(>(l 
)  Hourly  <M>(H) 
Kinsha-kiuii^ 
niiios,  l>osi(loM 
1  in   the  Red 
I'usivo  and  of 
inco  proniisoH 
kshop  of   tlio 
Ka))])liir(s,  and 
he  hi^rhlands. 
yinj;  valuable 
hardness   and 
Since    the 
e  chiof  seat  of 
ent  ediots,  at 
The    upland 
ivhoso  flesh  is 


was  a^ain  visited  liy  l''rantis  (larnicr,  \h\  Tliorel.  atid  othei  llurnpranH  lor  the 
liixt  tinu>  hinro  the  days  of  Marco  I'nio.  In  |M(;s  CnijMM',  stiirtin;;  I'min  tlie 
Yanjf-fze,  atteniplid  in  vain  to  reaili  Ahmiiu  through  Matanjf  and  Tiili-lii.  lie 
npiin  failed  the  next  year  to  \in\u  the  plateau  from  the  llrahuinputni  liasin  ;  while 
Sladrn,  aiming;  at  the  sunie  fjfoal  from  the  Inuvadi  and  its  atHucnt,  the  'I'lipiii^r,  Imd 
to  retraec  )ii<t  steps  after  penetrating  htyoiid  Moniein,  the  chief  city  of  Yunnan 
west  of  the  Salwin.  In  1^71,  after  tlic  tinal  overthrow  of  llie  I'linthays,  An;,'iislus 
Mar^^ary  at  last  succeeded  in  openinj^  the  direct  route  from  llanUow  to  llhamo,  on 
the  Irawadi;  hut  the  victory  wus  dearly  hou;.rlit,  the  younj;  and  darinji;  explorer 
haviii);  been  barbarously  ussasNinated  a  few  w«'eks  afterwards  within  <'lt)  miles  of  the 

Fig.  Vi'i.     T'ri'Kii  SoNn  koi  VAM.rv. 


EoFG 


ii)P"'5rr 


i03-iiy 


ommunicatiou 
this  province 
kIucc  to  Chinu 
between  India 
Mi<»,  and  other 
leral  way  the 
I  plateau.  A 
iiiikow,  may  at 
dia  and  South 
10  efforts  that 
tions  between 
expedition  up 
id  Yunnan-fu 


noMUm. 


Burmese  frontier.     England  was  stirred  to  the  heart  by  the  news  of  his  sad  end, 

and  a  long  diplomatic  correspondence  ensued,  residting  in  much  promise  for  the 

future  development  of  inteniatioiuil  trade.     In  virtue  of  the  Chefu  convention, 

concluded   in  1876,  the  British   Government  is   entitled  to   appoint   commercial 

agents  in  Tali-fu  or  any  other  city  in  Y'unnan,  and  to  ecjuip  a  scientific  expedition 

for  Tibet  either  through  Seclnien  or  Kansu  and  the  Kuku-nor  region.     Hitherto  no 

advantage  has  been  taken  of  this  valuable  concession,  although  several  explorers 

have  followed   the  footsteps  of  Margary.     Yunnan  has  been  crossed  in   various 

directions  by   Grosvenor,  Baber,  MacCarthy,  Cameron,  Gill,  Stevenson,   Soltau, 

who  have  prepared  the  way  for  the  future  establishment  of  regular  international 

relations. 

50 


:^::. 


3iS?SSC3S«ii;'g^S&«5^S-^;*ife>v;S5=:[i7V' 


m  -» 


is 


200 


EAST  ASIA. 


« 


But  pondiiif?  free  intercouiso  with  India  through  Bhunio,  Yunnan  hiis  direct 
access  to  the  foreign  market  through  the  navigable  Ilung-kiang,  or  Red 
River,  ex])lored  for  the  first  time  by  Dupuis  in  IH70.  In  1872  he  ascended  the 
Song-koi,  as  this  river  is  caUed  in  Tonking,  and  through  this  channel  penetrated 
into  China  as  far  as  ^lanhao  (Manghao),  in  the  neighbourhood  of  a  district 
abounding  beyond  all  others  in  metals  and  precious  stones.  By  a  treaty  concluded 
in  1874  between  France  and  Annam,  the  Red  River  had  been  declared  open  to 
foreign  trade.  But  this  treaty  has  remained  a  dead  letter,  and  since  the  expedition 
of  1873  no  foreign  vessel  has  visited  the  Song-koi.  Nevertheless  the  advantages  of 
this  trade  route  have  been  recognised  by  the  Chinese  merchants,  who  might  save  by 
this  way  a  detour  of  600  miles  by  tlie  Canton  River. 


Inhabitants  of  Yunnan. 

Although  Chinese  supremacy  has  been  established  for  some  two  thousand  years 
in  Yunnan,  tlio  population  is  still  far  from  homogeneous.  The  highland  regions 
continue  to  be  held  by  unsubdued  tribes,  such  us  the  Miaotze,  Mantze,  Lutzc,  Lisu, 
Lolo,  Shiin,  and  Kakhyen.  The  Miaotzo  belong  to  the  same  family  as  those  of 
Kweichew,  the  Mantze  and  Lolo  to  those  of  Sechuen.  The  latter  are  generally 
divided  into  "  Black  "  and  "  White  "  Lolo,  more  perliaps  from  the  contrast  in  their 
habits  than  from  a  difference  of  complexion.  The  Black,  known  also  as  '"Jiaw  " 
Lolo,  mostly  occupy  the  alpine  valleys  in  the  north,  while  the  White,  called  ai.so 
"  Cooked "  or  "  Ripe,"  are  scattered  in  small  groups  all  over  Yunnan,  and  are 
everywhere  subject  to  the  Chinese  authorities.  IMany  shave  the  head  and  wear  the 
pigtail,  emblem  of  civilisation  in  the  Middle  Kingdom,  but  they  are  easily 
distinguislied  from  the  Chinese  proper  by  their  muscular  development  and  energy 
at  work.  But  for  the  somewhat  flat  nose  and  sparse  beard,  their  regular  features 
and  symmetrical  figures  might  suggest  the  European  type.  Many  have  even 
chestnut  hair  and  a  white  complexion,  while  the  women  are  much  stronger,  more 
cheerful  and  agreeable  than  their  Chinese  sisters.  Hence  the  Chinese  often  choose 
their  wives  amongst  these  aborigines. 

The  Lutze-kiang  takes  its  name  from  the  Lutze,  or  Anong,  who  dwell  on  its 
banks  in  a  region  of  West  Yunnan  bordering  northwards  on  the  Lolo  country. 
Some  Lisu  tribes  are  also  scattered  in  the  valley  of  this  Tibeto-Burman  river,  as  well 
as  in  that  of  the  Lantze-kiang  (Mekhong),  which  in  this  part  of  its  course  traverses 
Yunnan.  The  hills  on  the  right  bank  over  against  Weisi-f u  are  almost  exclusively 
occupied  by  the  Lisu.  Those  dwelling  near  the  Chinese  to^vn^  and  near  their  more 
civilised  kinsfolk,  the  Moso,  pay  the  tribute  regidiirly ;  but  those  residing  in  the 
more  inaccessible  highlands  have  maintained  their  indei)ondence,  and  they  have  a 
tradition  requiring  them  every  twenty  or  thirty  years  to  make  a  plundering 
expedition  against  the  people  of  the  plains.  Like  certain  North  American  Indians, 
they  never  fail  first  to  warn  the  enemy  of  their  approach.  At  the  stated  time  they 
make  their  appearance  at  the  stated  place,  and  such  is  the  dread  of  the  Chinese 
settlers  that  they  are  generally  vanquished  by  these  savages  armed  with  bows  and 


'^pT^SlKT-JY^^rei 


wm^wM^i^^:.' 


INHABITANTS  OF  YUNNAN. 


2G7 


nnan  hns  direct 
kiang,  or  lied 
ic  ascended  the 
innel  penetrated 
)d  of  a  district 
reaty  concluded 
ledared  open  to 
e  the  expedition 
le  advantages  of 
10  might  save  by 


)  thousand  years 
lighhmd  regions 
tze,  Lutze,  Lisu, 
raily  as  those  of 
er  are  generally 
contrast  in  their 

also  as  '•  Iiaw  " 
'hite,  called  ai.so 
funnan,  and  arc 
ead  and  wear  the 

thej'  are  easily 
lent  and  energy 
regular  features 
Many  have  even 
h  stronger,  more 
aese  often  choose 

who  dwell  on  its 
le  Lolo  country, 
man  river,  as  well 
8  course  traverses 
Imost  exclusively 
i  near  their  more 
J  residing  in  the 

and  they  have  a 
ke  a  plundering 
merican  Indians, 

stated  time  they 
i  of  the  Chinese 
3d  with  bows  and 


arrows  dipped  in  aconite.  The  Lisu  carry  off  the  women  and  children,  and  sell  them 
to  the  Burmese.  They  also  seize  the  silks  and  jewellery,  and  consign  the  houses  of 
their  enemies  to  the  flames.  Yet  the  mandarins  deny  the  existence  of  these 
dangerous  neighbours,  and  even  forbid  their  names  to  be  pronounced.  Their 
complete  destruction  having  been  announced  to  the  Central  Govei-nment  some 
generations  ago,  these  tribes  have  ever  since  been  ojficialh/  (>xtinct. 

In  peaceful  times  the  Lisu  are  very  hospitable,  and  are  distinguislud  amongst 
the  surrounding  peoples  for  their  spirit  of  clanship  and  solidarity.  The  land  is  held 
in  common,  every  family  settling  down  wherever  it  pleases,  and  cultivating  the  open 
tracts,  or  the  clearings  obtained  by  firing  the  forests.  Tliey  trade  with  the  nei»»h- 
bouring  tribes,  and  thus  obtain  the  cowries  (^Cyprwn  monda)  from  the  Maldive 
Archipelago,  with  which  the  head-dress  of  their  women  is  entirely  covered.  They 
have  rejected  the  Buddhist  missionaries,  and  still  adhere  to  the  kShainanist  practices 
formerly  universal  throughout  the  extreme  East.  Their  wizards  cast  lots  to  attract 
the  gowl  spirits,  and  beat  the  tom-tom  to  scare  the  demons  of  the  springs,  rocks,  and 
woodlands. 

The  Shans,  or  "  White  Barbarians  "  of  the  Chinese,  are  more  numerous  in  Burma 
than  in  the  Middle  Kingdom,  where  they  only  occupy  the  south-went  corner  of 
Yunnan  west  of  the  Salwin  or  Lu-kiang.  All  are  subject  to  the  mandarins,  who 
appoint  the  village  head-men,  making  them  responsible  for  the  taxes.  The  Kakhyens 
(Kachin),  or  Sing-jjo  (Chingpo),  as  they  call  themselves,  are  one  of  the  most 
enterprising  races  in  the  country,  and  regard  the  Shans  as  an  inferior  people,  good 
enough  to  supply  them  with  muleteers  and  porters.  Of  small  stature,  but  robust 
and  energetic,  they  pass  much  of  their  time  in  feasting  and  attending  to  the  toilet, 
tattooing  arms  and  legs,  and  covering  their  dress  with  shells  and  all  kinds  of 
ornaments.  The  women  do  all  the  work,  even  tilling  the  land  and  carrying  burdens. 
Hence  the  wife  is  chosen,  not  for  her  beauty,  but  for  her  physical  strength,  and  he 
is  reputed  the  happiest  paterfamilias  who  possesses  the  greatest  number  of 
daughters,  all  destined  to  a  life  of  ceaseless  labour.  Although  surrounded  by 
Buddhist  populations,  the  Kakhyens  have  retained  their  old  animism,  still  addressing 
their  prayers  to  the  nat.%  or  protecting  genii.  As  in  certain  parts  of  West  Europe, 
they  place  a  piece  of  silver  in  the  mouth  of  the  dead,  to  pay  their  passage  over  the 
great  river  that  flows  between  the  two  lives. 

The  Pei  (Pai,  Payi,  Payu),  an  aboriginal  people  in  the  south  and  south-west  of 
Yunnan,  and  especiallj'  in  the  Salwin  basin,  are  divided,  according  to  their  respective 
domains,  into  Highland  and  River  Pei.  At  some  remote  period  they  traditionally 
inhabited  the  banks  of  the  Yang-tze-kiang,  whence  they  were  gradually  driven  south 
by  the  advancing  tide  of  Chinese  migration.  Neighbours  of  the  Lolo,  and  kinsmen 
of  the  Slums,  they  associate  litth;  with  them,  dwelling  in  isolated  villages,  with  flat- 
i-oofed  houses  like  those  of  the  Tibetans  and  Miaotze.  Their  complexion  is  whiter 
than  that  of  the  Chinese,  and,  like  the  Lolo,  they  are  also  distinguished  from  them  by 
their  physical  strength.  All  insert  in  the  lobe  of  the  ear  either  a  silver  cylinder  or 
a  bamboo  tube,  an  ornament  replaced  by  the  women  with  a  cigar  or  a  tuft  of  straw. 
Most  of  the  latter  smoke  tobacco,  while  the  men  have  taken  to  opium.     The  women 


"'^'Wm^g^^m^m^^se 


268 


EAST  ASIA. 


>^^ 

.-4'^ 


aro  very  inclustn'ous,  fiiul  aro  skilled  at  woaviii}^,  iiiid  even  at  the  goldsmith's  art.  In 
speech,  and  prohabiy  in  hlood,  the  Pei  arc  allied  to  the  Laos  of  Tndo-China,  while 
the  Loh)  speak  various  more  or  less  mixed  dialects  of  IJurmese,  Chinese,  or  Tibetan. 
The  Tape,  a  tribe  related  to  the  IVi,  arc  the  only  survivors  of  a  fonncrly  powerful 
nation,  which  the  annals  tell  us  were  condemned  by  the  Son  of  Heaven  to  send  him 
a  tribute  in  objects  of  fjold  and  silver,  rhinoceros  horns,  and  tusks  of  elephants. 
The  local  fauna  wtnild  therefore  seem  to  have  undergone  a  change  within  the  historic 
period,  for  all  these  large  mammals  have  long  disappeared.  Neither  the  Pei  nor 
the  Pape  have  any  idols,  but  when  they  come  amongst  civilised  peoples  they  freely 

enter  the  temples,  nutke  offerings, 
FiK.  126.— CifiNEgR  OF  Yi-NNAii.  and  burn  incense,  like  the  ordi- 

nary worshippers. 

Chinese  culture  is  in  other 
respects  gradually  prevailing, 
while  the  original  types  are 
being  moditied  by  intermixture. 
Anumgst  the  half-castes  sprung  of 
these  alliances  are  several  com- 
munities which,  while  speaking 
Chinese  exclusively,  still  betray 
the  presence  of  aboriginal  blood 
in  their  muscular  development, 
independent  spirit,  and  rude 
habits.  "  We  aro  not  Chinese," 
they  insist  haughtily  ;  "  we  aro 
Yunnan  people  "  They  have  more 
than  once  sided  with  the  Pauthays 
or  natives  against  the  mandarins.  They  differ  also  from  the  Chinese  in  their 
cheerful  spirit  and  love  of  music.  Nearly  all  the  muleteers  or  carters  accompany 
the  pace  of  their  animals  with  their  mandolines. 


\-> 


'■ill  '3 


Thk  Panthav  Insurrection. 

The  insurrection  of  1855,  which  for  a  time  raised  "West  Yunnan  to  the  rank  of 
an  independent  state,  began  with  a  quarrel  between  some  Buddhist  and 
Mohammedan  miners  at  Shivan"-  about  the  source  of  the  Red  River.  Nowhere  else 
in  China  had  Islam  made  so  much  progress  as  in  Yunnan.  Sprung  of  a  few  early 
Arab  immigrants  and  of  some  Uokhariot  soldiers  brought  hither  by  Kublai  Ehan 
in  the  thirteenth  century,  the  lloi-IIoi  of  Yunnan  cannot  now  be  physically 
distinguished  from  the  surrounding  Chinese.  But  the  different  rites,  and  especially 
the  clash  of  interests  in  the  mining  districts,  fostered  mutual  hatred  and 
brought  about  frightful  massacres.  At  the  same  thne  the  most  varied 
elements  were  found  uTiiongst  the  rebels,  collectively  known  abroad  by  the  Burmese 
name  of  Panthay.     In  the  Mohammedan  ranks  were  Buddhist  and  Taoist  Chinese, 


;^gji^4f^7^:; 


ii^m'i^ismmw^fs' 


\  .- 


TOPOGRAPHY. 


209 


nith's  art.  Tn 
-China,  while 
le,  or  Tih(>tan. 
erly  i)o\vcrful 
II  to  send  liim 
of  t'h'phants. 
in  the  liistoric 
■  the  Pei  nor 
OS  thoy  freely 
lake  olferings, 
iko  the  ordi- 

!  is  in  other 
prevailing, 
1  tyi)es  are 
intermixture, 
stes  spnui}^  i)i 
several  com- 
iiilc  speaking 
,  still  hetray 
iriginal  blood 
development, 
,  and  rude 
lot  Chinese," 
ly  ;  "  we  are 
ley  have  more 
.  the  Panthays 
inese  in  their 
rs  accompiiny 


to  the  rank  of 
3uddhist  and 
Nowhere  else 
)f  a  few  early 
Kublai  Khan 
be  physically 
and  especially 
[  hatred  and 
most  varied 
\'  the  Burmese 
'aoist  Chinese, 


besides  Lolo,  Pai,  Miaotze,  and  many  other  tril)os.  On  the  other  hand,  many 
Mussulmans  remained  faithful  to  the  Imperial  eause,  and  it  was  one  of  these  who, 
after  fighting  successfully  on  the  rebel  side,  brought  alxmt  the  ultimate  triumph  of 
the  Chinese.  A  number  of  the  vanquished  Panthays  withdrew  to  the  Slum  and 
Kakhyen  hill  tribes  on  the  frontiers  of  Siam  and  IJurma.  IJut  the  gaps  thus  made 
have  k^en  tilled  up  by  immigrants,  chiefly  from  Seehuen.  Besides  civil  war,  Yunnan 
has  also  recently  suffered  from  the  spread  of  leprosy  and  of  pestilence,  whidi  lias 
made  great  ravages  amongst  men  and  animals.  The  epidemic  seems  here  always  to 
begin  with  the  rats. 

Topography. 

Momein,  or  Tengyue/i-tincf,  the  only  important  Chinese  town  in  the  Trawadi 
basui,  lies  in  a  vast  rice-growing  plain  enclosed  by  steep  mountains.  It  is  regarded 
by  the  English  as  the  natural  gate  of  South-west  China,  and  its  name  constantly 
recurs  iu  all  railway  projects.     Farther  cast  there  are  no  large  places  in  the  deep 

Fig.   127.— KolTE   BETWBBN   MoMEIN    AND   TaLI-FC. 
Scale  1  : 2,600,000. 


The  Heights  are  decuple  of  the  Distanoes. 

•— — »-^— — — ^— ^  60  Miles. 

valley  of  the  Lutze-kiang  (Lu-kiang,  or  Salwin).  But  Ynngchanii-fu,  on  one  of 
its  affluents,  is  a  busy  mart  largely  inhabited  by  refugees  from  Nanking,  whence  its 
title  of  "  Little  Nanking."  It  has  been  identified  with  Marco  P<j1o's  Voshan 
(Vouchan,  Voncian),  where  in  1272  or  1277  Kublai  Khan's  12,000  Tatars  routed 
t)0,000  Burmese  with  their  2,000  elephants. 

On  a  tributary  of  the  Upiier  Lautzan-kiang,  flowing  between  tremendous  gorges, 
Afeiitze  guanls  the  Yunnan  frontier  towards  Tibet.  In  this  district  most  of  the 
civilised  inhabitants  are  Chinese,  but  nearly  all  speak  Tibetan  better  than  their 
mother  tongue.  Atentze  lies  in  an  upland  plain  over  11,000  feet  above  sea-level, 
and  is  commanded  by  Buddhist  monasteries,  whoso  lamas  obey  the  high  priest  of 
Lassa.  The  Atentze  traders  sell  tea,  sugar,  and  tobacco  to  the  Tibetans  in  exchange 
for  musk,  skins,  parchments,  and  a  species  of  grub  highly  valued  by  the  Chinese  on 
account  of  its  supposed  medicinal  properties.  South  of  Atentze  rises  the  snow- 
clad  Doker-la,  and  on  the  banks  of  the  river  farther  north  are  the  Yeikalo  saline 
hot  springs. 

Ift'iai,  on  an  eastern  affluent  of  the  Lantzan-kiang,  is  a  garrison  town  ruined  by 


^i5^- 


w;r  !l'tlir«',-;'.^-. -.- 


^mi?j^g^mmm^- 


270 


EAST  ASIA. 


.•*?'* 


'X, 


W 


i!J 


'¥i 


i 


the  civil  war,  imd  nowmninly  pcopU'd  ])y  liis\i  im<I  lialf-rnstrs.  Tali-fn  also,  which 
occupies  a  imicli  move  (•(iiivcriicnt  position  on  the  west  side  of  tlie  vast  lake  of  like 
name,  was  still  in  a  ruinous  state  when  '.  isitcci  by  (Jill  in  1877.  All  the  surrounding 
villajjfos  were  wasted  during  the  insurrection,  and  not  u  tree  was  loft  standing  in 
the  district.     To  its  strong  strategical  jmsition  Tuli-fu  was  indebted  for  all  its 

Fig.  128.--TALI-PU  ANii  Lakf,  Tau. 

Scale  1  :  690,000. 


12  Mil-B. 


misfortunes.  The  plain  where  it  stands  terminates  north  and  south  in  a  uurrow 
defile  between  the  hills  and  the  lake,  and  these  two  passes  have  been  strengthened 
by  fortifications,  which  have  converted  the  whole  coast  of  Tali  into  a  vast  citadel. 
In  the  tune  of  Marco  Polo  this  place,  then  called  Carajun  (Karayang),  was  the 
"  capital  of  seven  kingdoms,"  and  one  of  the  great  cities  of  South  China.     Recently 


wm^mmmms^mmm^msmi'''  ■  -^w" 


■  *%  niTK'wr  rv^f^  ^5».— 


J!'a>n 


wiiw^wn-i— 


>i  also,  which 
t  hike  of  like 
suiTouiidiug 
t  standinj;  in 
1  for  ull  its 


i^ 


W 


I 

il 
ifg: 


h  iu  u  uurrow 
I  strengthened 
a  vast  citadel, 
fang),  was  the 
na.     Recently 


m 

g 
o 

U 

a 

H 

9. 

O 
» 

r< 

Id 

5 


:|,,-.f.,.vit-,-"«!-'&ri«iI^:s;-;:?;,V-V,-lUff-,  . 


r5!r 


;  >i  I  '^ 


TOrOOEAPUY. 


271 


it  again  aoquirod  the  rank  of  a  cupital,  liaviug  been  (Oioson  as  the  rosidoiico  of  llio 
Mohainniodaii  King  Tuwhonsia,  or  Sultan  Soli  man.  On  the  entry  of  llu>  Imperialists 
in  ItST^J,  over  half  of  its  50, ()()()  inhabitants  were  massacred,  and  the  ooiuinaiider  of 
the  forces  was  able  to  send  to  Yunnan-fu  twenty-four  large  hami)<>rs  full  of  human 
cars.  The  suburbs  were  fired,  and  the  city  half  ruined.  IJut  Tali  can  scarcely  fail 
to  recover  from  its  disasters.  Besides  its  administrative  importance,  it  enjoys  the 
advantage  of  its  fertile  plains,  mines  of  salt  and  the  precious  metals,  marble  quarries, 
besides  which  it  is  the  natural  entrepot  of  trade  between  Bhamo  and  Ningyuen ; 
that  is,  between  Bunna  and  Sechuen.  Lying  over  0,500  feet  above  sea-level,  near 
the  tropical  /one,  it  enjoys  an  excellent  climate,  without  a  winter  season,  although 
the  mountains  rising  10,000  feet  above  the  west  side  of  the  lake  are  snow-clad  for 
eight  or  nine  months  in  the  year. 

The  lake,  better  known  by  the  name  of  Erh-hai,  is  30  miles  long  according  to  Gill, 
and  develops  a  crescent  stretching  north  and  south,  with  a  mean  breadth  of  about 
()  miles.  In  the  deeper  parts  there  is  over  300  feet  of  water,  but  elsewhere  it  is 
much  shallower,  and  in  the  south  studded  with  a  few  islands.  During  the  rains  its 
level  i,"  sometimes  raised  10  or  18  feet,  when  the  torrent  is  changed  to  a  copious 
stream,  whi(;h  carries  its  outflow  through  the  Yanghi-kiang  to  the  Mekhong.  Jjike 
all  its  influents,  the  lake  abounds  in  flsh,  which  the  natives  take  with  the  aid  of 
water-fowl  trained  for  the  purpose. 

Shidiniiiff-Jit,  Yiiii  chew,  Scmao,  and  the  other  places  in  the  Mekhong  basin  .south 
of  Tali-fu,  also  suffered  from  the  consequences  of  the  late  outbreak.  Menghoa-hieu, 
near  the  source  of  the  Red  River,  30  miles  south  of  the  lake,  was  distinguished 
beyond  all  others  for  its  heroic  defence,  and  when  further  resistance  became 
impossible,  all  valuables  were  hastily  collected  together  and  burnt.  Poison  was 
then  distributed  amongst  the  old  men,  women,  and  children,  the  four  corners  of  the 
city  were  fired,  and  the  handful  of  surviving  combatants  mostly  perished  in  the 
attempt  to  cut  their  way  through  the  besieging  forces. 

Likimig-fu,  in  the  Ujjper  Einsha-kiang  basin  north  of  Tali-fu,  has  not  yet  been 
visited  by  any  European  traveller  ;  but  w^hen  Gill  passed  west  of  it  he  was  told  that 
it  had  been  ruined  by  the  oppressive  rule  of  the  mandarins.  Other  places  in  the 
same  district  had  been  completely  destroyed  either  by  the  Panthays  or  the  Imperial 
forces.  In  the  portion  of  Yunnan  draining  to  the  Yang-tze  only  three  large  towns 
remain  intact.  One  of  these  is  the  provincial  capital,  Ynnmn-fn,  situated  in  a 
plain  near  the  northern  extremity  of  the  largest  lake  in  North  Y'unnan.  This  lake, 
known  as  the  '•  Sea  of  Tien,"  from  a  kingdom  of  that  name  formerly  comprising 
the  greater  portion  of  the  plateau,  lies  about  6,500  feet  above  the  sea,  and  sends  its 
superfluous  waters  through  the  Pulu-shing  emissary  northwards  to  the  Yang-tze. 
The  district  is  productive  in  cereals,  flax,  tobacco,  and  fruits.  But  the  introduction 
of  the  opium  industry  is  said  to  have  ruined  that  of  wax,  of  which  large  quantities 
were  formerly  produced.  The  natives  state  that  the  bees,  attracted  by  the  poi)py 
flower,  all  perished  from  its  poisonous  effects  after  the  second  season.  Yunnan-fu, 
identified  by  some  with  Marco  Polo's  Yaftlii,  is  the  centre  of  one  of  the  chief  mining 
regions  in  the  province.  It  controls  the  current  price  of  copper  for  the  whole  of  China, 


fij^gp" 


™'i3^i»iM«w*aitWM4-jmaBiitMfe^ 


272 


EAST  ASIA. 


11 


m 


mill  Imssninc  liiif^c  iiu'tallurj?i(^  works,  including;  ii  mint  over  two  lnni(lrc<l  years  old, 
wliicli  hd'orc  tlio  ivvctlt  issiuHl  coins  to  the  yj'iirly  valui>  of  alioiit  t'l.OOO.  A  hill 
towiirds  tlu«  imitli-wfst  is  crowiu-d  l)y  ii  (••ipjit  r  temple,  wliieli  wiis  spared  i>y  the 
rebels  lucnuse  it  eoiiiiiieiuorated  the  national  Kiu^if  I'sankwei,  wiio  dared  to  resist 
tile  authoiity  of  Kaiii>-hi.  Still  farther  nortli  aiiotiier  hill  on  the  Secliiien  frontier 
is  occupied  hy  a  ;:^roiip  of  l)uildin''s,  including;  a  ciiurch  and  Neniiiiary,  which  the 
Catholic  missionaries  have  converted  into  a  forniidahle  stronj^yhold  ajjainst  tho 
incursions  of  the  Mantze  tiilxs. 

Tho  Lffiii;f-s/iini  hijj;hlands,  on  the  connnon  frontier  of  Kweichew,  Secdiuen,  and 
Yunium,  are  occupied  hy  a  peaceful  {xipnlatioii  of  Ituddhists,  Mohaniinedaiis,  and 

abori«;iiU's,  who  continued   to  live 
i'ig.  lU!i.— YiNN.w  in  perfect  harmony  throiiirhout  tho 

Scale  1  •  l,nrt),(iO(>.  ,  r    a\        \    ,  •    -i 

seventeen  years  ot  tiie  latt>  civil 
war.  I  lerc  one  of  the  chief  mineral 
products  i^  a  salt  of  lead  emphn'cd 
in  porcelain  paintinj^,  and  cxjjurted 
by  tho  Yan<?-tze  route  as  far  as 
Kian<r8i.  In  the  eastern  section  of 
the  province  draining  to  the  Si- 
kiang  basin  are  several  important 
places,  such  as  C/tiiiif/r/iiiitj-/n  and 
Kai/iO(i-/u.  Farther  south  stretches 
an  extensive  lacustrine  district, 
where  the  fresh-water  tarns  have 
no  visible  outlet,  although  the  two 
large  lakes,  Ching-kiang  and 
Kiangshwen,  communicate  tlirougli 
an  artificial  canal,  over  u  mile 
long,  cut  through  a  fluartzose 
sandstone  hill. 

The  towns  in  tho  southern  dis- 
trict drained  by  the  Red  River  and 
its  head-waters  are  chiefly  mining 
centres,  although  Viicn-kiaiuj,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Hoti-kiang,  as  the  main  stream  is  here  called,  is  also  a 
large  entrepot  for  agricultural  produce.  In  this  rich  tropical  district  the 
mango,  guava,  citron,  orange,  and  other  southern  fruits  flourish  by  the  side  of 
the  more  hardy  peach,  apple,  pear,  walnut,  and  chestnut.  Farther  east  the 
chief  places  are  Liiif/aii-/ii  and  the  busy  mart  of  Man/ian  (^Maiig-ko^^,  at  the  head 
of  the  navigation  of  tho  Red  Ri\er,  the  depot  for  the  teas,  cottons,  and  silks  of  the 
whole  of  South  Yunnan.  The  trade  of  the  place  has  been  monopolized  by  some 
enterprising  merchants  from  Canton,  and  at  the  time  of  the  French  Expedition  a 
Cantonese  chief  had  even  set  up  as  an  independent  prince  at  Laokai,  on  the  frontier 
of  China  and  Tonking.     The  custom-house  he  had  established  on  the  river  was  said 


15  Milea. 


^^^^r%^^*^»f -#«ir  •*m'm&.'^-miA^^^^^^m^^^^  '■  w 


^•i^f' 


IIALVAN. 


27iJ 


r«'(l  yt'iirs  <»lfl, 
,0(10.  A  hill 
Hpiirnl  l»y  tli(! 
liiirfl  to  resist 
•hucii  frontier 
rv,  wliicli  till' 
1    a^aiuHt  tlie 

SoclmiMi,  and 
inuiedaiis,  aiul 
liiiued  to  live 
liroiij^hout  tho 
tho  late  civil 
'  chief  mineral 
lead  employed 
;,  and  exported 
»uto  as  far  as 
tern  section  of 
nj?  to  the  Si- 
I'ral  important 
Kjchiiiij-t'u  and 
i^outh  stretcUea 
[trine  district, 
;er  tarns  have 
louj^h  the  two 

<if-kianjif     and 
nicatc  througli 

over    a    mile 
a   fluartzose 

southern  dis- 

Iled  River  and 

cliiefly  mining 

'uen-kiaiKj,   on 

ed,  is  also  a 
district  the 
)y  the  side  of 
■ther  east   the 

),  at  the  head 
I  id  silks  of  the 
(lized  hy  some 
1  Expedition  a 
^n  the  frontier 

river  was  said 


to  yield  him  a  yearly  revenue  of  £(!(),n(H).  At  present  the  place  seems  to  have 
fallen  into  tiie  hands  of  an  inde|H<ndent  Chinese  military  trilic,  which  has  assumed 
the  title  of  "  lUuck  IJunners." 


HAINAN. 


Tins  large  island,  administrativelv  attached  to  the  province  of  Kwangtmi^j,  also 
belongs  evidently  to  the  same  geological  formation  as  the  mainland.     The  btruit 


Pig.  130.— Hainan  Stkait. 
Sniln  1  :  if,260,(ino. 


0  to  83  Feet 


32  to  80  Feet. 


8^  Feet  and  upwnrdij. 
■^  CO  Miles. 


flowing  between  it  and  the  adjacent  peninsula,  and  connecting  the  Gulf  of  Tonking 
with  the  China  8ea,  is  only  12  miles  wide,  and  at  low  water  scarcely  J}8  feet  deep 
in  the  centre,  with  a  current  running  at  the  rate  of  ;j  or  4  miles  an  hour.  The 
main  axis  of  the  chief  mountain  range  stretches  south-west  and  north-east,  con- 
sequently parallel  with  the  general  orographic  system  of  China.  The  centi-al  nuiss, 
known  as  the  Wushih-shan,  or  "  Five-iinger  Mountain,"  throws  off  five  spurs,  like 
the  Peloi^nnesian  T  vgetus,  whence  the  Chinese  poets  have  compared  the  island  to 


*-«gli«)': 


^'J!rJeraK^«t«»lS1!MfiS««.l^1i•.■^S3^^-li':^aB<t5^■«:t«ew?* 


I 


974 


EAST  ASIA. 


»l 


iii 


u  liiiiul,  whose  fiu^i^crs  "play  witli  flio  cIoikIh  hy  dny,  uiid  at  nijijht  j^'atlicr  llic  Ntars 
of  tlic  milky  way."  Tlu-y  also  speak  of  snow-clad  crt'sls,  although  in  (his  tropical 
climate  jn-aks  less  than  Ki.OOO  feet  liijfh  could  not  remain  covered  with  snow 
throu)rh(iut  the  yoar.  Kven  an  occasional  fall  of  snow  wouhl  imply  an  elevation 
of  about  (>,()()()  feet.  Hut  whatever  bo  their  altitude,  these  c(Mitral  highlands  s(>nd 
down  nunuTous  toirents  in  ull  directiuna  to  the  coast,  which  forniH  an  irregular 
oval  4X0  niibs  in  extent. 

Hainan  is  one  of  tho  Icnst-known  parts  of  China.  The  rivorH  have  lH>en  tracwl 
on  the  maps  either  from  old  Chinese  documents  or  from  native  rej)orts,  while  oven 
the  seaboard  has  been  carefully  surveyed  only  on  tin;  north  side.  It  is  uiuiertain 
whether  tho  Nankien-kiung,  Howinj^  north-west,  really  ramifies  into  the  two 
naviiraldc  rivers,  Peimen-kianjo;  and  Kien-kiang,  or  1  .lianj^,  with  a  total 
development  of  ISO  miles.  It  is  even  said  to  thri>w  olf  a  third  branch,  also 
navifjable,  directly  to  the  (iulf  of  Ttmking,  forminjj;  altogether  a  disposition  of 
running  waters  in  a  hilly  island  elsewhere  unparalleled. 

Ilauian  abounds  in  natural  resources  of  all  kiiuls.  Its  mountains  rontain  gold, 
silver,  copper,  iron,  and  other  metals;  hot  springs  bubble  up,  especially  in  its 
western  valleys;  the  hillsides  ure  clothed  with  dense  forests,  supplying  excellent 
building  nuiterial,  and  still  harbouring  the  tiger,  rhinoceros,  a  species  of  ajK! 
resendtling  the  orang-outang,  deer,  and  wild  goats.  Lower  down  floui-isli  the  co(!o, 
areca,  and  Ix'tel-nut  palm ;  while  pine-apple  hedges  line  the  fields  under  the  sugar- 
eane,  mango,  banana,  litchi,  indigo,  cotton,  tobacco,  rice,  potato,  sesanio,  and  tropical 
fruits.  Here  is  also  the  Coccus pila  insect,  which  yields  the  vegetable  wax  of  com- 
merce, and  tho  surroundinj?  waters  abound  in  Hsh,  the  turtle,  and  pearl  oyster. 
Lying  in  the  tr.iek  of  tho  south-west  monsocms,  the  island  is  abundantly  watered, 
while  the  tropical  heats  are  tempered  by  cof)l  sea  breezes  from  the  north-eust. 
Although  within  the  zone  of  tho  typhoons,  Hainan  suffers  much  less  than  Formosa 
from  these  fierce  whirlwinds. 

When  speaking  of  its  inhabitants,  Chinese  writers  compare  the  island  to  a  circle 
enchtsing  two  concentric  rings.  In  the  centre  live  the  wild  al)originos,  in  the 
outer  zone  the  Chinese  settlers,  and  between  the  two  the  civilised  natives.  The 
various  tribes  that  have  withdrawn  to  the  valleys  of  tho  interior  are  collectively 
known  by  the  name  of  Li,  or  Loi,  and  speak  a  language  akin  to  that  of  the 
continental  Miaotze.  Some  of  the  Song-li,  as  the  more  savage  tril)es  ure  called,  go 
almost  naked,  dwelling  in  caves  or  narrow  retreats  covered  with  a  straw  roof,  and 
split  up  into  nunjcrous  hostile  septs,  with  different  dress,  arms,  ond  customs.  Tho 
Nawtcmg  wear  the  hair  gathered  in  curls  on  the  forehead,  while  the  Kac  Miau 
plant  bits  of  bamlwo  like  horns  on  the  top  of  the  head.  The  Shuh,  or  "  Ilipc  " — that 
js,  settled  and  civilised — Li  have  been  joined  at  various  times  by  Miaotze  refugees  from 
Kwangsi  and  West  Kwangtung,  whom  they  resemble  in  speech  and  habits.  liiit  tho 
dominant  race  have  long  been  the  Chinese,  of  whom  ii3,000  families  colonisetl  the 
coast  lands  some  two  thousand  years  ago.  In  1835  they  numbered  1,350,000,  aiid 
are  now  said  to  exceed  2,500,000.  Mostly  from  Fokien  and  Kwangtung,  they 
have  suffered  much  from  the  pirates  formerly  infesting  these  waters,  but  they 


■  '^W^^i^^M'^s:W4 


^^mmmmt 


FORMOSA. 


275 


itluT  flic  Htars 
ti  tluH  tropiral 
I'd  with  Hiiow 
y  an  olcvulion 
li^lilaiidH  Ncnd 
1  un  iii'i'n;idar 

vc  l)oon  traced 
ts,  while  oven 
[t  w  uiioertuin 
into  the  two 
with  a  total 
I  hniiu'h,  uIho 
(liNposition  of 

<  contain  {»old, 
ipecially  in  its 
yin<»  exccUent 
[M'cies  of  ajxi 
uriMh  the  co<!o, 
dcr  the  siipar- 
16,  and  tropicul 
le  wax  of  coni- 
l  pearl  oyster, 
antly  watered, 
ho  north-east, 
than  Formosa 

land  to  a  circle 
rif,'inoH,  in  the 

natives.  The 
re  collectively 
to  that  of  the 
i  are  called,  go 
<traw  roof,  and 
customs.  The 
!  the  Kac  Miau 
"  Ripe  "—that 
e  refugees  from 
abits.  Hut  the 
i  colonised  the 

1,350,000,  aiid 
•angtung,  they 
iters,  but  they 


have  neviT  hud  much  to  fear  from  the  alKtrigincs,  whom  they  have  graduidly 
driven  to  the  interior.  The  htcal  tniflic  is  promoli'd  by  the  nunwM'ouH  havens  round 
the  coast,  and  liy  the  regidar  trade  winds,  wiiich  the  native  junks  take  advantage 
of  to  visit  Tonking,  the  I'liilippincN,  Cochin-china,  and  even  the  distant  islands  of 
Java  and  Singapore.  As  on  the  n(>ighbouring  nuiiidand,  the  Ciiinesc  communities 
are  divi(U'd  into  hostile  I'unti  and  llakku  factions,  In'tween  which  the  hereditary 
feuds  have  even  recently  given  rise-  to  tierce  outI)reaks. 

h'iiiHyc/ii'W,  the  capital,  and  the  largest  cit}'  in  tlir  island,  naturally  lies  on  the 
north  side  over  against  the  mainland,  at  the  most  convenient  point  for  hinding  and 
forwarding  the  local  produce  to  Ibmg  Kong  and  Canton.  The  surrounding  district 
18  extremely  fertile  and  densely  peopled,  and  the  ci'y,  enclosed  by  a  wall  JO  feet 
high,  lies  (>  miles  from  the  sea.  iJut  its  outport  of  //o/-//o*r  (//«/-/««•),  also  by 
foreigiu'rs  generally  called  Kiungchew,  stands  on  a  bay  on  the  south  side  of  the 
strait,  and  has  been  opened  to  Kuntpcan  trade  si. ice  iHoM.  The  chief  exports  are 
sugar,  sesame,  dressed  leather,  pigs,  poultry,  and  pigeons  for  the  markets  of  Macao 
and  Hong  Kong.  The  harlxiur  is  ho  shallow  that  large  vessels  are  obliged  to 
anchor  nearly  3  miles  off,  under  a  sand-bank,  which  protects  fh(>m  from  the  sui-f. 

Next  to  the  capital  the  most  import4(nt  places  are  Tiittfoii,  on  the  Ta-kiang,  the 
largest  mart  for  agricultural  produce  ;  Liidno  awl  7\iii('/itir,im  the  north-west  coast, 
surrounded  by  sugar  plantations ;  Aic/icir,  on  the  south;  W'unclirir  and  Lu/itii,  ou 
the  east  sido. 


FORMOSA. 

LiKK  TTainan,  which  it  somewhat  exceeds  in  size,  and  probably  in  population, 
Fonnosa  belongs  geologically  to  the  mainland.  Close  to  the  east  coast  the  sounding- 
line  ])lunges  ut  once  into  depths  of  7,000  feet,  whereas  Fokien  Strait,  on  the  west 
side,  has  a  mean  depth  of  scarcely  140  feet,  and  contracts  to  a  width  of  80  miles  at 
its  narrowest  part.  Even  about  the  southern  entrance  of  the  strait  the  sea  is 
studded  with  the  Pescadores  (Panghu)  Islands,  which  are  continued  westwards 
and  south-westwards  by  dangerous  shallows.  Politically  and  ethnically,  also, 
Fonnosa  is  simply  an  appendage  of  the  neighbouring  province  of  Fokien. 

Known  to  the  old  geographers  by  the  name  of  Great  Luchew,  and  now  officially 
called  Taiwan,  from  the  name  of  its  capital,  this  island  presents  the  form  of  an 
elongated  oval,  some  240  miles  long  north  and  south,  and  traversed  throughout  its 
entire  length  by  a  regular  water-parting,  which  falls  abruptly  eastwards,  while 
sloping  gently  towards  the  mainland.  This  Ta-shan,  or  "Great  Range,"  as  it  is 
called,  scarcely  exceeds  8,000  feet  in  the  south,  but  in  the  centre  Mount  Morrison 
attains  a  height  of  over  11,000  feet,  while  the  system  culminates  northwards  with 
Mount  Sylvia  and  other  peaks  rising  to  elevations  of  12,000  feet  and  upwards. 
The  Ta-shan  consists  mainly  of  carboniferous  limestones,  with  igneous  rocks 
cropping  out  here  and  there.  Mention  is  even  vaguely  made  of  an  active  volcano, 
the  Eiai-shan,  in  the  centre  of  the  range,  and  earthquakes  are  still  frequent  in 
many  places.     The  coast  seems  even  to  be  rising,  whereas  the  opposite  sealward 


■^m'^'^&ii 


mSl|»5*»«:«f<>.  mim^mtmm»f)  -*!a85SWa-#>T«»r4^-V,^ti-!?>*:^W»TfeH 


87^ 


KART  AMIA. 


^ 


iM'txvccii  Nirijf]M)  uml  rimlon  i>  Miilwidinjf.  Wlicn  the  l>iitcli  litld  Taiwiin,  on  fho 
Muiitli-\\t'>l  side,  a  iiii\ipil>U'  strait,  accrHNililf  lit  HcitH,  tlnwcd  iM'turni  the  two 
fitad<'l>,  Itiit  tliix  cliaiiiicl  ir*  now  dry  land,  iiili't'M'rlt'd  ItyrniialM  and  i-inmIn,  wliirli 
ui')'  partly  covt-rrd  diirin^^  the  Hprinf^  tiduN,  n<>  that  tlic  Hliippin^  now  an«'liiii-H  alM)ut 
2  iiiili'N  from  tlu>  old  fort. 

Till'  iirnt  Kuro|M'aii  iiavipitorN  wlio  Hi^lit«>d  Taiwan  early  in  the  Nixtcenth  cen- 
tury were  HO  Mtnii'k   witli   its   |)iftiirt>Hi|iu>   apiHNinince   that  they  aptly  nani(>d  it 


i'S  '"» 


fig.  lai  — FuHMOIA  AMI)   FoKIKN   KtRAIT. 
H«ili>  1  :  4.fin«l,'ti'iO 


0  tu  lau  Felt. 


1«0  to  820  feet.        310  to  a,200  Fett.    3,'AJO  Feet  ana  iipwanU. 

^^^^—^^—^—  <XI  Miles. 


Formosa,  or  "  the  lieautiful."  Probably  no  other  oceanic  iHland  bus  better  claims 
to  the  title,  at  least  on  its  east  side,  facing  tbc  Pacific.  The  central  range  throws 
off  right  and  left  numerous  spurs  and  side  ridges,  all  varying  in  height  and  aspect. 
Peaks,  crests,  rugged  crags,  rounded  domes,  follow  in  endless  variety  from  the 
interior  to  the  headlands  along  the  coast ;  while  the  mountain  torrents  everywhere 
break  into  foaming  waterfalls,  or  rush  through  dark  gorges  amidst  the  bright  tints 


'immeM^m^!im^^. 


W^i^^&i 


'iiiwiiii,  on   tlio 

wren   llu>  tw«» 

il  t'lHulN,  wliii'h 

iiiicliurH  iilMiiit 

MixllTlltll    ft'li- 

ptly  iiiiiiH'd  it 


M 

^i 

m 

fg 

:j 

)^r 

!5« 

^- 

i 

.■■      ^ 

? 

- 

" 

— 

25" 


^ 

^ 


=^-=^-;^eg' 


I2S' 


'ards. 

8  better  claims 
1  range  throws 
jlit  and  aspect, 
riety  from  the 
its  everywhere 
he  bright  tints 


FoilMOSA. 
KIr.  J3J.  — |||(imi,ani,  Fmnimmai-b,  Foit«i(w.». 


277 


of  a  dense  sub-tropical  forest  vegetation  clothing  all  the  surrounding  valleys.     The 
native  villages  are  suspected  rather  than  seen,  embowered  in  bamboo  and  palm 


.•■i--:-;^jr 


-^ri(ltS!.!a»SS«te:»- -..-.■  ■:  ■■■^■r3iCSC,er«:*,-SaiSft«yxi«VJ«-J3Sft«,.!5»S5^^  --y,. 


ranp- 


278 


EAST  ASIA. 


11  ^ 


#!  f 


thickets,  wliich  flodrisli  down  to  tlic  verge  of  tho  ocean,  and  crown  the  cliffs  that 
are  i-veiy where  cut  by  the  beating  waves  into  a  thousand  fantastic  forms. 

Tho  extraordinary  wealth  of  the  Formosan  flora  is  due  partly  to  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  continent,  partly  to  the  different  climatic  zones  superimposed  oneal)ovo 
the  other  along  tho  mountain  slopes.  The  coast  lands  belong  to  the  trf)pic8,  while 
the  hills  and  mountains  rise  to  the  temperate  and  colder  atmospheric  regions. 
There  is  further  a  regular  succession  of  monsoons,  the  wind  blowing  in  summer 
from  the  Malay  Archipelago,  in  winter  from  Japan.  With  this  disposition  of  the 
atirial  corresponds  that  of  the  oceanic  currents,  which  on  the  cast  side  set  north- 
eastwards in  the  direction  of  the  Japanese  Kuro-siwo,  or  "  Black  Stream,"  but 
which  in  the  shallow  waters  along  the  west  coast  flow  alternately  north  and  south 
luider  the  action  of  the  shifting  trade  winds.  The  island  is  thus  exposed  to  the 
varying  influences  of  the  northern  and  southern  climates,  while  also  enjoying  the 
advantage  of  an  abundant  rainfall.  Tho  greatest  amount  of  moisture  is  received, 
not  in  summer,  as  mostly  elsewhere  in  the  extreme  East,  but  in  winter,  during  the 
prevalence  of  the  humid  north-east  monsoon,  when  a  rainfall  of  over  120  inches 
has  been  recorded  at  the  Kelung  station  on  the  north  coast.  On  tho  east  side  the 
atmospheric  currents  are  occasionally  iicverscd  by  the  typhoons,  which  rarely  pene- 
trate westwards  to  the  Fokien  Strait.  On  the  18th  and  19th  of  August,  1858,  the 
naturalists  on  board  the  Novam,  en  route  from  Shanghai  to  the  Carolines,  observed 
one  of  these  cyclones,  which,  while  revolving  round  itself,  described  a  vast  curve 
above  the  southern  limits  of  the  Liu-kiu  Archipelago.  From  hour  to  hour  they  were 
able  to  follow  and  record  the  successive  points  gained  by  the  hurricane,  which 
reversed  the  normal  direction  of  these  typhoons. 

Although  Formosa  probably  possesses  no  vegetable  or  animal  species  distinct 
from  those  of  the  continent,  some  forms  occur  which  have  not  yet  been  met  else- 
where. The  prevailing  species,  corresponding  with  those  of  South  Japan  and  Fokien, 
arc  often  distinguished  by  their  symmetrical  and  vigorous  growth.  Nowhere  else 
in  the  Chinese  Empire  do  tho  bamboos  attain  a  greater  height,  being  sometimes 
100  feet  high,  with  a  girth  of  24  inches.  The  large  forests  of  the  interior  con- 
sisted chiefly  of  the  camphor-tree  before  the  ravages  committed  by  the  rapacity  of 
modern  traders.  One  of  the  most  common  plants  on  the  coast  lands  is  the  Aralia 
papyrifera,  a  shrub  with  bare  stem  terminating  in  broad  leaves,  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  "  rice  paper." 

Amongst  the  thirty-five  species  of  mammals  and  one  hundred  and  twenty-eight 
of  land  birds,  there  are  fourteen  and  forty-three  respectively  which  are  found 
neither  on  the  mainland  nor  on  the  neighlxjuring  islands.  This  local  fauna  shows 
that  the  island  has  long  been  separated  from  the  continent,  although  not  long 
enough  to  greatly  modify  the  prevailing  types.  Thus  the  tiger,  wild  Iwar,  deer, 
antelope,  monkeys,  insectivora,  and  various  species  of  ruminants  and  rodents  cor- 
respond with  those  of  the  mainland,  although  several  of  these  mammals  are  more 
closely  related  to  those  of  India,  Malaysia,  and  Japan  than  to  those  of  China.  The 
"rock  monkey  "  recalls  some  of  the  Indian  and  Burmese  varieties  rather  than  thos6 
of  South  China  and  Hainan ;  while  the  beautiful  deer  discovered  bv  Swinhoe,  the 


'■■^mm 


FORMOSA. 


279 


the  cliffs  tliut 
ms. 

le  nci};libour- 
ised  one  al«)ve 
tropics,  while 
leric  regions, 
ng  in  summer 
(osition  of  the 
iide  set  north- 
Stream,"  but 
rth  and  south 
sxposed  to  the 
enjoying  the 
ire  is  received, 
;er,  during  the 
ver  120  inches 
3  east  side  the 
h  rarely  pene- 
Tust,  1858,  the 
lines,  observed 
d  a  vast  curve 
hour  they  were 
irricane,  which 

species  distinct 

been  met  else- 

an  and  Fokien, 

Nowhere  else 

eing  sometimes 

le  interior  con- 

the  rapacity  of 

8  is  the  Aralia 

in  the  manu- 

d  twenty-eight 
lich  are  found 
al  fauna  shows 
lougt  not  long 
kild  boar,  deer, 
lid  rodents  cor- 
nmals  are  more 
of  China.  The 
thcr  than  thosfe 
v  Swinhoe,  the 


flying  squirrels,  and  the  Macroacelin  ape  arc  allied  to  those  of  ^lalaysia.  More 
than  half  of  the  Formosan  avifauna  is  also  more  nearly  related  to  those  of  the 
Jiimalayas,  South  India,  the  Eastern  Archipelago,  and  Japan  than  to  those  of  the 
more  adjacent  Chinese  lands.  Amongst  the  new  forms  discovered  by  Swinhoe  the 
most  remarkable  are  some  gallinaccic  and  pigeons,  a  magnificent  pheasant,  some 
tomtits,  sparrows,  and  the  white-headwl  blackbird ;  but  there  are  no  parrots,  as  in 

Fig.  133.— Tyi'hoov  of  the  "Novaka." 
Scale  1 :  8,520,000. 


160  MUes. 


the  central  and  southern  provinces  of  China.  While  the  continental  yellow- 
hammer  migrates  in  vast  numbers  between  India  and  Manchuria,  the  Ft)inu)san 
variety  never  leaves  the  island,  merely  passing  with  the  seasons  from  the  plains  to 
the  uplands.  In  the  Tamshui  River  singing  fishes  are  heard,  like  those  of  Trinco- 
mali  Bay,  Guayaquil,  and  San  Juan  del  Norte. 

Being  visible  from  the  mainland  on  clear  days,  Formosa  has  from  the  remotest 


■^"Vwjp'v  ■" 


•  L^,.;r{W-*r;' 


"'-^-    ■    ■""'■"'^™m^i3^i*ttm®^fi)«J^J$f»»&*rVC*$ic^-»^'t^^»'-.H> 


-tsm 


280 


KAST  ASIA. 


1^' 


■^ 


periods  1)0011  known  to  tlio  Cliiiiosc.  15ut  al(hou{?h  the  Pnnf^lm  proup  had  hoen 
lonf»  occupied  hy  Home  fishornion,  llio  island  was  never  visited  till  the  year  OOo  of 
the  vulf^ar  era,  nor  were  any  setllenients  made  till  the  fifteenth  oentury,  when  the 
nor.h  coast  was  occupied.  An  orfjaiiized  system  of  immigration  was  at  last  dovo- 
loped  during  the  second  lialf  of  the  seventeenth  century,  after  the  expulsion  of  the 
Dutch  traders  and  the  d(>s1  ruction  of  the  pirates.  Yet  within  two  hundred  years 
the  settlers,  mostly  from  Fokien,  have  already  occupied  all  the  w(<st  side,  hesides 
the  northern  extremity  and  the  north-eastern  seahoard.  Tlie  gradual  settlement 
of  these  tracts  was  attended  hy  constant  struggles  witli  the  natives.  In  these  con- 
flicts the  intruders  have  often  had  recourse  rather  to  opium  and  hrandy  than  to 
force,  thus  poisoning  rather  tlian  murdering  the  race.  Swinhoe  also  tells  us  that 
they  have  imported  tigers  from  Fokion,  and  let  them  loose  against  their  trouble- 
s(mie  neighbours.  Great  rivalries  prevail  even  amongst  the  Chinese  themselves, 
the  Ilakka  and  other  factions  from  the  mainland  ccmtiniiing  their  di.ssen.sions  in 
their  new  homes.  Many  have  contracted  alliances  with  the  natives,  adopting  their 
customs,  and  remaining  Chinese  only  in  their  dress  and  practice  of  weaiing  the 
pigtail. 


Inhabitants  op  Formosa. 

The  aborigines  are  known  by  various  names,  nor  is  it  yet  possible  to  classify 
them  according  to  their  origin  and  nmtual  affinities.  The  Song- Fan,  or  "  Wild 
Men,"  resemble  the  Malays,  to  whom  they  are  usually  affiliated.  Their  dialect 
certainly  belongs  to  the  widespread  Malay  family.  Some  varieties  closely 
resemble  the  Tagal  of  Luzon,  and  seventeen  tribes  in  the  north  even  call  their 
language  Tayal,  while  in  some  districts  the  tribes  take  the  name  of  Tangalan. 
But  there  are  no  Sanskrit  or  Arab  words  in  any  of  the  local  dialects,  so  that  the 
Formosans  must  have  become  separated  from  the  Malay  family  before  the  intro- 
duction of  Buddliism  into  the  Eastern  Archipelago.  Since  the  dispersion  the 
relations  of  the  islanders  have  been  exclusively  with  the  Middle  Kingdom,  as 
shown  by  the  number  of  Chinese  words  adopted  in  a  more  or  less  modified  form  in 
their  dialects. 

In  the  south-eastern  highlands  the  liutan  tribe  has  made  itself  formidable  both 
to  the  other  natives  and  to  the  colonists.  Besides  the  bow  and  arrow,  they  now 
procure  fire-arms  from  the  Europeans,  and  it  was  this  tribe  that  the  Japanese  came 
to  chastise  in  1874  for  the  massacre  of  a  shipwrecked  crew.  To  judge  from  the 
captives  brought  on  that  occasion  to  Tokio,  the  Butans  resemble  the  Japanese 
rather  than  the  y  lay  type.  They  mostly  wear  blue  cotton  garments,  with  silver 
bracelets,  and  enonnous  ear  ornaments  of  bamboo.  According  to  the  native  reports, 
some  dwarfish  black  tribes  also  dwell  in  a  highland  region  towards  the  south. 
They  are  mentioned  by  Valentyn  so  early  as  1726,  but  although  also  spoken  of  by 
Swinhoe,  no  traveller  has  yet  visited  them.  Two  skulls  studied  by  Schetelig  are 
attributed  to  these  Fornuisan  Negritos,  survivors  of  an  old  race  now  almost  entirely 
extinct. 


'^«i 


f^P"*"^ 


up  had  l)een 
p  year  GOi"»  of 
iry,  when  the 
at  hist  (hnp- 
lulsion  of  tlio 
iindrod  years 
t  side,  besides 
lal  settlement 
111  these  eon- 
niiidy  than  to 
o  tells  us  that 
their  trouble- 
e  themselves, 
dissensions  in 
idoptin}^  their 
wearing  the 


ble  to  classify 
'an,  or  "  Wild 
Their  dialect 
ieties  closely 
ven  call  their 
of  Tangalan. 
ts,  so  that  the 
'ore  the  intro- 
lispersion  the 
Kingdom,  as 
dificd  form  in 

rmidable  both 

ow,  they  now 

Fapanese  came 

dge  from  the 

the  Japanese 

its,  with  silver 

native  reports, 

•ds  the  south. 

spoken  of  by 

Schetelig  are 

tlmost  entirely 


-^■^.'V     ,'fV.'«l»- 


.i,imm 


liJi' 


^^^'^C 


TOPOGRAIMIY.   ' 


281 


Most  of  tho  iinsubdiiod  iil)f)rif?inos  arc  tiill,  vijroroiis,  mid  twtroinoly  active. 
Their  gait  has  Im'ou  compared  hy  (Jueriii  to  that  of  tlie  anthropoid  apos.  Hut  the 
greatest  variety  of  features  prevails  amongst  these  tribes,  the  faces  of  some  being 
flat,  of  others  as  reguhir  as  those  of  Kuro])eans.  Hut  nuiiiy,  with  their  largo 
prominent  eyes  and  restless  glance,  have  a  seared  look,  as  if  hei-eft  of  their  senses. 
Goitre  is  common  in  one  tribe,  and  skin  diseases  very  prevalent  in  the  interior. 
The  teeth  are  often  dyed  red  by  the  constant  use  of  the  betel-nut,  and  in  general 
much  more  regard  is  paid  to  ornament  than  to  dress.  ]?oth  sexes  wear  copper 
bracelets,  coarse  glass  necklaces  and  girdles,  bone  plaques,  and  tinkling  bells. 
The  men  j)ierce  the  lobe  of  the  ear  for  tho  reception  of  a  bamboo  cylinder 
ornamented  with  designs,  and  all  the  unsubdued  tribes  still  practise  tattooing. 
Everything  is  regulated  by  traditional  usage.  Although  there  is  no  public 
worship,  the  daily  actions  are  largely  guided  by  omens,  and  all  must  be  buried 
on  the  very  spot  where  they  die.  Head-hunting  is  still  practised,  and  a  wooden 
platform  attached  to  every  house  is  usually  adorned  with  the  heads  of  their  Chinese 
victims.  But  this  pursuit  cannot  be  continued  much  longer,  for  the  independent 
natives  have  already  beer,  reduced  to  about  20,000  altogether,  divided  into  a 
multitude  of  clans,  which  successively  fall  an  easy  prey  to  the  ever-advancing 
colonists. 

The  already  reduced  tribes,  collectively  called  Pepo-hoan,  have  become  largely 
assimilated  to  the  Chinese.  Most  of  them  have  ceased  to  practise  tattooing,  and 
now  wear  the  Fokien  dress.  Amongst  them  the  Catholic  and  Protestant  mission- 
aries have  been  most  successful,  and  the  accounts  of  the  Formosan  people  hitherto 
published  by  European  travellers  refer  mainly  to  this  Pepo-hoan  element. 


Topography. 

Formosa,  where  Western  influences  have  long  been  at  work,  promised  at  one 
time  to  become  a  European  colony.  The  Dutch  had  obtained  a  footing  in  the 
Panghu  Archipelago  so  early  as  1G21,  and  soon  after  set  up  their  factories  on  the 
mainland,  where  the  present  city  of  Taiwan-fu  is  situated.  But  the  young  settle- 
ment was  soon  surrounded  by  hostile  Chinese  communities,  and  finally  surrendered 
in  1(302  to  the  pirate  Chingching,  better  known  in  Europe  by  the  name  of  Koxinga. 
Under  his  rule  the  English  traded  directly  with  Fonnosa  ;  but  after  the  definite 
establishment  of  the  imperial  authority  in  1683,  all  foreign  traffic  was  suspended 
till  the  year  1858,  when  the  island  was  again  thrown  open  to  Europeans. 

Taiwan,  the  capital,  which  has  given  its  name  to  the  whole  island,  is  a  modem 
Chinese  city  lying  at  some  distance  from  the  coast,  and  enclosed  by  ramparts  6  miles 
in  circuit,  within  which  are  extensive  gardens,  cultivated  lands,  and  pagodas. 
It  is  noted  for  its  filigree-work,  and  does  a  considerable  trade  in  sugar,  exported 
chiefly  to  Australia.  Some  24  miles  south  of  Taiwan  are  the  ports  of  Tahow  and 
Tangkaug,  besides  the  large  town  of  Pitan,  lying  about  5  miles  inland  from  the 
former  place.  Farther  north  the  city  of  Sinchow  exports  rice  and  wheat  through 
its  outport  of  Ilongmtig.  But  a  more  important  place  is  Tamshiii  (Tamsui, 
51 


■'3¥??' 


■-a;witc«fiss*; -,'«*£?.'•. ^  m^'tff^fV^ri'- f-^r^^^ir 


282 


EAST  ASIA. 


Tii)it/s/ini),  nciir  tlio  iioith-wost  cxtrcinify  of  tlic  isliiiul,  wlicro  llic  Miiropciin 
tiiidci's  liiive  iiiiiilo  a  scltli'iiu'iit,  ii(»t\vitlistiiii(lin<;  its  iiiihcaltliy  cliinatc.  'raiiisliui 
was  i'orincrly  flu'  chief  mart  I'ur  ihv  cainplior  trade,  wliicli  has  h<'eii  <freatly  reduced 
since thedestructioii  of  the  iiei^ldxairin*^  forests,  ('aiii]»h(ir  is  now  hir<;ely  rephiced 
hv  t»'a,  the  trade  in  whicli  is  yearly  increasinji;  in  importance,  especially  with 
America.  Junks  .iscend  the  Tanishui  River  to  the  colony  of  Tonlittln,  residence  of 
the   foroi<ifn   dealers,    and    beyond  it    to    Jfciii/kti   {^Mouykia,    lidiihii),    commerciul 


Fig.  IIJI.— Pki'o-hoav  Woman  and  f"iiii,n. 


t 


metropolis  of  the  district.     Some  7  miles  farther  east  on  the  route  to  Kelung  there 
are  some  sulphur  sprinjrs,  much  frequented  by  invalids. 

Kflmiij,  althou<;h  lying  on  the  north  coast  about  IJO  miles  east  of  Tamshui,  is 
regarded  as  forming  with  that  city  a  common  port  for  foreign  shipping.  According 
to  the  natives,  tlu-y  are  even  connected  by  an  underground  passage,  ajjprouched  at 
cither  end  by  extensive  caverns.  The  staple  exports  of  Kelung  are  lignites,  some 
of  excellent  quality,  but  the  petroleiun  and  rich  sulphur  deposits  of  the  district 
still  remain  almost  untouched.  The  headlands  and  i.slands  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Kelung  assume  the  most  fantastic  shajies,  the  lower  and  softer  strata  being  eaten 
away  by  the  waves,  or  hollowed  out  into  picturesque  grottoes  and  arcades.    Most  of 


I 


TOrOGRArilY. 


2H8 


to.  Timisliui 
ciitly  rcflucrd 
•jjcly  rcpliiccd 
[K'cially  willi 
',  ivsidt'iicc  ol' 
I,    (H)ininei'cial 


i>' 

x^-'- 

^>»'^ 


Kelung  there 


if  Tamsliui,  is 
f^.  According 
ai)proacbcd  at 
lignites,  some 
if  the  district 
neighbourhood 
itu  being  oaten 
•ados.    ;MoHt  of 


the  islands,  worn  away  at  the  base,  have  assumed  tlie  form  of  colossal  mushrooms. 
On  a  headlaiul  at  tlio  east  side  of  the  entrance  to  llie  port  are  the  iiiiiisof  soiuo 
old  Spanish  batifieations. 

The   Iiiu-l<iii   Areliipelago,  stretching  norlli   from   Formosa,  seems  (h-stined  to 
belong  mainly  to  tlie  Japaiu'so,  who  have  already  occupied  the  central  and  northern 

Fig.  13/).— Kkluno. 

Sctilc  1  ;  7:1,000. 


ISIMB- 


larso: 


EoFG 


0  to  Ifi  Feet. 


le  to  64  Feet. 


(M  Feet  and  iipwrardB. 
_  3,"0')  Yiiids. 


groups,  including  the  principal  island  and  the  capital  of  the  whole  archipelago. 
San-ium,  or  Saki-simu — that  is,  the  southern  group — represented  on  old  Chinese 
maps  as  forming  part  of  Formosa,  is  in  fact  connected  with  it  by  a  number  of  reefs 
and  islets.  At  present  their  only  importance  for  the  Chinese  consists  in  their 
position  as  an  advanced  bulwark  of  Formosa  towards  Japan.      lieing  of  small 


i. 


""'  '"  -}\'^'^^^^ 


v'i  jiMc«»fi«rtM»*«iij(iiwM«v<i^^^ 


-^  Mttjve^-'s'es-w  -~^ii 


If 


284 


KAST  ASIA. 


fxfciit   1111(1    very  unmiitiiiiinuH,    llicy  iiri'  thinly  in'oplcd   l)y  a   few  triliOM,  w»m«  <»f 
whom,  Iik<>  thoHo  ol'  Vniiiikuin",  iirr  still  in  the  snvii;;*'  state. 

Towards  its  s<tntli('iii  cxtrcniily  the  only  ^co^jraphical  (li'iM-iidt'iicc  of  Imii'Iiiosii 
is  the  hilly  island  of  Mtttl  'roha<;o.  Hut  in  the  {''okicn  Strait,  on  the  west  side, 
the  iVscadoivs  (I'aii^^hn)  fffonp  jiossrsscs  coiisirh-i'ahlo  importance  as  a  shipping? 
station  and  entrepot  itetween  Imii'Iiiosu  and  the  iiiainland.  The  inhahitants, 
estimated  at  about  ISO, (100,  are  oeeupied  with  lisliiii<;  and  a^rieiiltur(>.  IJut  tlu? 
yield  of  rice  and  millet  heing  iiisufHcient  for  their  wants,  they  de])eiid  jiartly 
on   Kormo.su  for  their  siistenanco.     Here   the  fierce  winter  j»alps  sometiiuL-.s  blow 

Fig.  130.-  CiiiA.M)  Lu-oiiKW,  Act'OitnLNo  TO  AN  oi.n  CiiiNKHK  Mah. 


r^  ^-r^.<r^(r\!  y^r    .  Z^    V-*?-    M^    >5v"^ 


mm 


5 


W 


down  or  tear  up  the  trees  by  the  roots.  The  village  of  Mnkvng  is  the  capital  of 
this  group. 

MATERIAL  AND  SOCFAL  CONDITION  OF  CHINA. 

Aftkr  the  tremendous  losse.s  aftendinj;  the  civil  wars  and  other  disasters,  bv 
which  the  country  has  been  wasted  since  the  middle  of  the  present  century,  the 
population  has  again  entered  on  a  period  of  increase.  Celibacy  outside  the 
monasteries  is  almost  unknown  in  China,  where  all  marry  young,  and  where  the 
average  number  of  children  is  greater  than  elsewhere.  "  There  are  three  sins 
against  filial  piety,"  says  Mengtze,  "  and  of  the  three  the  greatest  is  to  leave  no 
posterity."  Celibacy  is  even  forbidden,  and  the  mandarins  have  the  right  to 
compel  men  after  their  thirtieth,  and  women  after  their  twentieth,  year  to  get 
married.  The  poj)ulation  would  double  in  about  twenty  years  but  for  the  civil 
wars,  massacres,  and  famines,  and  the  universal  peace  now  prevailing  has  certainly 
already  added  tons  of  millions  to  the  population.  The  increase  is,  moreover,  largely 
due  to  the  migrations  of  the  natives  of  Sechuen,  Fokien,  and  Shansi ;  that  is,  of  the 
most  industrious  and  enterprising  citizens  of  the  Middle  Kingdom. 

The  actual  density  of  the  population  can  only  be  surmised  from  old  estimates, 
whose  real  value  has  never  been  clearly  determined.  Nevertheless  it  is  certain 
that  in  this  respect  China  cannot  be  compared  with  Western  Europe,  parts  of  the 


THK  CIIINKSH  TOWNS. 


286 


)0M,  8()ino 


(>f 


til'  I'linnnsii 
ii<  west  side, 
s  a  Khii>piii)? 

iiihal)itimts, 
n>.  Hut  i1k) 
<]»fii«l  ]>iiitly 
iiutiiiiL's  blow 


tlie  capital  of 


disasters,  by 
t  coiitury,  the 

outside  the 
ud  where  the 
re  three  sins 
s  to  leave  iio 

the  right  to 
,  year  to  get 

for  the  civil 

has  certainly 
■cover,  largely 
that  is,  of  the 

old  estimates, 
it  is  certain 
3,  parts  of  the 


United  StiitcM,  and  even  of  Austnilia.  There  are  doubtless  many  liir<;(>  cities,  such  as 
Canton,  llmikow,  (!iiangclic\v,  l''u(  liew,  Sin;raii,  'i'itntsiii,  and  i'duiig;  l)ut  even 
tliese  only  take  the  second  rank  compared  witli  London,  or  even  with  Paris. 
Wliile  the  url)an  exceeds  the  rural  population  in  manufacturing'  countries,  the 
reverse  is  the  ease  in  China,  still  mainly  an  agricultural  region.  Nnr  can  its 
political  centralization  be  conipured  with  that  of  most  Kurii|ti'an  states,  the  want  of 

Fig.   1U7.— Dbnsity  ok  tiik  CiriNKBK  Poi-llatjos  in   1S42. 
Boalo  I  :  SO.oon.rn.  , 


EoFG. 


Per  Square  Kilometre. 


n 


p: 


13      ^      ^       H 

Oinhftb.         OtolO.         10  to  20.        20toI(H»,      IdO  to  200,  200  nnd  upwards. 
I  Towim  with  over  1,000,000  Inhabitants.  •  Towng  with  over  oOD.OOO  Iiihubitants. 

._i___i^..^____  1,900  MUes. 


communication  preventing  the  great  emporiums  from  developing  such  a  vast  trade 
as  that  enjoyed  by  the  leading  cities  of  the  West. 

The  Chinese  Towns. 

Speaking  generally,  the  Chinese  towns,  of  which  the  ancient  Singan-fu  may  be 
taken  as  the  type,  belong  to  a  different  period  of  evolution  from  those  of  Europe. 
Their  quadrangular  enclosures  of  lofty  castellated  walls  still  attest  the  frequent 
recurrence  of  civil  wars,  while  the  inner  city,  lying  within  u  "second  enclosure, 
recalls  the  Manchu  conquest.  On  the  least  alarm  the  four  or  eight  gates  of  the  city 
are  closed,  and  the  towers  occupied  by  armed  men.     The  Manchu  quarter  is  in  the 


'^'«a?«?rr-- 


;  ^^y*wft»MU1^<riR«*B»tl^«ll^^<ryiM3^^^w^BBaMl»nT3^  ■■i^^i^-^i.V'-yw^  • 


886 


EAST  ASIA. 


Hiiiiu"  wiiy  ♦'uniislifd  with  ovorv  nioims  <il'  dcfiMirc,  iiiul  may  in  n  moniont  ho  cut  :iff 
fniiii  tile  rest  of  the  «ily.  Tliis  (|Uiii'tt'r  iiicludcH  the  Yiiiintu  (  l'^////r//)— tliiit  is,  the 
sent  (if  till-  ii(liiiiiiistrali(iii — witli  its  cdnrfs  .iiul  oflicrs,  hcsidcs  j^anlfiis  and  parks, 
R(iiiu>tinu>.>4  of  cdiisidtMalilc  t>\tciit.  Hut  althmi^di  the  ('liinrHc  t|iiarti>r  is  iiuicli  iiioru 
uniinat(>d,  the  tiadiuff  I'las^t's  still  [MrftT  tin-  (ipiii  sidmrhs  hcyoiid  the  outer  walls, 
where  they  are  free  i'roin  the  police  and  military  re^'ulatious,  and  where  aeeess  uiid 
c'^^ress  are  peniiifted  thronjjhoiit  the  iii<,dit.  These  suhurhs,  often  stn'tchin^  for 
miles  aloii};;  tile  roads  and  canals,  heeonu-  tlu-niNclves  real  towns,  and  thus  is  social 
life  <j;railu;dly  developed.  During  the  late  trouldes  most  (d'  these  std)nrhs  com- 
pletely disappeared,  hut  the  people  soon  returned  to  the  old  sites,  and  many  of 
thoir  environs  have  already  become  more  important  than  the  cities  thcmsolvos.    Tho 

Fig.  138.— 81NOAN  FU. 

Scale  1 :  40,000. 


t 


Vi 


1,100  Yards. 


;*■ 

a 

*- 

<'C 

''i  ' 

li 

houses — mere  frames  of  \\^\\\  wood  and  bamboo,  with  paper  adornments — are  soon 
rebuilt;  nor  are  monumental  piles  anywhere  found,  such  as  those  met  with  in 
European  cities.  Hence  earthquakes  are  comparatively  harmless,  while  fires 
spread  rapidly  amid  these  flimsy  structures.  On  this  account  the  southern  gate  of 
the  city  is  usually  closed  in  summer,  "  to  keep  out  the  fire-god." 

The  bouses  of  the  rich  arc  generally  very  clean,  and  often  transformed  by 
flowering  plants  to  veritable  coiiservatories ;  but  the  towns  are,  as  a  rule,  inde- 
scribably filthy,  in  this  respect  forming  a  striking  contiast  to  the  well-kept  fields. 
Sanitary  arrangements  can  scarcely  be  said  to  e.\ist.  Hence  epidemics,  and 
especially  small-pox,  are  far  more  frequent  and  fatal  than  in  Europe;  while 
elephantiasis,  leprosy,  and  other  endemics,  due  mainly  to  unclean  habits,  commit 
fearful  ravages  on  the  seaboard,  in  the  southern  provinces  and  elsewhere.     Pro- 


1 


AORifiTi.Tuni: 


2S7 


'lit  Iw  cut  ilT 
— that  is,  the 
iH  iiiul  i>iirks, 
H  much  luoro 
.<  (tutcr  walls, 
re  m'ccKM  1111(1 
trctchiiig  ior 
thus  is  social 
«ul)urlw  coin- 
iind  many  of 
nsolvoH.    The 


m 


ents — are  soon 
met  with  in 
8,  while  fires 
uthern  gate  of 

■ansformcd  by 
a  rule,  inde- 
ll-kept  fields. 

pidoniics,  and 
uropo ;    while 

liabits,  commit 

ewhere.     Pro- 


l»ah|y  iiiiic-fcnths  oT  liic  wliolc  pojuilatiHH  an-  afTcctcfl  hy  culancuus  diM-ascs,  which 
arc  lurn:t'ly  due  to  the  |)i»«ti!cMtial  cxhidatioiis  from  tin  rice  j^ruunds.  Yet  the 
Chines.'  easily  resist  the  hauoful  inHueiu*es  of  climate,  and  adapt  thenisejve-.  inure 
readily  than  others  to  the  extreme  variations  of  temperature,  humidity,  and 
elevation  of  the  land.  A  remarkalile  fact  in  Chinese  ethno^rraphv  is  the  importance 
attached  to  himily  names,  which  may  l)e  said  to  constitute  close  hlood  relationship. 

KiK.  130.— luRKlATIXO   VVMV,  ISol  TU    ClUNA. 


Hence  alliances  between  men  and  women  bearing  the  same  patronymic  are  strictly 
forbidden.  The  whole  nation  has  thus  come  to  bo  divided  into  150  distinct  groups, 
which  can  intermarry  indirectly  only  through  the  female  line. 

AoRicti/ruRE. 

The  fertile  soil  of  China  has  been  under  cultivation  for  thousands  of  years 
wthout  showing  any  signs  of  exhaustion.     It  not  only  still  suffices  to  support  all 


888 


KAST  ASIA. 


the  iiihiiliitiititH  of  tlif  I'lnpirc,  liiit  tiloo  yirliU  ciiiisidi'nililr  Nii|)|)li(>s  for  th<<  rx]K)rt 
trtiili'.  Willioiit  tilt' rlu'iiiiciil  knowlfd^c  and  |i<>i'f(>*'t«>d  iiiipliinriit^^  (d'  lMini|H<uiiM, 
the  <'hiiiCH(>  ]M>asut)l  Iium  gradually  IkhiIIU'  ai(|uaiMt('d  with  the  (jiiality  of  t!i(>  iaiiil 
and  the  ri>(|iiiri'iiu'nfn  of  flic  cultivati'd  plaiilN.  lie  iumI. ■if.ds  tlic  iH'«!e»wiry 
rotation  of  «TopM  on  tin-  Name  isoil ;  n-j^ulatcs  the  due  pro^x  ,i  m  ol  lime,  jdiosjdiati's, 
ashfM,  aiiinial  and  vc^n'taWlo  rcinaiiiH,  and  ollitr  niannr«<  '  t  .<it|i|u('nicntM  tlio 
nid('n('>«'4  of  his  instruinriits  with  manual  Hkill.  \lo  I'ari'ludy  w(H>dM  tiM'  ground, 
uad   irrigates  it  l)y  ii  thouHuiid  dillVrciit  ntntrivuncoH,  all  kinds  ot  punipt)  und 


Pig.  HO.— lULATivi  Impohtanc'i  or  the  Chops  i.s  thi;  (  hinkkk  Puovincm. 

Snilc  1  ;  .■in.iKKi.rino. 


dO' 


25: 


FoFG. 


v«.....> 


"p-^\i 


GOO  Miletk 


hydraulic  wheels,  worked  by  the  hand,  animals,  or  the  wind.  The  system  of  tillage 
thus  resembles  market  gardening  rath(>r  than  the  broad  methods  of  cultivation 
common  in  Europe.  In  the  fertile  plains,  especially  about  Shanghai,  a  single 
acre  sufHces  for  the  support  of  seven  or  eight  persons,  and  before  the  country  was 
thro^vn  open  to  foreign  trade  it  yielded  sufficient  for  all  the  wants  of  the  ijcoplc. 
There  are,  moreover,  vast  tracts  still  uncultivated,  and  according  to  the  official 
rt>turns  for  the  beginning  of  this  century,  while  the  land  under  tillage  amounted  to 
120,000,000  acres.  Shantung  was  the  only  province  where  more  than  half  of  the 
soil  was  actually  cultivated. 


H 


AdHKUI.TrilK. 


2HI) 


or  the  rX|Ktrt 
il'  Kuio|M'im«t, 
ty  of  llw  land 
tlic  iufcsHiiry 

U',  J»lH)(*Jiluit('M, 
|l)lll'lllt'lll'4  tlll^ 
■4    \hr    J4?(illll(l, 

it  puiiipH  und 


NCM. 


un 


stem  of  tillage 
of  cultivation 
ghai,  u  single 
le  country  was 
of  the  people, 
to  the  official 
e  amounted  to 
m  half  of  the 


Liohig  luiH  w«'ll  poiiifcd  out  the  rrniurkuhlo  contrast  pr('s«>nt»'d  l»y  CliincHi" 
huHldindrv  to  that  ol'  houic  otlicr  counlrics,  wImtc  the  soil  lias  nhrady  Ixrn 
cxliaustcd.  Palestine,  now  so  arid,  at  one  time  '  flowed  with  milk  and  honey." 
Central  Italy  has  alno  lieeome  impov(>rislied,  and  how  many  other  regions  have 
hei'ii  reduced  to  wildernc'sses  hy  ignorant  and  wastel'nl  systems!  Kven  in  ihi 
Uniteil  States  many  formerly  prodiictivi-  tracts  are  now  harrcn,  while  Mngland, 
France,  and  (Jermany  are  already  ohliged  to  import  much  of  their  supplies,  as  ,vell 
as  the  guano  and  otlier  fertilising  substances  riMpiircil  to  restore  its  produilive 
energy  to  the  exhausted  land.  Ilut  in  China,  apart  altogether  from  the  "  Yellow 
liands,"  which  need  no  niaiuire,  the  arable  regions  have  maintained  their  fecundity 
for  over  four  thousand  years, entirely  through  the  thouy;htful  <are  cd'  tli(>  peasantry 
in  restoring  to  the  soil  under  another  form  all  that  the  crops  have  taken  from  if. 

At  th(>  sanu'  time  "  the  ploughing  of  the  Chinese  is  very  ])oor  and  unscientillc. 
Tliey  scarcely  (h)  more  than  scratch  the  surface  of  the  gnuind  ;  and  instead  of  the 
Htraight  lines  so  dear  to  the  eye  of  an  Knglish  farmer,  the  ridges  and  furrows  in 
China  are  as  crooked  as  serpents.  Hence  it  Is  difficult  to  understand  how  flu! 
Chinese  have  acquired  such  a  high  rej)utati(m  amongst  Muropeans  for  Krirndftc 
fanning.  The  real  secret  of  their  sjicccss  lies  in  the  care  they  take  that  nothing  is 
wasted.  In  many  districts  they  use  no  other  nuinurc  than  the  sewage  of  the  towns, 
but  not  one  particle  of  this  is  h).st."     (CJill,  i.  1 14.) 

Of  the  crops  the  n»)st  important  is  rice,  which  is  the  staple  food  throughout 
the  central  and  southern  provinces,  und  which  occupies  at  least  one-eighth  of  uU 
the  luiul  under  cultivaficm.  There  are  several  varieties,  one  of  which  is  suitable 
for  the  higher  grouiuls,  where  it  is  grown  on  terraces  ahuig  the  sh)pes  of  the  hills. 
North  of  the  lloang-ho,  wheat,  millet,  and  sorgho  are  the  prevailing  cereals,  and  to 
eacli  h(»use  is  generally  attached  a  kitchen  garden,  yielding  all  the  J'luropcan  and 
other  vegetables  according  to  the  climate.  But  the  forests  have  nearly  everywhere 
l)een  sacrificed  to  tillage  to  such  an  extent  that  the  material  for  coffins  has  now  to 
be  imported  from  abroad.  The  only  fuel  consists  of  dried  herbs,  straw,  roots,  and 
other  yegetablo  refuse  economized  with  the  greatest  care.  In  the  eastern  plains, 
especially  north  of  the  Yang-tze,  no  large  growths  are  met  except  bamboo  thickets, 
orchards,  rows  of  trees  between  the  fields,  and  hero  and  there  clumps  of  trees  about 
the  pagodas  and  cemeteries.  The  whole  country  would  be  covered  by  these  grave- 
yards but  for  the  old  practice  of  ploughing  them  up  at  the  accession  of  every  new 
dynasty. 

After  a  careful  investigation  of  the  subject  in  several  parts  of  the  country, 
G.  W.  Cooke  concludes  that  on  the  whole  Europe  has  nothing  to  learn  from  China 
in  the  art  of  agriculture.  It  is  true  that  the  Chinese  have  no  summer  fallow  lands ; 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  they  have  no  stiff  clays.  They  have  no  couch-grass ;  no 
thistles  contending  for  the  full  possession  of  the  land,  as  we  see  in  many  parts 
of  "Wales  and  Ireland ;  no  uninvited  poppies ;  no  straggling  .stalky  crops,  the 
poverty-stricken  covering  of  an  exhausted  soil.  At  rare  intervals  we  see  a  large, 
richly  coloured  coxcomb  flaunting  himself  among  the  cotton.  But,  generally 
speaking,  there  is  not  a  leaf  above  the  ground  which  does  not  appertain  to  the  crop 


Jf-  ,r-< .-- jK-i7Tr-«T(jrai8 


l»  W* .  *..*Krti-i-r]w^ ':-?x-'?»f-nLi*wrf*  .  r^s*^  •-■ 


^lifmT 


290 


EAST  ASIA. 


to  which  tho  field  is  appropriated.  In  the  districts  where  rice  and  cotton  arc  the 
staple  products  these  crops  often  extend  in  mibroken  breadth  over  tracts  of 
thousands  of  acres.  The  peas,  and  wheat,  and  indigo,  and  turnips,  and  bringalls 
lie  in  patches  round  thi<  villages.  The  ground  is  not  only  clean,  but  the  soil  is  so 
cxcpiisitely  pulverised  that  after  a  week's  rain  the  traveller  will  sonictinies  look 
about  in  vain  for  a  clod  to  throw  into  a  pond  to  startle  the  water-fowl.* 

Pasture  lands  are  as  scarce  as  the  forests  in  China.  The  land  is  too  valuable 
to  be  devoted  to  stock-breeding,  for  a  tract  required  to  support  a  million  oxen 
would  yield  centals  and  vegetables  enough  for  1*^,000,000  hunum  beings.  But  for 
thousands  of  years  both  the  ox  and  horse  have  been  domesticated.  The  mythical 
Emperor  Fo-hi,  said  to  have  flourished  fifty- three  centuries  ago,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  the  first  to  domesticate  the  six  essentially  tame  animals — horse,  ox,  pig,  dog, 
sheep,  and  fowls.  But  the  larger  animals,  including  the  buffalo,  are  little  used 
except  for  carriage.  They  are  carefully  tended,  protected  from  the  cold  M-ith 
warm  cloths,  and  from  the  rough  roads  with  straw  shoes.  Owing  to  the  Buddhist 
precept  and  his  natural  attachment  to  his  companion  in  labour,  the  peasant  eats 
the  flesh  of  these  animals  with  great  reluctance.  The  penal  code  even  forbids  their 
slaughter  without  exjiress  permission.  Nevertheless,  apart  from  the  numerous 
vegetarian  societies,  which  also  abstain  from  wine,  garlic,  and  onions,  the  Chinese 
add  a  little  meat  to  their  ordinary  diet.  They  are  partial  especially  to  the  flesh  of 
the  hog,  of  which  there  arc  several  varieties.  On  the  rivers  and  reservoirs  flocks 
of  three  or  four  thousand  tlucks  are  also  met,  which  arc  looked  after  either  by 
children  in  boats,  or  even  by  cocks,  which  are  taught  to  keep  them  together  by 
crowing  and  flapping  their  wings.  A  large  traffic  is  done  in  these  water-fowl, 
which  are  dried,  like  botanical  specimens,  between  two  boards,  and  in  this  state 
forwarded  to  the  most  distant  provinces.  In  the  southern  provinces,  and 
especially  in  Hunan,  a  particular  breed  of  dogs,  and  even  rats  and  mice,  are 
prepared  in  the  same  way.  The  locust,  silkworm,  and  snake  enter  into  the  diet  of 
the  poor,  while  sharks'  fins  and  swallows'  nests  are  served  on  the  tables  of  the  rich. 
Another  delicacy  consists  of  ducks'  eggs  steeped  while  fresh  in  a  solution  of  salt  and 
lime.  Penetrating  through  the  shell,  the  lime  turns  the  contents  quite  black,  and 
imparls  to  the  egg  a  decided  flavour.  In  this  state  it  is  encased  in  clay  and  baked, 
after  which  it  will  keep  for  a  long  time,  the  white  being  reduced  to  the  consistency 
of  a  jelly,  while  the  yolk  becomes  about  as  firm  as  a  hard-boiled  egg.  After  the 
death  of  Commissioner  Yeh  in  Calcutta,  where  he  had  been  detained  a  State 
prisoner,  several  large  boxes  of  eggs  prepared  in  this  way  were  found  amongst  his 
effects. 

The  Chinese  have  discovered  a  means  of  increasing  the  fecundity  of  their 
poultry,  whereby  the  relative  production  of  eggs  is  much  greater  than  in  Exirope. 
The  hen  is  prevented  from  hatching  by  being  taught  to  bathe,  and  artificial 
incubation  has  been  practised  long  before  the  art  was  known  in  the  West.  Pigeons 
arc  protected  from  birds  of  i)rey  by  means  of  a  bamboo  whistle  no  thicker  than  a 
sheet  of  paper  inserted  between  the  wings.     Marvellous  devices  have  been  intro- 

"  China  in  1857-8,"  p.  247. 


THE  TEA  TRADE. 


291 


cotton  are  the 
vcr  tracts  of 
and  bringalls 
tlie  soil  is  so 
Huctiuics  look 
1.* 

is  too  valuable 
I  million  oxen 
ings.     But  for 
The  mytliical 
pposetl  to  have 
!,  ox,  pig,  (log, 
are  little  used 
the  cold  with 
3  the  Buddhist 
e  peasant  eats 
■n  forbids  their 
the  numerous 
ns,  the  Chinese 
■  to  the  flesh  of 
eservoirs  flocks 
after  cither  by 
m  together  by 
esc  water-fowl, 
id  in  this  state 
provinces,   and 
I  and  mice,  are 
into  the  diet  of 
)le8  of  the  rich, 
tion  of  salt  and 
uite  black,  and 
lay  and  baked, 
the  consistency 
gg.     After  the 
itained  a  State 
nd  amongst  his 

uidity  of  their 
ban  in  Europe, 
and  artificial 
"West.  Pigeons 
thicker  than  a 
ave  been  intro- 


duced for  the  capture  of  fish,  which  are  tiikon  without  nets  or  traps,  and  great 
skill  is  displayed  in  rearing  and  propagating  both  salt  and  fresh-water  species. 
The  samli,  a  kind  of  shad,  is  produced  almost  exclusively  by  arti  cial  means,  and 
sent  in  large  earthenware  vessels,  far  and  wide,  in  every  state  of  development. 

TiiK  Tka  Trade. 

Of  the  natural  products,  tea  supplies  the  largest  element  in  the  foreign  export 
trade.  Tlie  quantity  consumed  by  the  inhabitants,  certainly  moro  than  in  all  the 
rest  of  the  world  together,  can  only  be  approximately  estimated.  Yet  its  use, 
although  introduced  some  twelve  or  fifteen  centuries  ago,  is  not  yet  universal  in 
the  empire.  In  the  northern  provinces  the  rich  alone  can  afford  to  indulge  in  the 
tea  from  the  Yang-tze  basin,  others  remaining  satisfied  with  various  preparations  in 
which  the  precious  leaf  forms  but  a  small  part.  f]ven  in  the  tea-growing  provinces 
the  poorer  classes  are  obliged  to  replace  it  by  infusions  of  the  willow  and  other 
leaves  gathered  in  the  thickets.  In  certain  districts  this  industry  has  even  acquired 
some  commercial  importance,  thanks  to  the  fraudulent  practice  of  the  Hankow, 
Shanghai,  and  Amoy  merchants,  who  use  these  leaves  in  adulterating  the  teas 
destined  for  the  European  market. 

The  so-called  "  brick  tea  "  is  prepared  especially  for  the  Tibetan  and  Mongolian 
markets.  In  the  Russian  factory  at  Hankow  "  bricks  are  made  of  green  and  black 
tea,  but  always  from  the  commonest  and  cheapest ;  in  fact,  for  the  black  tea  the  dust 
and  sweepings  of  the  establishment  are  used.  The  tea-dust  is  first  collected,  and  if 
it  is  not  in  a  sufficiently  fine  powder,  it  is  beaten  with  wooden  sticks  on  a  hot  iron 
plate.  It  is  then  sifted  through  several  sieves  to  separate  the  fine,  medium,  and 
coarse  grains.  The  tea  is  next  steam'^'d  over  boiling  water,  after  which  it  is 
immediately  put  into  the  moulds,  the  fine  dust  in  the  centre,  and  the  coarse  grains 
round  the  edges.  These  moulds  are  like  those  used  for  making  ordinary  clay  bricks, 
but  very  much  stronger,  and  of  less  depth,  so  that  the  cakes  of  tea,  when  they  come 
out,  are  more  like  large  tiles  than  bricks. 

"  The  people  who  drink  this  tea  like  it  black ;  wherefore  about  a  teaspoonful  of 
soot  is  put  into  each  mould,  to  give  it  the  depth  of  colouring  and  gloss  that  attracts 
the  Mongolian  purchasers.  The  moulds  are  now  put  under  a  powerful  press,  and 
the  covers  wedged  tightly  down,  so  that  when  removed  from  the  press  the  pressure 
on  the  cake  is  still  maintained.  After  two  or  three  days  the  wedges  are  driven  out, 
the  bricks  are  removed  from  the  moulds,  and  each  brick  is  wrapped  ui>  separately 
in  a  piece  of  common  white  paper.  Baskets,  which  when  full  weigh  130  lbs.,  are 
carefully  packed  with  the  bricks,  and  are  sent  to  Tientsin,  whence  they  find  their 
way  all  over  Mongolia,  and  up  to  the  borders  of  Russia. 

"  I  was  told  that  this  tea  could  be  sold  retail  in  St.  Petersburg  with  a  fair 
profit  at  the  rate  of  twenty  copecks  the  pound.  The  green  tea  is  not  made  of  such 
fine  stuff,  but  of  stalks  and  leaves.  The  3Iongolians  make  their  infusion  by  boiling. 
In  this  manner  they  extract  all  the  strength,  and  as  there  is  no  delicate  flavour  to 
lose,   they  do   not   injure  the  taste.     The  manufacturer  here  told  me  that  the 


■  ■WWA-^J'/Sfe'tiSJ^iVfe.- 


1  m'tniniHiniiln  H'l 


i^teiAw 


I 


!'*1>^ 


292 


EAST  ASIA. 


n 


tea  the  Russians  usually  drink  in  their  own  country  is  taken  direct  to  Odessa  from 
Hankow  by  the  Sue/  Canal,  and  in  answer  to  an  inquiry  that  I  made,  he  assured 
nic  that  even  before  the  canal  was  opened  it  never  passed  through  London. 

"A  better  price  is  given  by  the  Russians  in  Hankow  than  the  English  care 
to  pay.  This  is  the  real  reason  why  the  tea  in  Russia  is  superior  to  any  found  in 
London  ;  foi-  caravan  tea  is  a  delicacy  even  amongst  the  nobles  in  St.  Petersburg." 
(Gill,  i.  170.) 

Other  Agricultukal  Produce. 

Of  the  seventy  cultivated  plants  mentioned  by  explorers,  the  sugar-cane,  cotton, 
mulberry,  wax,  tallow,  and  varnish-tree,  boihmeria  nettle,  and  especially  the 
bamboo,  are  economically  of  the  first  importance.  In  the  south,  the  orange,  peach, 
and  mulberry  are  the  most  productive  fruit  trees.  Opium,  although  officially 
interdicted,  is  cultivated  in  nearly  all  the  provinces  of  the  empire,  and  especially 
in  Ilupeh,  Sechuen,  and  Yunnan.  During  the  American  War  cotton  was  largely 
grown  in  the  Tjower  Yang-tze  region,  to  the  detriment  of  other  plants,  which  have 
since  recovered  their  ground. 

Of  all  pursuits,  agriculture  holds  in  China  the  foremost  place.  The 
Emperor  himself  is  regarded  as  the  first  husbandman  in  the  "  Great  and  Pure 
Empire,"  and  till  recently  he  was  bound,  towards  the  end  of  March,  to  plough 
three  furrows,  dressed  as  a  peasant.  The  work  was  continued  by  the  imperial 
princes,  great  mandarins,  and  others  invited  to  the  ceremony,  and  the  corn  thus 
grown  was  presented  the  following  year  to  the  God  of  Heaven,  as  the  offering  of 
the  whole  nation.  At  the  same  time,  the  Emperor  is  in  theory  only  the  jjroprietor 
of  the  land,  which  belongs  really  to  the  peasant  and  his  posterity  as  an  absolute 
freehold. 

Land  Tenure — The  Chinese  Commune. 

Notwithstanding  the  pretended  immutability  of  the  Chinese  people,  the  posses- 
sion of  the  soil  has  undergone  almost  more  frequant  changes  amongst  them  than 
elsewhere.  In  the  first  historic  period  the  laud  was  the  common  property  of  the 
"  Hundred  Families,"  all  able-bodied  adults  between  their  twentieth  and  sixtieth 
year  having  a  direct  right  to  a  share  in  the  soil.  Nevertheless  the  idea  of  private 
property  was  graaaally  developed,  to  the  advantage  of  the  emperor  and  grandees, 
and  twelve  hundred  years  before  the  present  era  the  land  was  already  divided  into 
appanages  and  fiefs,  as  happened  later  on  in  West  Europe.  Still  the  forests, 
pastures,  or  open  spaces  remained  undivided  for  every  group  of  eight  families,  and 
the  Chinese  commune  was,  on  the  whole,  organized  in  much  the  same  manner  as 
the  modern  mir  of  Great  Russia.  Some  traces  of  this  system  still  survive,  not  only 
in  China,  but  in  Korea  and  some  other  countries  affected  by  Chinese  influences. 

Towards  the  middle  of  the  fourth  centurj'  before  the  vulgar  era  another 
change  took  place.  Agriculturists  were  allowed  to  settle  on  any  vacant  spaces,  and 
sot  up  landmarks,  regardless  of  the  communal  limits.  Thiis  the  mir  was  dissolved 
about  the  same  time  that  the  feudal  system  disappeared,  and  the  peasantry  became 


LAND  TENURE -THE  CHINESE  COMMUNE. 


293 


to  Odessa  from 

ado,  he  assured 

jondoii. 

le  English  care 

to  any  found  in 

>t.  Petersburg." 


proprietors,  with  the  right  of  selling  or  bequeathing  their  possessions.  Thus  was 
aceomplished  a  transformation  sonic  two  thousand  years  ago  in  China,  which 
political  economists  foresee  must  take  place  in  Russia  at  no  distant  date.  lUit  the 
consequences  of  this  dissolution  of  the  communal  group  soon  followed.  All  (hose 
who  had  been  enriched  by  trade,  industry,  imperial  favour,  or  other  circumstances, 
bought  up  the  land  at  the  expense  of  the  peasantry ;  large  estates  wore  developed ; 
and  the  small  holders,  being  gradually  dispossessed,  became  at  last,  for  the  most 


ar-cane,  cotton, 
especially  the 
!  orange,  peach, 
lough  officially 
,  and  especially 
ton  was  largely 
ats,  which  have 

t    place.      The 

Jreat  and  Pure 

irch,  to  plough 

•y  the  imperial 

the  corn  thus 

the  offering  of 

( the  j)roprietor 

as  an  absolute 


Fig.  141— Chief  Chops  op  China. 

Scale  1  :  24,000,000. 


iple,  the  posses- 
ngst  them  than 
property  of  the 
3th  and  sixtieth 
idea  of  private 
•  and  grandees, 
dy  divided  into 
till  the  forests, 
lit  families,  and 
ime  manner  as 
irvive,  not  only 
3  influences, 
ir  era  another 
iant  spaces,  and 
ir  was  dissolved 
asantrv  became 


^^        

PastnreB.        Maize, 
Millet,  &c. 


Rice. 


Cotton. 


Tea. 


Silk.        Sugar-cane.    Varnish. 
.  600  Miles. 


part,  slaves  of  the  wealthy  classes.  Those  considered  themselves  fortunate  who 
were  allowed  to  continue  as  farmers,  to  rent  the  lands  of  their  forefathers.  Misery 
became  widespread,  frequent  outbreaks  took  place,  the  State  itself  was  impoverished, 
and  great  difficulty  was  experienced  in  collecting  the  taxes.  An  incessant  struggle 
took  place  Li.-*veen  the  partisans  of  the  new  regime  and  the  old  communal  .system, 
and  for  over  one  thousand  years  the  political  history  of  the  empire  resolved  itself 
into  the  history  of  the  agrarian  question.     In  the  ninth  year  of  the  new  era  the 


EAST  ASIA. 


minister  AVangmang,  after  seizing  the  throne,  declared  the  whole  land  henceforth 
imperial  projierty.  "  No  subject  shall  keep  more  than  one  tsin  (about  twelve 
acres),  or  possess  more  than  eight  man  slaves.  The  sale  of  land  is  forbidden,  so 
that  all  may  keep  what  yields  them  bread.  All  excess  of  land  in  the  hands  of 
any  one  reverts  to  the  Crown,  and  shall  be  distributed  to  the  communes  according 
to  their  needs.  Whoever  (|uestions  the  wisdom  of  these  measm'es  shall  be  banished, 
whoever  resists  them  shall  be  put  to  death."  Yet  a  few  years  later  on  the 
magnates  had  recovered  their  donuiins,  and  the  attempt  to  reconstitute  the  old 
communal  system  again  failed.  "  Not  Yu  or  Shun  himself,"  said  u  contemporary 
philosopher,  "  could  now  restore  it.  All  things  change ;  the  streams  shift  their 
courses,  and  what  time  has  elfaced  disappears  for  ever." 

After  many  social  convulsions  and  changes  of  dj'nasties,  the  Chinese  political 
economists,  abandoning  the  old  conception  of  coramuiud  property,  attempted  to 
introduce  a  new  system.  No  similar  revolution  was  ever  elsewhere  essayed  by  the 
governing  classes  for  the  transformation  of  the  whole  social  fabric.  Wanganche, 
having  become  the  friend  and  adviser  of  the  Emperor  Chentsung,  boldly  set  about 
the  destruction  of  the  old  order  of  things.  In  1069  he  issued  a  decree  abolishing 
all  individual  property.  The  State  became  sole  owner,  and  imdertook  to  distribute 
equally  the  produce  of  the  soil  amongst  the  people.  Wealth  and  poverty  were 
alike  suppressed,  labour  and  sustenance  being  secured  to  all  on  an  equal  footing. 
The  industries  were  placed  under  State  control,  and  for  a  period  of  five  years 
capitalists  were  required  to  hand  over  their  capital  to  the  Government.  Notwith- 
standing the  opposition  of  the  mandarins  and  the  old  feudatory  lords,  Wanganche 
succeeded  in  peacefully  maintaining  this  imperial  commmiism  for  fifteen  years. 
But  a  change  of  rulers  sufliced  to  overthrow  the  new  regime,  which  met  the  views 
neither  of  the  people  nor  of  the  great,  and  which  had,  moreover,  created  a  class  of 
inquisitors,  who  had  become  the  true  owners  of  the  land. 

Under  the  Mongol  rule  properties  changed  hands  abruptly,  and  a  new  feudal 
system  arose,  based  on  the  right  of  conquest,  ^he  imperial  grandees  seized  the 
gr(Hit  fiefs,  comprising  thousands  and  '  !  s  of  thousands  of  acres,  and  every  private 
soldier  received  an  estate  all  to  himstlf.  Being  at  the  same  time  anxious  to  extend 
the  pasture  lands  for  their  horses,  the  Monj^olians  conceived  the  strange  idea  of 
converting  the  land  under  tillage  into  grassy  steppes,  and  driving  the  Chinese 
peasantry  southwards.  The  cultivation  of  the  plains  of  Peking  was  officially 
forbidden,  but  the  attempt  completely  failed.  Instead  of  driving  the  natives 
beyond  the  Iloang-ho,  the  Mongolians  themselves  were  compelled  to  withdraw,  with 
their  families  and  herds,  beyond  the  Great  Wall, 

The  regime  at  present  prevailing  in  China  is  that  of  small  holdings.  But 
under  the  direction  of  the  elders  the  land  often  remains  undivided  in  the  hands  of 
all  the  members  of  a  family,  or  even  of  a  village.  Thus  are  traces  everywhere 
preserved  of  the  old  communal  system.  Large  capitals  are  invested  chiefly  in 
trade  and  the  industries,  while  the  land  in  certain  provinces  remains  almost  entirely 
in  the  hands  of  the  cultivators.  Nevertheless  there  still  remain  many  vast 
domains  rented  to  small  farmers  and  others,  who  share  the  summer  crops  with  the 


INDUSTRIES. 


295 


nd  licnceforth 
(iilxjut  twelve 

I  forbidden,  so 
the  hands  of 

ines  uccordin<^ 

II  bo  banished, 

1  later  on  tho 

itituto  the  old 

contemporary 

ms  shift  their 

inesc  political 
,  attempted  to 
assayed  by  the 

Wanganche, 
oldly  set  about 
;rce  abolishing 
>k  to  distribute 
I  poverty  were 
equal  footing. 
I  of  live  years 
3nt.  Notwith- 
Is,  Wanganche 

fifteen  years. 

met  the  views 

Dated  a  class  of 

d  a  new  feudal 
idees  seized  the 
i  every  private 
sious  to  extend 
strange  idea  of 
ig  the  Chinese 
was  officially 
ig  the  natives 
withdraw,  with 

loldings.  But 
n  the  hands  of 
es  everywhere 
isted  chiefly  in 
almost  entirely 
tin  many  vast 
crops  with  the 


landlord,  and  keep  'he  winter  ones  for  themselves.  They  supply  the  live  stock, 
manure,  and  implements,  while  the  owner  pays  the  land  tax,  which  is  not  a  heavy 
charge.  Tn  the  fertile  coast  lands,  where  the  soil  is  more  divided,  an  estate  of  15 
acres  is  considered  a  large  domain,  and  the  holdings  do  not  probably  exceed  3  acres 
on  the  average.  The  head  of  tho  family  may  sell  or  mortgage  his  pi-oporty,  but 
he  must  first  Oil'er  it  to  the  next  of  kin,  and  so  on,  according  to  tlie  order  of  blood 
r(;lationship.  At  his  death  it  must  be  divided  in  ecpiul  shares  amongst  all  his  sons. 
lie  is  compelled  by  law  to  keep  it  in  good  condition,  land  lying  fallow  for  three 
years  being  forfeited  and  assigned  to  a  fresh  occupant.  Even  the  head  of  the 
comnmne  is  made  responsible  for  the  state  of  the  arable  tracts,  being  subject  to 
twenty  blows  of  a  bamboo  in  case  of  neglect  or  slovenly  tillage.  Tho  right  of 
settling  on  waste  spaces  belongs  to  all,  nothing  being  required  beyond  an  intimation 
to  tho  authorities,  with  a  petition  for  exemption  from  the  iiiipoHt,  which  is  usually 
granted  for  a  certain  term.  The  Government  itself  founds  military  or  penal  colonies 
in  remote  districts,  and  especially  in  Kunsu  and  Zungaria.  The  Crown  lands, 
relatively  of  small  extent,  lie  mostly  beyond  China  proper,  in  Mongolia,  near  the 
Great  Wall,  and  in  Manchuria,  home  of  the  reigning  dynasty.*  The  plantations 
round  tlie  temples,  lands  set  apart  for  educational  purposes  or  bequeathed  to 
hospitals  and  other  public  foundations,  and  lastly,  portions  of  the  marshy  grounds 
and  the  foreshore  on  the  coast  and  estuaries,  are  all  administered  by  the  commune. 

IxnrsTRiEs. 

The  Chinese  industries  are  many  centuries  older  than  those  of  the  West,  and 
some  of  the  more  important  discoveries  made  in  Europe  towards  the  close  of  the 
Middlf"  Ages  had  long  been  anticipated  in  the  extreme  East.  Marco  Polo  and  the 
early  liluropean  explorers  speak  with  admiration  of  the  woven  goods,  chased  metals, 
and  other  products  of  the  "  Manzi."  But  the  first  trustworthy  accounts  of  the 
native  manufactures  was  not  received  in  Europe  till  the  close  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  Several  manufacturing  processes  were  revealed  by  .he  missionaries,  and 
the  work  has  been  completed  during  the  present  century  by  the  translation  of 
numerous  technical  trtatipes.  The  ready  wit  and  manual  skill  of  the  Chinese 
artisans  are  rot  merely  preroc^iitives  of  the  race,  but  are  also  due  to  the  fact  that 
our  minute  division  of  labour  hits  not  yet  been  introduced  amongst  them.  Every 
artistic  object  is  the  work  of  one  artist,  who  designs,  models,  and  paints  it.  In 
many  provinces  the  peasantry  themselves  are  craftsmen,  spinning  and  weaving 
their  cottons  and  linens.  The^:  excel  especially  in  wicker-work,  and  so  closely 
plaited  are  their  baskets,  that  they  serve,  like  wooden  or  metal  vessels,  to  hold  all 
kinds  of  liquids.  The  Hoa-huei,  or  "  embroiderers,"  have  also  been  at  all  times 
renowned  for  the  skill  and  perfection  of  their  workmanship.      "  On  fabrics  of 


•  Crown  Innds  in  183!  :  — 

AppanHgcs  of  tlio  Imperial  B'nmily    . 
Lands  of  tho  Eight  Dannors 
Lands  of  Temples,  Schools,  and  H'spituls 
Marshos  and  Foreshore  on  tho  ('oast 
Total 


750,000  acres. 
2,152,000     „ 

327,000  '„ 
1,667,000  „ 
4,7y«,000     „ 


•»,^>vis-i.«:W      ,1  Jirril  ml  "I  "     ' 


290 


EAST  ASIA. 


marvellous  texture  uiul  il}i'il  with  inimitable  shades  the  Chinese  embroider  with 
flat  silk  fif^ures  of  the  natural  size,  eoinplicated  seenes,  ornaments,  birds,  and 
flowers,  with  unecpialled  truthfulness,  elegance,  and  freshnesy.  In  the  midst  of 
this  rich  needle  jjicture  rise  golden  dragons,  worked  either  in  rotic/iure  or  low 
relief,  often  ornamented  with  spangh's  md  lama."* 

Nevertheless,  except  in  a  few  cases,  the  Chinese  can  boast  of  no  superiority  over 
the  "  Western  Barbarians."  They  even  condescend  to  imitate  European  wares, 
and  the  implements,  ornaments,  clocks  and  watches,  and  other  objects  made  in 
Canton  and  Fachan,  and  thence  exported  to  all  parts  of  the  empire,  are  mostly 
copied  from  specimens  introduced  from  the  West.  Of  the  old  local  industries,  some 
have  remained  unmodified  for  four  thousand  j'ears,  and  these  may  disappear  or  be 
replaced,  but  cannot  now  be  changed.     In  some  cases  the  very  processes  have 


Fig.  142.— Mines  of  Shantung. 

Re  lie  1  :  6,000,000. 


Cnal. 


r 

Irou. 


r 

Cojper. 


•  OP 

Lead.  Gold.    Precious  Stnnes. 

__—  120  MUes. 


alrrady  been  entirely  lost,  and  the  best  hands  now  fail  to  produce  inlaid  bronzes, 
rviamels,  or  porcelain  vases  at  all  comparable  to  the  old  specimens  preserved  in  the 
mu.seums.  In  the  i-^t  of  <!\  _^ing,  especially  from  vegetable  saps,  the  Chinese  are 
still  our  masters,  and  they  p'vssess  se>  "ral  colours  elsewhere  unknown. 

Mineral  Resources — Metal  Work — Bronzes. 

The  country  abounds  in  metals,  salt,  and  coal.    Great  skill  is  shown  in  working 
the  saline  springs,  and  in  obtaining  the  salt,  either  by  solar  heat,  artificial  means, 

•  Jacquemart's  "  History  of  Furniture,"  p.  154. 


■■^'li* 


m 


MINERAL  RESOURCES— METAT;  "WORK— RRONZES. 


207 


ombroi'flor  with 
:>nts,  birds,  and 
111  the  midst  of 
roiic/iure  or  low 

superiority  over 
Europcuu  wares, 
)l)]ects  inado  in 
pi  re,  are  mostly 
industries,  some 
disappear  or  bo 
processes  have 


55' 


inlaid  bronzes, 
ireserved  in  the 
the  Chinese  are 


11. 


own  in  working 
artificial  means, 


or  by  the  }?ttses  of  the  fire-pits,  as  in  Sechuen.  But  the  rudest  appliances  are  still 
used  in  coal  mining,  bamboo  tubes  and  ladders  replacing  the  complicated  machinery 
of  European  engineers.  Yet  the  annual  output  amounts  to  several  million  tons,  and 
China  now  takes  the  sixth  place  amongst  the  coal-producing  countries.  The 
Sechuen  coal-fields  cover  an  area  of  at  least  100,000  square  miles.  Those  of  irunan 
are  also  very  extensive ;  but  the  most  important,  if  not  in  extent,  at  least  in  facility 
of  access,  are  those  of  South  Shansi.  Here  railways  might  easily  bo  constructed 
from  the  plains  right  into  the  mines.  At  the  prcsoh,  rate  of  consumption,  South 
Shansi  also  might  supply  sufficient  anthracite  to  the  whole  world  for  thousands  of 
years. 

Mining  operations  are  still  oft(>n  interfered  with  for  superstitious  reasons,  and 
it  was  reported  early  in  the  year  1882  that  the  coal  mines  of  the  ^irovince  of 
Pechili  had  been  closed  by  the  Government  on  the  ground  that  the  works  were 
displeasing  to  the  great  earth  dragon.  The  working  of  these  mines  was  wholly 
a  native  enterprise,  foreign  machinery  was  imported  in  large  quantities,  and  for  a 
time  all  seemed  going  on  well.  A  canal  between  the  mines  and  Tientsin  was 
nearly  completed,  and  it  was  calculated  that  200  tons  of  fine  coal  could  be  forwarded 
daily  to  the  latter  port.  It  was  stated  that  0,000  tons  were  ready  at  the  pit's 
mouth  for  conveyance  as  soon  as  the  canal  was  opened.  With  proper  appliances  it 
was  believed  that  about  1,000  tons  a  day  could  be  raised  for  many  years  from 
the  present  pits,  while  as  many  as  fifty  collieries  of  equal  productiveness  might  be 
opened  in  the  Kai'ping  district.  Then  came  the  news  that  the  works  had 
been  everywhere  suddenly  stopped  by  the  Peking  authorities.  In  a  memorial 
presented  to  the  Emperor  by  the  public  censor  it  was  complained  that  the  long 
galleries  in  the  mines  and  the  smoke  of  the  foreign  machinery  disturbed  the 
repose  of  the  earth  dragon,  who  in  his  turn  disturbed  the  spirit  of  the  Empress, 
who  had  died  some  months  previously,  and  had  been  buried  about  a  hundred 
miles  off.  Ihe  angry  spirit  of  the  departed  princess  took  prompt  vengeance 
by  afflicting  the  members  of  the  imperial  household  with  measles,  which 
affliction  was  thus  distinctly  traceable  to  the  Kaiping  coal  mines.  Hence  the 
report  that  the  works  had  been  stopped.  But  later  information  showed  that 
this  report  was  premature,  and  that  the  collieries  had  never  been  directly  inter- 
fered with.* 

In  Formosa,  Pechili,  Manchuria,  and  some  other  districts,  European  methods 
have  already  been  introduced  both  in  the  coal  and  iron  mines,  and  for  reducing  the 
iron  ores,  although  in  the  latter  case  the  local  processes  differ  little  from  those  of 
foreign  metallurgists.  The  native  steel  is  always  preferred  even  to  the  English, 
and  great  skill  is  displayed  in  the  preparation  of  copper,  lead,  tin,  zinc,  arsenic, 
and  silver  and  gold  alloys.  The  quality  and  colour  of  the  bronzes  are  unrivalled, 
and  the  "male"  and  "female"  gongs  yield  the  most  exquisitely  modulated  tones. 
From  the  technical  point  of  view  many  of  the  Chinese  bronzes  are  very  remarkable. 
Enormous  figures  cast  in  several  pieces  are  put  together  by  ingenious  processes 
which  insure  their  solidity,  while  smaller  articles  are  modelled  with  a  perfection 

*  Nature,  June  8th,  1882. 
52 


"wrr- 


298 


EAST  ASIA. 


that  Ima  never  been  surpassed,  except  perhaps  in  Japan.  Others,  ajyain,  are  chased 
with  a  finish  worthy  of  the  gohlsinith's  art,  and  evidently  executed  with  instru- 
ments specially  made  for  hollowing  out  the  metal  and  cutting  into  the  intricate 
folds  of  the  draperies.  Amongst  the  more  curious  bronze  wares  are  the  gigantic 
symbolic  birds  used  us  perfume-burners  or  candelabra,  the  large  tripods  with 
pierced  covers  surmounted  by  the  imperial  dragon  or  animals  of  happy  omen,  and 


Fig.  143. — Mines  of  Yunnan. 

Scale  1  :  S,fiOO,O0n. 


CoaL 


V 

C 

m 

0 

A 

*             m 

•• 

S- 

Iron. 

Copper. 

Lead. 

Gold 

Silver; 

Tin,     Quicksilver. 
_  180  Uiles. 

Oems. 

Polt. 

^m 


-»«; 


the  many-storied  pagodas,   their  jirojecting  roofs    ornamented  with   bells,   and 
sheltering  the  household  lares. 

Thanks  to  the  possession  of  the  raw  material,  China,  like  Japan,  still  maintains 
its  pre-eminence  in  the  production  of  lacquer-ware  as  well  as  of  ink,  while 
marvellous  skill  is  betrayed  in  the  carving  of  wood,  ivory,  and  hard  stones. 
Inventors  of  paper,  the  Chinese  still  prepare  several  varieties  unknown  in  Europe, 
although  they  themselves  prefer  those  of  Korea  and  Japan.  In  the  j'ear  153  of 
the  vulgar  era  Tsailun  first  replaced  bamboo  tablets  by  paper  made  from  bark, 
hemp,  old  linen  rags,  and  fishing  nets.  Since  that  time,  bamboo  sprouts,  seaweed, 
rattan,  the  fibre  of  the  Brousnotietia  papyri/em,  silkworm  cocoons,  and  other  sub- 
stances are  used  in  its  maniifacture. 


Irfl-^v  M   .-Stw. 


&      t,    * 


fain,  are  chased 
;d  with  iustru- 
:o  the  intricate 
ire  the  gigantic 
e  tripods  with 
ippy  omen,  and 


9.         Salt. 


irith   bells,   and 

,  still  maintains 
of  ink,  while 
id  hard  stones, 
own  in  Europe, 
;he  year  153  of 
ade  from  bark, 
prouts,  seaweed, 
and  other  sub- 


B 
J 


eu 


il:li"Vfi   i. 


THE  LABOUR  MAlUvKT. 


liii  ■ii',. 


i!'UI'    1     ■.".i.«  I 

■■316? 


aa 
b 

J 

d 
99 


a. 


PRIXTINCI. 

The  Cliiiu'MO  ulso  unticipiitcd  Kuntpcaiis  in  tho  invcntum  of  printing.  Towimls 
tho  end  of  the  wixth  contury  tlu>  art  is  wpoki'ti  of  us  alr«'ii(ly  long  pracliwid,  and  if 
tho  IVrniun  luMtorianH  hud  been  studied  in  the  West,  it  would  have  iM'en  known 
here  a  hundred  and  fifty  years  sooner,  for  it  is  clearly  ex[)lained  in  a  work  by 
]lashid-ed-din,  composed  about  tho  year  IJJIO.  Not  only  were  they  uccpiuinted 
with  the  process  of  printing  from  wooden  blocks,  but  they  also  pructised  stone  und 
copper  engraving,  und  towurds  tho  middle  of  tho  eleventh  century  movuble  terra- 
cotta types  were  invented  by  u  blacksmith.  Hut  the  immense  number  of  cliuructers 
required  in  (Jhmeso  writing  has  hitherto  prevented  tho  adoption  of  this  method, 
except  for  populur  works  und  journals,  for  which  u  limited  number  of  signs  suffices. 
Ilenco  blocks  of  peur-wood,  curved  with  tho  graver  in  intaglio,  or  copper  plates  ?a 
relief,  still  c«»ntinuo  to  bo  employed.  Nevertheless  udmirablo  editions  have  been 
publisheil  from  movable  types.  Such  is  tho  collection  of  G,0()0  old  works  edited  by 
tho  Emperor  Kang-hi,  and  for  wliich  250,000  movable  copper  types  had  to  be  cut ; 
such  ure  ulso  tho  works  issued  b  he  Imperiul  Librury,  the  elegant  churucters  of 
which  are  known  as  the  "  col!  pearls." 

The  Labour  Market. 

The  Chinese  artisans  are  in  general  paid  at  a  much  lower  rate  than  those  of 
Europe  and  the  New  World.  In  Peking,  Shanghai,  Canton,  and  Hunkow  it 
varies  from  5d.  to  lOd.  a  duy ;  so  that,  notwithstanding  the  cheaper  price  of  food, 
few  except  the  silk-weavers,  who  are  better  paid,  have  even  a  sufKcient  diet,  living 
mostly  on  boiled  rice,  cabbage,  and  occasionally  a  little  fish.  Yet  these  pale-faced, 
feeble-looking  labourers  have  really  great  muscular  strength,  and  in  the  central  and 
southern  provinces  they  transport  nearly  all  the  merchandise  not  forwarded  by 
water.  Like  the  other  social  classes,  they  have  organized  extensive  unions,  which 
often  arrange  strikes,  as  in  Europe,  to  keep  up  the  price  of  labour,  and  which  have 
even  founded  co-operative  societies.  Thanks  to  their  spirit  of  solidarity  and 
admirable  discipline,  they  nearly  always  get  the  better  of  the  capitalists,  and  so 
fully  recognised  is  their  power,  that  in  muny  places  the  employers  even  decline  the 
struggle.  At  the  beginning  of  every  industrial  season  the  workmen  themselves 
fix  the  rate  of  pay,  which  is  generally  faithfully  adhered  to  on  both  sides.  They 
might  easily  get  possession  of  the  whole  industrial  plant  of  the  country,  but  for  the 
fact  that  the  trades  unions  form  so  many  independent  and  rival  societies.  These 
associations  subject  apprentices  to  two  or  three  years  of  downright  slavery  ;  they 
constitute  a  sort  of  aristocracy  of  labour,  weighing  heavily  on  all  outsiders,  the 
most  fortunate  of  whom  in  ordinary  times  are  the  professional  mendicants.  Like 
the  traders  and  artisans,  these  mendicants  have  their  recognised  imions,  with 
statutes,  feasts,  and  assemblies. 

G.  W.  Cook  dwells  in  forcible  language  on  the  evils  of  co-operation  amongst 
the  Chinese,  whom  he  describes  as  a  people  essentially  addicted  to  co-oper^itive 


''i'Sii 


jfta.-'-fi**<**~--— 


.,A'^' 


WM 


KAST  ASIA. 


ImhitM.  Thoy  <'Vi'ii  coiiiliiiw-  to^t'tlu  r  for  tho  purpose  "*  rohhinff,  or  n'sistinj? 
rnldicry,  and  lor  all  niaiiiuT  of  I'amiriil  oltjcfts.  "  lluf  uw  sorii-tii's  liiivc  all  one 
tc'iKh'iicy — to  H(|ui'«'zc  tlic  iioii-mciiilKis.     Vumi  tho  'i   iad  Soriity,  which  wan  at 

the  Itottom  of  the  lal.-  rclulli to  tlio  TailoiV  Union  ui  Hoiifj;  Koii^,  the  ruh's  and 

rof^ulations  of  which  luivo  Ikcm  puhlislicd  in  the  yorth  C/tiiiu  llcnthl,  all  havo  tho 
Haiiic  practical  object  in  view.  The  'Tintc  Urothcrhood,'  tho  'Triads,'  tho 
'  llcavcn  and  Karth  Society,'  the  '(iuceii  of  lleaven'H  Company,'  the  '  h'lood 
I''aniily,'  the  '  Pure  Tea  Set,'  are  all  obnoxious  to  the  j,'eueral  description  j;iven  in  a 
memorial  published  in  the  I'lhiny  ^Ao7A'eoiitaininf>;  the  InUowin^^HpeeihiicliarKeH: — 
'They  carry  olf  persons  in  order  to  extort  ransoms  lor  them;  they  falsely  assume 
♦ho  characters  «)f  police  otiicers;  they  build  falst;  boats  professt-dly  to  ^uwyA  th«' 
grain-lields,  and  into  these  they  i)ut  from  ten  to  twenty  men,  who  cruise  ulong  tho 


Fig.    lU.—  l'OKTAOi   IN   ClIKKUNO. 


"^ 


rivers,  violentlj'  plundering  tho  boats  of  travellers,  or  forcibly  carrying  off 
the  wives  and  daughters  of  the  tanka  boat  people.  Tho  inhabitants  of  the  villages 
and  hamlets  fear  these  robbers  as  they  would  tigers,  and  do  not  offer  them 
any  resistance.  The  husbandman  must  pay  these  robbers  a  charge,  else  as  soon  as 
his  crop  is  ripe  it  is  plundered,  and  tlie  whole  field  laid  bare.  In  the  precincts  of 
the  metropolis  they  set  fire  to  places  during  the  night,  that  under  pretence  of 
saving  and  defending,  they  nuiy  phnider  and  carry  off."  * 

Inland  and  Foreign  Tkade. 

The  value  of  the   connuerce   of  China  can  scarcely  be  even  approximately 
estimated,  except  perhaps  for  salt  and  the  other  produce  burdened  by  Government 

•  Op.  cit.  p.  101. 


r,  or  ri'Mistiii^ 
'«  Imvo  all  ono 
wliii'h  wan  at 
,  tii(>  nilcH  aixl 
/,  all  liavi'  tht' 

'  Triads,'  tho 
•,'  thf  'I'luod 
:ion  f^ivcM  in  a 
ifuM'har^cM: — 
fulHcly  assunu' 

to  ^uai'tl  till' 
'liiMe  uluiig  tlu; 


-^ 


carrying  off 
of  the  villages 
lot  offer  them 
else  as  soon  as 
he  precincts  of 
er  pretence  of 


approximately 
V  Government 


.•ri'Mmiin!>.Tm!^i?^.vitrti'!^'i>^mi'K^^J!i'SSf0ii0ii-^X--''-~  t"'M8P--^-'-'-^^'"'^'-B<:-JM 


§ 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


'ML//        V  Ml*  * 


1.0 


1.1 


■so 

|i6        13:2 


2.2 


IL25  III  !.4 


2.0 

1.6 


Hiil 


Photographic 

Sciences 

Corporation 


23  WIST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  145C0 

(716)  •72-4503 


Wh 


^  4^ 


V^^ 

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'v.%^ 


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^o 


CIHM/ICMH 

Microfiche 

Series. 


CIHIVI/ICMH 
Collection  de 
microfiches. 


Canadian  Institute  for  Historical  Microreproductions  /  Institut  Canadian  de  microreproductions  historiques 


> 


THE  OriUM  QUESTION. 


801 


monopolies.  In  the  iu'if>;hhourlioo(l  of  tho  <i;rout  cities  the  rivers  and  oatiiils  are 
covered  with  intcrniinublc  lines  of  junks,  while  niany  of  the  niort)  fre([uented 
portuf^es  and  mountain  passes  at  certain  periods  resemble  busy  niurkct  towns.  Tho 
boatmen  and  porters  engaged  in  the  inland  traffic  must  certainly  amount  to  several 
millions. 

Tlianks  to  the  great  variety  and  abundance  of  its  products,  China  has  hitherto 
scared  J-  felt  the  need  of  a  foreign  trade.  But  so  far  from  refusing  to  deal  with 
strangers,  she  formerly  gave  free  access  to  the  Arabs,  ^Iidays,  Annamese,  Siamese, 
and  even  the  Portuguese,  who  were  well  received  when  they  first  appeared  in  tho 
Canton  River  in  1516.  Soon,  however,  the  Europeans  Iwgan  to  assume  tho  air  of 
conquerors,  and  scarcely  a  year  passed  without  sticncsof  bloodshed,  fully  justifying 
the  title  of  "  Foreign  Barbarians  "  applied  by  the  natives  to  the  new  arrivals.  Th(>y 
also  began  to  quarrel  among  themselves,  and  looking  upon  all  of  them  as  members 
of  one  nation,  tho  Chinese  asked  in  amazement  why  they  thus  plundered  and 
murdered  each  other.  At  last  the  seaports  were  closed  against  them,  or  ojjened 
only  on  humiliating  and  burdensome  conditions.  "  The  barbarians  are  like  beasts, 
and  are  not  to  be  governed  by  the  same  principles  as  civilised  beings."  Such  was 
the  language  of  a  contemporary  official  document.  "  To  attempt  to  guide  them  by 
the  great  maxims  of  reason  could  only  end  in  disorder.  The  arbitrary  plan  is  the 
only  true  method,  and  best  means  of  governing  the  barbarians." 

The  Opium  Question. 

Then  followed  the  opium  trade,  swelling  the  list  of  complaints  against  the 
foreigner.  The  use  of  this  drug  did  not  begin  to  spread  till  the  close  of  the  last 
century,  when  it  was  still  imported  as  a  simple  medicine.  In  1800  an  imperial 
edict  forbade  the  people  to  exchange  their  money  for  the  "  vile  stuff  ;  "  but  it  was 
too  late,  and  the  poison  continued  to  spread  rapidly.  The  East  India  Company  soon 
found  millions  of  accomplices  in  the  opium  smokers,  and  amongst  them  were  most  of 
the  mandarins  officially  charged  to  put  an  end  to  the  traffic.  The  contraband  trade 
increased  from  year  to  year,  to  the  serious  loss  of  the  imperial  treasury,  and  as  the 
exports  of  tea  and  silk  remained  greatly  inferior  to  the  importation  of  opium,  the 
country  began  to  be  drained  of  its  specie,  "  swallowed  up  in  the  insatiable  abysses 
of  tho  lands  beyond  the  seas."  At  last  the  Government  had  recourse  to  force. 
All  strangers  settled  in  Canton,  275  altogether,  were  imprisoned,  and  the  British 
Commissioner  had  to  purchase  his  liberty  and  that  of  his  fellow-countrymen  by  the 
surrender  of  over  20,000  chests  of  opium,  valuwl  at  about  £2,000,000,  and  consigned 
to  destruction  by  the  Viceroy  Lin.  This  was  the  signal  for  the  "  Opium  War"  of 
1841-2,  during  w^hich  the  English  successively  seized  the  Chusan  Archipelago,  the 
Canton  River  forts,  Ningpo,  and  Cliing-kiang.  Under  the  very  walls  of  Nanking 
a  treaty  Avas  dictated  to  (^hina,  abolishing  the  moiu)poly  of  the  twelve  hou<j,  ceding 
to  Great  Britain  the  island  of  Hong  Kong,  besides  a  heavy  war  indemnity,  and 
throwing  open  to  foreign  trade  the  five  ports  of  Canton,  Amoy,  Fuchew,  Ningpo, 
and  Shanghai. 


302 


EAST  ASIA. 


But  the  hard  conditions  of  this  treaty  were  not  observed.  Strangers  were  again 
excluded  from  Canton,  and  certain  monopolies  were  re-established,  while  the 
English,  French,  and  Americans  clamoured  on  their  part  for  fresh  concessions.  A 
second  war  broke  out  in  1857,  in  which  the  French  joined  the  English.     Canton 


Fig.   145.— Chivrse  Tr«atv  Portb. 
Scale  1  :  'JO.OOO.OOO. 


40" 


|Niutchouan4r 

Yinkoa 

wgr~ 


EnFG 


,  ISMUei. 


fi 


was  again  taken,  and  the  European  fleets  entered  the  Pei-ho  River,  when  peace 
was  hastily  concluded  in  1858  at  Tientsin.  But  hostilities  again  broke  out  the 
next  year.  The  allied  forces  stormed  the  forts  of  Takow,  defeated  the  Chinese  army 
in  a  pitched  battle,  and  encamped  under  the  Walls  of  Peking.  In  virtue  of  the 
treaty  of  1860  new  ports  were  thrown  open,  and  in  1878  their  number  was  increased, 


i  U  <iiW'.      t.''    ^  ^   *aB^.  ■<  *^^ii*^i-  ^' . — 


STAPLES  OF  TEADE— SILK-TEA— RICE-OnUM. 


808 


as  an  expiation  for  the  murder  of  Margary.  At  prcsont  there  are  as  many  aa 
nineteen  treaty  ports,  besides  concessions  granted  "  for  ninety-nine  years "  to 
foreigners,  as  sites  for  warehouses  and  residences.  In  the  north  and  north-west 
Russia  also  has  her  consuls  and  entrepots  at  Chufj^ucliak,  KoIhIo,  Uliasutai,  and 
Urga,  with  the  fi-ec  use  of  the  postal  route  from  Kiakhtu,  through  Kalgan  and 
Tungchcw,  to  Tientsin. 

The  Treaty  Ports  and  Foreign  Exchaxoes. 

The  treaty  ports  are  situated  at  intervals  along  the  seaboard  from  Pakhoi,  on 
the  Gulf  of  Tonking,  to  Ying-tze,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Liao-he.  There  are  also 
European  settlements  in  Hainan  and  Formosa,  so  that  from  the  frontiers  of  Indo- 
China  to  Korea  the  produce  of  the  empire  may  now  be  directly  exported  to  all  the 
European  markets.  Amongst  these  ports,  Canton,  lying  nearest  to  India  and 
Europe,  has  naturally  retained  a  considerable  share  of  the  foreign  exchanges. 
Tientsin  also,  situated  at  the  northern  extremity  of  the  empire,  has  acquired 
exceptional  importance.  But  the  two  chief  marts  occupy  more  central  positions — 
Shanghai,  near  the  Yang-tze  estuary,  and  Hankow,  on  the  great  river  itself. 

The  foreign  exchanges  of  China  have  increased  tenfold  since  the  opening  of  the 
treaty  ports,  and  according  to  the  official  returns  they  now  exceed  £46,000,000. 
With  the  local  and  coasting  trade,  the  full  value  of  the  trade  of  the  empire  is 
estimated  at  over  £120,000,000,  or  some  Gs,  or  7s.  a  head,  an  insignificant  sum 
compared  with  that  of  some  other  countries.  The  shipping  has  kept  pace  with  the 
increase  of  traffic,  only  sailing  vessels  have  now  been  almost  entirely  superseded  by 
steamers.  Regular  lines  of  steamers  ply  from  port  to  port  along  the  seaboard,  and 
in  the  Yang-tze,  as  far  as  Ichang,  below  the  rapids. 

Till  recently  nearly  the  whole  of  the  foreign  trade  was  carried  under  foreign 
flags,  and  full;,  three-fourths  still  fall  to  the  share  of  Great  Britain  and  her 
colonies.  But  while  the  Americans,  French,  and  Germans  are  retiring  from  the 
field,  the  natives  are  j'early  taking  a  greater  part  in  the  carrying  trade.  More 
frugal  and  cautious  than  their  Western  rivals,  animated  by  a  greater  spirit  of 
clanship,  possessing  agents  in  most  foreign  countries,  accustomed  to  the  language 
of  trade  from  their  infancy,  initiated  into  the  secrets  of  the  money  market,  the 
Chinese  have  already  monopolized  the  trade  of  several  treaty  ports.  The  national 
flag  has  even  begun  to  appear  in  distant  waters,  and  a  large  Chinese  steamer 
entered  the  port  of  London  for  the  first  time  in  1881,  with  a  cargo  of  tea  from 
Canton. 

Staples  of  Trade — Silk — ^Tea — Rice — Opium. 

Silk  and  tea  are  the  great  staples  of  the  foreign  export  trade*  Before  the  year 
1 844  the  annual  amount  of  silk  exported  scarcely  exceeded  2,500  lbs.  ;  now  it  is 
five  or  six  times  greater,  while  tea  was  shipped  in  1878  to  the  value  of  about 
£9,400,000.  Rice  is  the  chief  item  in  the  import  trade,  and  thousands  of  junks 
are  yearly  employed  in  this  traffic,  which  is  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  natives. 


804 


EAST  ASIA. 


Rice  is  broiipjht  chiefly  from  Siam,  French  Cochin-China,  and  Annam.  Next  to 
rice,  the  most  important  imports  are  opium  and  cotton,  which  were  received  in 
1879  to  the  value  of  no  less  than  £11,000,000  and  £6,200,000  respectively.  Under 
the  present  Indian  administration,  which  has  inherited  this  traffic  from  the  East 
India  Company,  the  m\o  of  opium  has  increased  tenfold  in  about  twenty  years.  In 
return  for  advances  nuidc  to  the  Bengal  poppy-growers,  the  Government  takes  the 
chest  at  a  fixed  price,  and  sells  it  at  an  average  profit  of  about  £90,  which  yields 
from  £0,000,000  to  £8,000,000  yearly  to  the  Indian  revenue.  Hence  there  is 
some  ground  for  the  chiirge  brought  against  the  British  Government  of  specu- 
lating in  the  vices  of  the  Chinese.  At  the  same  time  there  is  scarcely  a  Govern- 
ment in  the  world  against  which  a  similar  charge  may  not  be  brought.  Which 
of  them  is  free  from  the  imputation  of  having -encouraged  the  traffic  in  tobacco, 
alcoholic  spirits,  or  other  poisons,  for  financial  purposes  ?  The  Chinese  Govern- 
ment itself  raises  large  sums  from  the  import  duty  on  opium,  and  tacitly  con- 
nives at  its  cultivation  in  most  of  the  provinces,  where  the  traders  and  mandarins 
share  between  them  the  profits  on  the  yearly  crops  of  the  officially  prohibited 
drug. 

At  the  same  time  the  baneful  effects  of  the  use  of  this  narcotic  have  been 
strangely  exaggerated.  Most  of  the  lettered  classes  use  it  in  moderation  without 
any  apparent  weakening  of  their  intellect.  Those  who  indulge  to  excess  no  doubt 
yield  at  last,  like  drunkards,  to  convulsive  attacks  and  paralytic  strokes.  But  they 
are  few  in  number,  and  seldom  found  amongst  the  peastnit  and  labouring  classes, 
who  form  the  heart  of  the  nation.*  Most  opium  smokers  are  satisfied  with  a  few 
harmless  whiffs  in  the  intervals  between  their  work,  and  it  is  noteworthy  that  the 
people  of  Scchuen,  who  are  most  addicted  to  the  practice,  are  specially  distinguished 
by  their  energy  and  intelligence.  On  the  whole,  opium  is  probably  not  a  whit 
more  injurious  than  tobacco,  which  is  far  more  prevalent  in  the  seaboard  and 
norlhern  provinces.  On  the  other  hand,  the  European  vice  of  drunkenness  is 
almost  unknown  in  China,  where  you  may  travel  for  years  without  meeting  a  single 
intoxicated  person. 

In  "  The  Truth  about  Opium  "  (1882),  Mr.  W.  H.  Brereton  of  Hong  Kong, 
who  has  made  a  special  study  of  this  question,  considers  that  tobacco  is  on  the 
whole  more  injurious  than  opium  smoking.  He  describes  the  Chinese  as,  generally 
speaking,  a  strong,  healthy,  and  intelligent  people,  and  says  that  he  has  known 
among  them  young  men,  middle-aged  men,  and  men  of  advanced  years  who  have 
been  opium  smokers  all  their  lives,  some  of  them  probably  excessive  smokers.  Yet 
he  never  observed  any  sj-mptoms  of  premature  decay  in  any  of  them.  One 
old  man  whom  he  knew  for  fifteen  years,  he  describes  as  a  keen  man  of  business, 
strong  in  body  and  mind,  who  betrayed  the  practice  only  in  the  discoloration  of 
his  teeth.  That  few  in  any  case  smoke  to  excess  seems  probable  from  the  generally 
white  state  of  their  teeth,  of  which  they  are  very  proud,  and  which  they  brush 


•  According  to  an  official  note  issued  early  in  1882  by  Mr.  Hart,  Inspector-General  of  Chinese 
Customs,  considerably  less  than  one  per  cent,  of  the  population  is  addicted  to  opium  smoking,  while  those 
who  smoke  to  excess  are  extremely  rare. 


,...>      -. — ^. ..^.i^--^-.^--.i^y|  p 


HIGHWAYS  OF  COMMUNICATION. 


805 


Next  to 
•eccivcd  in 
y.  Under 
1  the  East 
years.  In 
:  takes  the 
liich  yields 
30  there  is 
of  specu- 
a  Govern- 
t.  Which 
In  tobacco, 
je  Govern- 
acitly  con- 
mandarins 
prohibited 

have  been 
on  without 
88  no  doubt 
But  they 
ng  classes, 
tvith  a  few 
hy  that  the 
stinguished 
not  a  whit 
aboard  and 
ikenness  is 
ng  a  single 

ong  Kong, 
0  is  on  the 
s,  generally 
has  known 
s  who  have 
jkers.  Yet 
;hem.  One 
of  business, 
oloration  of 
le  generally 
they  brush 

ral  of  Chinese 
ig,  while  those 


two  or  three  times  a  day.  Mr.  Brereton,  who  speaks  with  kindness  and  respect  of 
the  English  missionaries,  considers  that  on  the  question  of  opium  smoking  "  the 
zeal  of  their  house  hath  eaten  them  up." 

Highways  of  Communication- — Railway  Prospects — Tei.eoraphs. 

Thanks  to  steam,  the  relations  of  the  coast  lands  with  the  rest  of  the  world 
have  become  much  easier  and   more  frequent  than   formerly.      But  the   inland 
routes  and  canals  are  probably  in  a  worse  state  than  during  the  Ming  dynasty, 
some  three  hundred  or  four  hundred  years  ago.     Except  in  Shantung,  Kansu, 
Sechuen,  parts  of  Ilonan,  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  treaty  ports,  the  old 
roads  are  everywhere  out  of  repair,  and  the  bridges  in  ruins,  while  in  many  places 
mere  tracks  follow  the  line  of  the  former  highways.     In  the  rice  grounds,  which 
cover  such  a  large  extent  of  land,  most  of   the  routes  consist  merely  of  blocks 
2  feet  broad,  and  raised  at  most  3  or  4  feet  above  the  water.     Such  of  the  twenty- 
one  imperial  highways  as  are  still  in  good  condition  attest  the  high  degree  of 
civilisation   reached   by   the   nation   during   mediajval   times,   and   enable   us   to 
understand  the  admiration   with  which   Marco  Polo  and  other  early  travellers 
speak  of  that  epoch.     These  highways  are  cut  through  the  spurs  of  the  mountains, 
which  are  sometimes  even  tunnelled,  and  they  are  carried  over  mounds  and 
embankments  across  the  low-lying  grounds.     Some  70  or.  80  feet  broad  in  the 
plains,  and  paved  with  granite  blocks,  they  are  mostly  lined  with  rows  of  trees 
like  the  avenues  in  Europe.     Signal  towers  occur  at  intervals  of  3  miles,  and  inns, 
troughs,  regular  stages,  and  military  posts  for  the  protection  of  travellers  are 
also  met  all  along  the  line.      Everything  is  provided  for  on  these  model  routes 
except  an  efficient  postal  service,  which  is  left  to  un  association  of  merchants. 
Dispatches,  however,  are  seldom  lost,  even  when  forwarded  from  one  end  to  the 
other  of  the  empire.     But  outside  of  such  places  as  Shanghai,  the  only  service 
organized  on  the  European  model  is  that  of  the  Russian  couriers,  who  reach 
Peking  from  Eiakhta  through  Ealgan  in  twelve  days. 

"China  proper  is  intersected  in  every  direction  by  two  thousand  imperial 
highways,  which  with  the  great  number  of  navigable  streams,  and  the  extensive 
system  of  canalisation,  renders  the  country  one  of  the  richest  in  the  means  of 
communication  in  the  whole  world.  Unfortunately  the  State  has  neglected  to  keep 
either  roads  or  canals  in  repair,  or  protect  them  from  the  wear  and  tear  of  time 
and  weather,  so  that  they  are  now  partly  impracticable.  Morrison  gives  a 
deplorable  account  of  the  present  condition  of  the  Grand  Canal,  on  which  Peking 
largely  depends  for  its  supplies.  In  1880  some  parts  were  in  such  a  ruinous  state 
that  the  boats  could  not  pass  through,  and  portages  were  formed  at  the  sides  for 
discharging  and  re-shipping  farther  on. 

"  The  most  direct  trade  route  between  China  and  Europe  runs  from  Hankow 
through  North  Eansu  and  across  the  Gobi  desert  to  Hami,  and  thence  by  the  Pe-lu 
route  through  the  Zungarian  depression,  or  the  alternative  Irtish  valley,  to 
Orenburg.     The  Russians  are  beginning  to  see  that  the  future  trade  route  must 


806 


EAST  ASIA. 


follow  thin  lino,  which  is  practicable  for  carriap^ps  throup^hout  the  whole  diHtance  of 
'^.•j(SO  miles  IVom  Zaisan  to  Hankow  except  a  section  of  IGO  miles,  which  presents 
no  (UHiculty  (o  pack  animals.  It  can  be  traversed  in  140  days,  whereas  by  the  tar 
more  dilHcult  Kiakhta  road,  which  is  1,800  miles  longer,  it  takes  202  days  to  reach 
I'eking.  The  whole  of  the  routo  between  llunkow  und  Zuisan  was  traversed  by 
Sosnovski  in  the  year  1881."  * 

Hitherto  the  construction  of  railways  has  not  been  sanctioned  by  the  Imperial 
Government.     Except  in  the  neighlwurhood  of  the  coal  mines  and  dockyards,  there 

Fig.  140.— Ornbral  View  of  Nanking. 


are  not  even  any  tramways  in  the  empire.  Yet  the  success  of  the  short  line 
between  Shanghai  and  Wusung,  tolerated  for  a  few  months  by  the  authorities, 
shows  that  the  locomotive  would  soon  become  as  popular  in  the  extreme  East 
as  elsewhere.  The  plans  of  the  main  lines  from  Tientsin  to  Peking,  Shanghai  to 
Fuchew  and  Hangc"ue>-.'-'u,  Canton  to  Nanking,  have  already  been  prepared 
by  the  English  engineers,  and  abundant  capital  would  be  forthcoming  for  their 

•  A.  H.  Keane's  "  ABia,"  1882. 


ilTTiiHiirirTfrri1rr"'rr'^rr*r  ff' 1' 


'i  Ailwfr'n'rfii^firti'rt  ■ 


u  ■iI'h'm.iiw 


RAILWAY  I'ROSf'ECTS. 


807 


(tunce  of 
j)rosi'nl8 
f  the  fur 
to  reach 
crHcd  by 

Imporial 
•ds,  there 


^.•.■ 


short  line 
uthorities, 
reme  East 
anghai  to 
prepared 
for  their 


construction,  if  once  authorised  hy  thc^  ixhiiiiiistration.  Tlie  ohjeetions  advaneod 
by  the  niunthiriuH  were  ecjuully  applicable  to  the  introduction  of  Hteainers.  They 
pretend  to  plead  on  behalf  of  the  niillionM  of  porters  and  iMtatnien  at  prcNcnf 
engaged  in  the  trans|K)rt  traffic ;  they  also  appeal  to  the  femj-Hhiti,  as  tiicy  did 


Fig     147.— UolTEM,    TEliEOUArilH,    A'VI)    IilNES   OK    StKAM    NaVKIATION    IN    ChINA. 

Scale  1  :  tW,00O,O0O. 


English,  Fr(;nch,  and  Japnneae  ChineM  Lines. 

Unes  of  Steam  Navigation. 


Main  Routes. 


.800  MUes. 


when  they  opposed  the  erection  of  lofty  buildings  on  the  European  "  concessions." 
But  the  graves  might  easily  be  removed  by  practising  the  suitable  rites,  while  the 
Emperor,  "  master  of  the  spirits,"  might  indicate  to  them  the  proper  route  to  take,  • 
and  reassure  his  subjects  by  informing  them  of  the  orders  he  has  given  to  the 


808 


EAST  ASIA. 


circuiimnibifiil  jycnii.  Hut  flu*  (ruo  roiiHou  of  tho  opposition  is  the  fpiir  that 
11  (l»'v«'lop('(l  railway  nystotn  inipfhl  iiifroiisc  foreign  inHuonffs,  ii  four  wliii-h  is  not 
perhaps  altogether  groundless.  Ilenee  it  is  nulural  thut  China  shouhl  plaeo 
itself  in  a  state  of  defence  hefore  throwing  open  the  country  to  the  projects  of 
Euro])ean  engineers.  "China  for  the  Chinese"  is  the  universal  watehword  in  tho 
ein])ire.  Kven  most  of  the  iron  and  coal  mines  are  aUowed  to  l)e  worked  only  on 
the  express  condition  of  not  employing  l-luropean  hands.  Hesides  this  fear  of 
the  stranger,  the  provincial  governors  have  unctther  motive  for  opposing  tho 
railway  projects.  At  j)resont  the  difficulty  of  communicating  with  tho  capital 
makes  them  almost  independent  of  tho  central  authority  in  their  local  adminis- 
tration. But  more  rapid  means  of  locomotion  would  have  the  immediate  effect 
of  bringing  them  more  under  control,  and  elieeking  their  systematic  misgovem- 
ment  of  the  provinces.  Hence  their  hostility  to  the  inconvenient  invention  of 
the  "  Western  Harharians."  But  it  is  not  likely  that  their  resistance  can  much 
longer  avail,  and  a  recent  number  of  tho  London  and  China  Telegraph  informs 
us  that  a  railway  0  miles  long  was  actually  constructed  early  in  tho  year  1882, 
in  connection  with  the  Kaiping  collieries  in  the  north.* 

The  telegraphi(!  system  is  also  rapidly  spreading.  All  the  treaty  ports  are  already 
connected  by  submarine  cable  with  Singapore,  Japan,  Vladivostok,  and  tho  rest  of 
tho  world.  After  much  opposition,  a  double  line  of  wires  was  completed  towards 
the  end  of  tho  year  1881  by  a  Danish  company  between  Peking  and  Shanghai,  and 
other  projects  aro  now  under  consideration.  The  old  tnrntai,  or  "  atmospheric  " 
telcgrajdis,  have  already  fallen  into  abcyauco.  They  consisted  simply  of  cone- 
shaped  towers  resting  on  square  piles  of  masonry,  on  which  bonfires  were  kindled, 
and  the  signals  thus  rapidly  transmitted  to  great  distances.  But  such  rudo 
contrivances  could  scarcely  do  more  than  warn  the  Government  of  outbreaks  and 
other  troubles  in  the  remote  provinces. 


Foreigners  in  China — Chinese  Emigration. 

The  handful  of  foreigners  settled  in  China  is  out  of  all  proportion  to  the 
great  influence  exercised  by  them,  both  politically  and  socially.  In  1879  their 
commercial  houses  numbered  altogether  451,  with  3,985  European  merchants  and 
employes.  Even  including  the  missionaries  and  travellers,  there  cannot  be  more 
than  5,000  actually  domiciled  in  the  country.  Yet,  few  as  they  are,  they  have 
already  modified  the  trade,  industry,  customs,  and  thought  of  the  nation  to  a 
far  greater  extent  than  the  Chinese  are  themaolvcs  aware.  Along  the  seaboard  a 
sort  of  Ihtfiua  franca,  the  already  mentioned  "  Pigectn  English,"  has  been  deve- 
loped, which  has  acquired  some  literary  standing,  and  is  even  current  among  the 
natives  speaking  different  dialects.  Many  colloquial  terms  have  entered  into  this 
jargon,  but  most  of  the  expressions  are  so  changed  that  they  can  no  longer  be 
recognised  either  by  Chinese  or  foreigners  under  their  new  forms.  Its  s»d)stratum 
is  rather  I'ortuguese  than  English,  and  its  true  origin  must  be  sought,  not  in 

•  The  locomotive  was  made  on  tho  spot  by  native  workmen,  and  is  said  to  be  very  creditably  done. 
—Nature,  March  23,  1882. 


CinNKSK  KM I(} RATION'. 


800 


four   that 
ich  is  not 
uld    placo 
riiji'ctK  of 
ord  in  the 
mI  only  *>ii 
is  fonr  of 
osing   the 
ho  cupitul 
I  ndniinis- 
itito  effect 
iiisgovern- 
vention  of 
can  nmch 
)h  informs 
year  1882, 

lire  already 
the  rest  of 
od  towards 
inghai,  and 
iiosphoric  " 
y  of  cone- 
re  kindled, 
sucli  rude 
breaks  and 


ion  to  the 

1879  their 

chants  and 

lot  be  more 

they  have 
ation  to  a 
seaboard  a 
been  dcve- 
iiiiong  the 
1  into  this 

longer  he 
substratum 

jht,  not  in 

;ditablv  done. 


1 


Cunton,  but  in  Goa,  on  the  west  const  of  India.     Tlius  the  word  /ms,  applied  to  tho 
statues  of  liuddha,  to  the  ginls  and  saints,  is  a  corruption  of  the  i'ortugucs*'  Vion. 

Chinese  einignit'  m  is  yearly  accpiiriiig  increased  iin])ortance,  although  still  far 
inf»'rior  to  the  movement  going  on  towanls  the  nortluTU  regions  of  the  empire. 
The  ("liincHt>  already  settled  iu'vond  the  (Jreat  Wall  in  Mongolia,  Manchuria,  imd 
(hiter  Kansu  are  estimated  at  no  less  than  1.1, 000, (MX),  whereas  there  ar(>  ])rol)alily 
not  m<»re  than  ;{,000,(>00  altogether  in  foreign  coinitries.  It  will  thus  1k'  seen  that 
tlu"  part  played  by  Chinese  emigration  in  the  general  movement  of  the  human  race 

Fig.  148.-Hio.VAL  TowBitH. 


has  been  greatly  exaggerated.     At  least,  the  anticipation  of  formidable  struggles 
between  the  rival  Mongoloid  and  white  peoples  is  somewhat  premature. 

The  distinctive  feature  of  Chinese  migration  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  consists 
almost  exclusively  of  male  adults.  Hitherto  no  women  have  been  seen  in  America 
or  Australia  beyond  the  few  that  have  been  specially  contracted  for.  None  of 
them  have  crossed  the  seas  voluntarily,  and  their  number  is  of  no  account  in  the 
general  movement,  except  in  such  places  as  Singapore  and  Penang,  which,  from 
the  ethnical  point  of  view,  may  be  regarded  as  Chinese  territory.  Hence  the 
increase  of  infanticide  in  many  of  the  seaboard  villages,  where  the  girls  are  often 
sacrificed  by  their  parents,  in  despair  of  finding  them  suitable  husbands.  Being 
neither  free  nor  entitled  to  hold  property,  the  Chinese  woman  cannot  leave  the 
paternal  home  without  express  permission,  and  even  in  the  interior  this  permission 


nio 


EAST  ASIA. 


in  Noldorn  j?rtiiit«'<l.  Kxcrpt  flu-  hij^lur  oJli«iulH,  th«'  nativcH  inovinj?  from  plucc  to 
plnco  uw  ran-ly  uccompiiuicd  l>y  ihfir  fiimilirs,  pn'fnrin^  to  Hct  up  new  uiid 
ti'miM)rury  f^^tuldiNliiiu'iitM  in  thu  ri'iimti*  (liHtrictN,  whoru  tlu-y  iiiukt'  pt'iitMlicul  or 
])r()frii('t«'(l  viHitM. 

Male  ("iiii-f ration,  cHiMV-ially  aiiioiig  tho  Ilakka  of  Koki«'i»  and  K\van>?-tun^,  huH 
uccpiircd  considcrahlf  proportioiin.  and  iw  now  ri'Kulatcd  Ity  treaty  arran^f'-nicnt 
iH'twfi-n  the  Iinpt-rial  (lovi-rnnicnt  and  foreign  jMtwi'rH.  Tho  innnigruntH  already 
form  an  iniiM>rtanl  eh-mcnt  of  the  iH)pulati(in  in  Momo  placi-M,  whoro  their  oxtremoly 
frupil  and  industriouM  luibitH,  their  perMevenince,  verwitility,  undnpirit  of  Holidarity, 
onahh'  them  to  found  Htjurishing  eonnnunitieH  whore  others  fail.  In  the  NtruggUi 
for  exiHteneo  th«'y  have  the  advantage  of  easily  aecpiiring  the  language  of  the 
eountry,  and  whatever  be  the  nationality  of  the  njother,  whether  SiamcHC,  Tagul, 
or  Javanese,  the  new  family  ulways  becomes  (Jhinese,  even  in  physical  type. 
The  regions  whore  the  race  has  Wn  most  solidly  established  uro  the  basins  of  the 

Fig.  149.— Ranob  op  Ciiinebb  Mioratiok. 

BaOe  1  :  3-i&,UUU,00a 


O  •  O 

KtniirTnnti         10,000  to  100,000.     100,000  to  1,000,000.    Over  l,C0O,00a 
under  10,000. 

— ^-— ~— — ^— ^-^  6,000  MilM. 


W:'.' 


rivers  flowing  from  Yunnan  and  Sechuen  to  Further  India.  Here,  as  in  Manchuria 
and  Inner  Mongolia,  at  the  other  extremity  of  the  empire,  they  have  gradually 
appropriated  the  laud  by  trade,  agriculture,  and  the  civilisation  of  the  aboriginal 
tribes.  By  following  the  course  of  the  rivers,  the  colonists  advancing  from  the 
interior  must  sooner  or  later  join  hands  with  their  fellow-countrjrmen  who  have 
reached  Sium  by  the  sea  route. 

In  the  neighbouring  Eastern  Archipelago,  where  they  have  been  long  established, 
the  Chinese  settlers  enjoy  a  high  reputation  for  thrift,  industry,  and  intelligence. 
John  Chinaman's  motto  is  "  small  profits  and  quick  returns,"  and  goods  of 
every  sort  can  be  bought  cheaper  in  the  Chinese  than  in  the  European  or  native 
establishments.  "But  in  money-lending  transactions  John  Chinaman  never 
charges  less  than  twenty- four  per  cent,  interest,  and  always  insists  on  good  security, 
lie  is  polite  to  a  degree.  If  a  chance  customer,  or  any  one  merely  lookii  ;  about, 
enters  the  shop,  John  asks  him  to  sit  down,  and  offers  him  a  cup  of  tea,  or  if  a 


m 


FOIIHIOXKUS  IS  CHINA— CIIINKSK  MMIOHATION. 


811 


jiliico  to 
iit'W  uiid 
iudicul  or 

■tunf?,  liUH 

llllK'-'IUt'Ilt 

tH  ulruudy 
I'Xt  n-moly 
Nolidurity, 
le  Htruggle 
kgu  of  tlio 
?8e,  Tugal, 
licttl  type. 
iHiiiH  of  the 


90' 


Manchuria 
gradually 

aboriginal 
ng  from  the 
n  who  have 

established, 
intelligence, 
d  goods  of 
in  or  native 
iman  never 
)od  security. 
)kii  ;  about, 
tea,  or  if  a 


KurojM'an  ii  n\unn  of  lictT.  Uv  is  upcii  to  l)art«'r,  au<l  it'  you  ddii't  (»|)cii  yoiir 
vyi'H  you  luuNt  opt'ii  your  purHV,  for  thu  vvhoUt  uiin  of  tho  CliiucNt!  in  to  uucuinuluto 
a  fortune. 

"The  (^hiiu'sf  traders  arc,  however,  a  good  pattern  f«)r  the  Malays,  who  have 
been  greatly  iuHueiiced  by  thoni.  Ilesides  being  good  slutp-keepers  they  are  very 
industrious;  many  are  artisauH,  (excellent  earpt'nters,  giMwl  tailors,  shoemakers,  and 
jewellers,  liut  their  eurse  is  their  taste  for  gambling.  In  i\w  ev(>ning,  when 
businesH  is  over,  they  will  Hit  with  a  friend  or  two  under  the  verandah,  lighted,  up 
with  a  grotescpu!  ('bineHo  lantern  suspended  fn)m  tho  eeiling,  smoko  the  indisjwn- 
Hablc  opium  \)'\\h},  and  have  a  gaiiu^  of  eards,  over  whieh  tho  betting  is  fast  and 
furioUH.  When  it  happeuH  that  John  is  entirely  ruined  by  eard-playing,  his  gdld 
buttons  and  everything  eonoeivablo  gone,  ho  will  proceed  to  the  gold  and  diamond 
mines,  and  try  to  repair  Iuh  hist  fortune."  * 

In  tho  countrieH  whore  they  do  not  compete  with  tho  dominant  race  the 
Chinese  immigrants  soon  become  indispensable.  Thus  thoy  have  created  the 
prosperity  of  Singapore,  where,  but  for  them,  all  industrial  and  eomnu'rcial  activity 
would  soon  be  arrested.  But  elsewhere  they  often  come  into  collision  with  com- 
petitors in  tho  labijur  market.  Thus,  while  tho  thinly  peopled  colony  of  West 
Australia  gladly  welcomes  Chinese  settlers  to  tend  tho  herds  and  develop  a  few 
local  industries,  the  more  prosperous  states  of  Queensland,  New  South  Wales,  and 
Victoria,  in  East  Australia,  resent  the  presence  of  this  frugal,  thrifty,  and  laborious 
element,  which  has  too  decided  an  advantage  in  tho  competition  with  the  European 
labouring  classes.  They  aro  reproached  with  gradually  monopolizing  certain 
industries,  such  as  mining,  and  tho  more  feminine  occupations  of  washing  and 
domestic  service.  Such  is  their  thrift  that  they  contrive  to  grow  rich  where  others 
starve.  But  the  poll  taxes  imposed  in  spite  of  the  treaties,  the  vexatious  measures 
of  all  sorts,  and  in  many  cases  open  violence  and  massacres,  have  greatly  reduced 
their  numbers,  and  even  diverted  the  stream  of  migration  altogether  from  some 
parts  of  Australia  and  California.  The  Imperial  Government  has  consented  to  sign 
a  treaty  with  the  United  States,  limiting  the  right  of  its  subjects  to  settle  in  the 
republic.  The  authorities  in  the  Philippines  and  Dutch  East  Indies  also  oppose 
every  obstacle  to  their  intrusion,  restricting  them  to  certain  districts,  excluding 
them  from  various  professions,  burdening  them  with  special  taxes,  and  subjecting 
them  to  all  kinds  of  obnoxious  police  regulations.  But  the  movement  can  no 
longer  be  permanently  arrested.  The  Chinese  Mohammedans  have  even  begun 
to  take  part  in  the  pilgrimages  to  Mecca  and  Medina,  and  some  of  these  have 
already  settled  in  the  Arabian  Peninsula.  Thus  the  relations  of  the  white  and 
yellow  peoples  become  constantly  more  frequent,  and  at  a  thousand  :uiifferent 
points  we  are  brought  face  to  face  with  the  urgent  question  how  best'  to  reconcile 
the  conflicting  interests  of  the  two  races,  differing  so  profoundly  in  character, 
traditions,  habits,  and  ideas. 

*  Curl  Rock's  "  Head  Hunters  of  Borneo,"  1882,  pp.  169,  170. 


tr 


n  iii.|.Mi^  |iii_.i|,y|n,,|  I  1^  1^    ||„  11,11)  i.jniM,,i„^^,,p^^, 


812 


EAST  ASIA. 


TuK  New  Ideas — Sociai,  Progress. 

The  residence  of  so  many  Chinese  abroad  tends  quite  as  much  as  the  presence 
of  foreigners  in   China  to   bring  about  the  inevitable  renovation  of   the  land. 
Careful  observers,  the  Chinese  preserve  in  their  memory  all  the  lessons  taught 
them  by  the  hard  struggle  for  existence.     They  thus  learn  to  adapt  themselves  to 
the  new  conditions,  modifying  their  methods  and  adopting  foreign  arts,  not  with 
the  youthful  enthusiasm  of  the  Japanese,  but  with  determination  and  indomitable 
perseverance.     Proud  of  their  ancient  culture,  ond  fully  conscious  of  the  superiority 
of  some  of  their  processes,  they  are  never  tempted  blindly  to  accept  foreign  ideas 
and  fashions.     Unlike  the  Japanese,  they  refuse  to  conform  in  dress  to  the  "  Red- 
haired  Barbarians,"  but  they  are  fully  alive  to  the  advantages  to  be  derived  from 
Western  inventions.     Apart  from  the  mandarins,  who  have  privileges  to  safeguard, 
and  who  arc  consequently  wedded  to  the  old  ways,  the  bulk  of  the  people  perfectly 
understand  how  much  they  have  to  learn  from  Europeans.     Patients  crowd  the 
English  and  French  hospitals  in  Tientsin,  Shonghai,  Amoy,  and  other  places,  and 
the  fanciful  native  pharmacopa'ia,  in  which  magic  played  such  a  large  part,  is  thus 
being  gradually  assimilated  to  that  of  the  West.     Vaccination  has  already  replaced 
the  dangorous  method  of  inoculation  by  the  nostrils  ;  and  enlightened  practitioners, 
with  a  knowledge  of  anatomy,  physiology,  and  hygienics,  begin  to  make  their 
appearance  here  and  there  amid  the  countless  tribe  of  quacks  and  charlatans. 
European  schools  have  been  opened  in  the  treaty  ports,  where  the  students  have 
readily  followed  all  the  instructions  of  their  foreign  teachers.     They  have  even 
learned  the  music  of  the  "  Barbarians,"  to  which  they  were  formerly  supposed  to 
be  absolutely  insensible.     In  spite  of  the  great  difficulties  presented  by  works 
translated  from  such  totally  different  languages,  thousands  of  scientific  books  have 
already  been   published  and  largely  circulated.     The  native  journals  issued  by 
foreigners  in  the  treaty  ports  are  eagerly  read,  and  amongst  others  the  Shunpao,  a 
daily  paper  published  in  Shanghai,  had  recently  os  many  as  8,000  native  subscribers. 
Yielding  to  the  pressure  of  public  opinion,  the  Government  itself  established 
in  J  868  a  bureau  in  the  arsenal  of  Kiangnan,  for  the  purpose  of  publishing  Chinese 
editions  of  the  chief  European  scientific  works.     It  has  also  founded  in  Peking  the 
Tuugicen  Kwan,  an  administrative  college,  where  English,  French,  Russian,  and 
German  are  taught,  and  where  physics,  chemistr)',  medicine,  physiology,  astronomy, 
and  other  branches  are  intrusted  to  foreign  professors,  assisted  by  native  tutors. 
Most  of  the  courses  are  conducted  in  English,  and  this  college,  which  had  about 
100  students  in  1876,  now  supplies  a  portion  of  the  officials  engaged  in  the 
administration  of  the  empire.     On  the  other  hand,  the  Government  establishment 
hitherto   maintained    at   Hartford,   in    Connecticut,   was  suppressed  in   1881,  in 
consequence  of  the  dangerous  influence  of  American  customs  and  ideas  on  the 
students.  -  . 

Public  Instruction — The  Literati. 

In  Chinese  the  word  kiao  is  applied  equally  to  instruction  and  to  religion,  and 
study  is,  in  fact,  regarded  as  a  religious  cult.     For  thousands  of  years  the  obliga- 


PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION— THE  LITERATI. 


818 


he  presence 
»f   the  land, 
isona  taught 
lemselves  to 
•ts,  not  with 
indomitable 
e  superiority 
foreign  ideas 
o  the  "  Red- 
lerived  from 
to  safeguard, 
pie  perfectly 
ts  crowd  the 
jr  places,  and 
i  part,  is  thus 
>ady  replaced 
practitioners, 
>  make  their 
d  charlatans, 
students  have 
ey  have  even 
r  supposed  to 
ed  by  works 
ic  books  have 
als  issued  by 
le  Shunpao,  a 
re  subscribers. 
If  established 
jhing  Chinese 
in  Peking  the 
Russian,  and 
y,  astronomy, 
native  tutors, 
ich  had  about 
jaged  in  the 
establishment 
in  1881,  in 
ideas  on  the 


)  religion,  and 
irs  the  obliga- 


Fig.  160.— M.  Yano,  Attach^  op  the  Chikbsb 

(.BOATIOX  IN   Pauih. 


tion  of  parents  to  instruct  their  male  offspring  has  been  universally  recognised. 
All  towns  and  villages  must  be  provided  with  schools,  whose  teachers  arc  supjiorted 
by  the  commune,  and  freely  chosen  on  the  recommendation  of  the  householders. 
Wealthy  families  generally  keep  one  or  two  tutors,  and  in  the  largo  towns  there 
are  evening  classes  for  the  convenience  of  those  engaged  at  work  during  the  day. 
Thus  has  been  developed  a  deep-rooted  respect  for  learning  amongst  all  classes.  A 
sort  of  reverence  is  inspired  by  the  inscriptions  and  sentences  of  the  ancient  sages, 
which  adorn  the  houses  and  public  buildings,  and  which  convert  the  whole  country 
into  a  vast  library.  The  very  paper 
is  revered,  as  if  the  words  covering 
it  were  the  essence  of  all  know- 
ledge. 

"  After  reading  and  writing  the 
Avhole  education  of  the  Chinese  con- 
sists in  the  knowledge  of  the  iiucient 
classics,  which  in  themselves  con- 
tain many  excellent  doctrines,  but 
are  hardly  sufficient  to  form  the 
beginning,  middle,  and  end  of  a 
man's  education.  Moreover,  in  these 
ancient  classics  there  are  many 
exceedingly  difficult  and  obscure 
passages ;  a  certain  fixed  interpreta- 
tion of  these  is  prescribed  by  law, 
and  woe  betide  the  unfortunate 
candidate  at  an  examination  who 
should  venture  to  think  for  himself, 
suggest  any  new  meaning,  or  cast 
additional  light  on  that  which  has 

once  been  explained  by  the  sages  in  a  certain  way,  and  of  which  in  consequence 
any  further  illumination  would  be  profane. 

"  Can  it  be  possible  for  any  nation  to  devise  a  system  which  would  more  effectually 
crush  out  all  germs  of  originality  or  thought  from  the  mind  of  the  people  P  "  * 

Yet  the  superstitious  respect  for  this  system  has  been  transferred  to  the  literati, 
and  to  the  Government  which  they  represent.  Men  who  have  had  the  good  fortune  to 
penetrate  into  the  mysteries  of  writing  seemed  almost  like  demigods.  But  recent 
events  cannot  but  tend  to  diminish  the  traditional  veneration  of  the  masses  for 
the  literati.  The  hollowness  of  their  vaunted  science  has  been  revealed,  and 
it  was  discovered  that,  without  having  studied  the  "five  classics,"  foreigners 
have  succeeded  in  making  discoveries  immeasurably  more  important  than  the 
dry-as-dust  commentaries  on  the  words  of  Confucius.  Here  are  already  the 
germs  of  a  moral  revolution,  which  cannot  fail  to  have  its  political  consequences. 
The  prestige  of  authority  is  on  the  wane,  and  no  efforts  of  the  mandarins  will 

*  Gill,  op.  eit.  i.  p.  307.  " 

58  '         .>     ' 


""■■•WWBW^'J??" 


814 


EAST  ASIA. 


■t: 


succeed  in  again  reviving  it.  The  peasantry  and  labouring  classes,  a  great 
part  of  whose  existence  has  not  been  spent  in  the  study  of  the  written  language, 
perceive  how  much  reduced  has  been  the  distance  separating  them  from  the  literati. 
The  centre  of  gravity  in  the  empire  is  being  displaced,  to  the  advantage  of 
the  people  and  at  the  expense  of  the  authorities,  and  political  revolutions  are  the 
inevitable  consequence  of  the  intellectual  evolution  now  taking  place. 

Pending  Changes  in  the  Social  System. 

To  speak,  as  many  do,  of  the  immobility  of  the  Chinese  Empire,  is  altogether 
unjust,  for  nowhere  else  have  more  revolutions  been  accomplished,  or  more 
varied  systems  of  government  been  essayed.  "  To  improve,  renew  yourself  daily," 
said  one  of  the  ancient  sages  quoted  by  Confucius.  But  it  is  not  difficult  to 
understand  why  great  changes  arc  now  slower  in  China  than  elsewhere.  The 
people  have  the  consciousness  of  their  ancient  culture,  and  they  may  have  well 
believed  for  centuries  that  they  were  the  only  civilised  nation,  surrounded 
as  they  were  either  by  barbarians  or  by  populations  whose  teachers  they  had  been. 
Suddenly  from  beyond  the  seas  and  over  the  plateaux  and  deserts  they  behold 
other  nations  advancing,  who  with  a  more  recent  history  outstrip  them  in 
knowledge  and  industry.  The  world  becomes  enlarged  and  peopled  around  them, 
and  those  outer  spaces,  to  which  they  attached  such  little  importance,  are 
discovered  to  be  ten  times  larger  and  twice  as  populous  us  China  itself.  Their 
assumed  superiority  thus  disappears  for  evj-r.  Assuredly  such  a  proud  people 
could  not  without  bitterness  contemplate  the  relative  diminution  of  their  impor- 
tance in  the  world,  and  it  must  have  cost  them  many  a  pang  to  have  to  learn 
new  lessons  of  wisdom  in  the  school  of  the  stranger.  Nevertheless  these  lessons 
they  are  prepared  to  learn,  without,  however,  losing  their  self-respect.  They 
study  the  European  sciences  and  industries,  not  as  pupils,  but  rather  as  rivals, 
anxious  to  turn  their  opponents'  resources  against  themselves. 

It  was  high  time  that  this  outward  impulse  should  come  and  quicken  the 
nation  into  a  new  life.  Science  had  been  reduced  in  China  to  the  art  of  skilfully 
handling  the  pencil  in  the  reproduction  of  empty  classic  formulas.  Proud  of 
possessing  in  their  ideographic  signs  a  really  universal  language,  the  literati,  who 
are  also  the  rulers  of  the  people,  had  come  to  regard  reading  and  writing — that  is, 
the  instruments  of  science — as  science  itself.  Hence  they  were  content  to  pass 
their  life  in  learning  to  read.  The  measure  of  their  reputation  was  filled  when, 
after  a  long  course  of  studies,  they  had  mastered  all  the  mysteries  of  their  written 
language.  Short  indeed  was  life  for  this  long  art,  which  left  them  no  time 
for  independent  studies.  Ignorant  of  the  present,  indifferent  to  the  future,  they 
have  hitherto  lived  only  in  the  past.  Everything  must  be  judged  by  tradition 
and  the  precedents  found  in  the  classics,  where  must  also  be  sought  the  rules 
of  government.  To  write  and  understand  the  official  dispatches,  to  discover  the 
formulas  of  the  rites  accompanying  all  important  social  and  political  acts,  consti- 
tuted, in  fact,  the  distinctive  functions  of  the  mandarin,  the  foundation  of  bis 
prestige,  his  only  claim  to  the  obedience  of  his  subjects. 


FILIAL  DEVOTION. 


815 


«,  a  great 
language, 
the  literati, 
vantage  of 
ons  are  the 


8  altogether 
i,  or  more 
rself  daily," 

difficult  to 
here.  Tho 
y  have  well 

surrounded 
3y  had  been, 
they  behold 
ip   them  in 
iround  them, 
ortanco,    are 
self.     Their 
»roud  people 
their  impor- 
ive  to  learn 
these  lessons 
pect.     They 
,er  as  rivals, 

quicken  the 
t  of  skilfuUy 
Proud  of 
iterati,  who 
ing — that  is, 
tent  to  pass 
filled  when, 
their  written 
lem  no  time 
future,  they 
by  tradition 
;ht  the  rules 
discover  the 
acts,  consti- 
atiou  of  his 


GOVERNMKNT  AND  AUMIXISTHATION. 

Theoretically  the  State  is  a  large  family.  The  Emperor  is  iit  once  •'  Father  and 
Mother "  of  hi.s  children,  and  the  affection  due  by  them  to  him  i.s  that  of  a 
twof(jl(l  filial  piety.  If  he  commands,  all  hasten  to  obey ;  if  he  requires  the  life 
or  property  of  a  citizen,  both  must  be  surrendered  with  a  sense  of  thankfulness. 
He  may  even  control  land,  Avater,  and  the  air,  for  the  invisible  genii  all  execute 
his  mandates.  He  is  the  "  Son  of  Heaven,"  the  Sovereign  of  tho  "  Four  Seas  " 
and  of  the  "  Ten  Thousand  Peoples."  Ho  alone  has  the  privilege  of  sacrificing  to 
heaven  and  earth  as  the  High  Priest  and  Head  of  the  great  Chinese  family.  He 
speaks  of  himself  in  lowly  language,  as  an  "  imperfect  man,"  and  is  even 
distinguished  amongst  the  grandees  of  his  court  by  his  modest  garb ;  but  he 
accepts  the  most  extravagant  expressions  of  worship.  Present  or  absent,  he 
receives  from  his  subjects  divine  honours,  and  the  highest  dignitaries  full 
prostrate  before  his  empty  throne,  or  before  his  yellow  silk  umbrella  adorned  with 
the  five-clawetl  dragon  and  the  turtle,  emblems  respectively  of  good  fortune  and 
power.  In  the  provinces  the  mandarins  burn  incense  on  the  receipt  of  an  imperial 
dispatch,  and  strike  the  ground  with  their  head  turned  towards  Peking.  S> 
hallowed  is  his  name,  that  tho  signs  used  in  writing  it  can  no  longer  be  employed 
for  other  words  without  being  modified  by  a  diacritical  mark.  "Tremble  and 
obey !  "  is  the  formula  invariably  terminating  all  his  proclamations.  Under  him 
all  are  slaves,  and  his  representative  in  Tibet  during  the  expedition  of  Hue  and 
Gabet  wore  the  chains  of  a  criminal  in  the  form  of  a  gold  necklace  concealed 
imder  his  robes,  in  token  of  the  imperial  displeasure. 

Filial  Devotion  to  the  Head  of  the  Family  and  of  the  State. 

The  veneration  of  the  people  for  their  "  Father  and  Mother  "  is  not  merely  a 
political  fiction.  All  the  national  institutions  are  so  constituted  as  to  establish 
a  perfect  parallelism  between  the  duties  of  the  son  and  those  of  the  subject. 
From  his  childhood  upwards  the  Chinese  learns  that  the  paternal  authority 
belongs  to  the  head  of  the  great  family,  us  well  as  to  the  head  of  the  smaller 
family  of  which  he  is  a  member.  P^ven  in  the  school  a  coffin  inscribed  with  tho 
word  "  happiness  "  reminds  him  that  his  first  duty  will  be  to  appease  the  manes  of 
his  parents.  "  Unruly  conduct  implies  a  lack  of  filial  duty,  as  do  also  treason  to 
the  sovereign,  negligence  in  the  exercise  of  the  magisterial  functions,  insincerity 
towards  our  friends,  cowardice  under  arms."  The  father  is  always  regarded  in  the 
family  as  representing  the  emperor ;  hence  domestic  revolt  is  punished  in  the 
same  way  as  high  treason.  The  national  annals  are  full  of  incidents  which  bear 
witness  to  the  care  taken  by  the  Government  to  uphold  this  fundamental  principle 
of  the  empire.  Sons  guilty  of  crimes  against  their  parents  are  put  to  death,  and 
their  houses  demolished ;  the  magistrates  of  the  district  lose  their  office,  and 
the  examination  halls  are  closed.  The  spot  where  the  crime  took  place  remains 
accursed,  and  whole  communities  have  even  been  displaced,  as  was  the  city  of 


"mi!i.„>i*i  jiiji.iiinn' 


816 


EAST  ASIA. 


Luchow,  on  tho  Upper  Yuiig-tzo,  in  couseqiienco  of  a  parricide.  According  to  law, 
old  men  after  their  seventieth  year  must  be  regarded  as  ancestors,  and  tho  honours 
accorded  to  them  increase  with  their  years.  At  any  cost  tho  empire  must  remain 
"filial,"  as  the  imperial  edicts  express  it.  Of  the  sixteen  public  lectures  delivered 
periodically  to  tho  people  on  the  subject  of  their  duties,  the  first  deals  Avith 
filial  love.  Tho  very  official  designations  of  tho  cities,  palaces,  streets,  and 
public  places  form,  so  to  say,  a  complete  moral  course  inspired  by  the  domestic 
virtues.      Amongst   tho   twelve  temples   required   by  the   law  to  be  erected   in 


Fig.  151.  — Chimese  Qi/'AUTEit,  Siia.vouai. 


1.  MagriBtnitcs'  Hotue. 

10.  Tfempleofniesrinpi. 

2.  University. 

11.  Oovemmcnt  FiUaoe. 

3.  Besidenoe    of  the    MiUtarjr    Com- 

12. Tower  of  the  Goddess  Kwan  Yin 

mander. 

13.  Honseofallthe  Benevolences. 

4.  Com  DepiH. 

14.  Foundling  Asylum. 

B.  Depot  of  kioe  for  Pekiner. 

18.  Honseofallthe  Virtues. 

6.  Literary  Institute. 

16.  Temple  of  the  Fire  Genius. 

7.  Temple  of  the  Defender  of  the  City. 

17.  Palace  of  the  Heavenly  Queen. 

8.  Temple  of  the  God  oi  War. 

18.  Httllofthe  Blue  Mist. 

9.  Temple  of  the  Protector  of  Earthly 

19.  Hall  of  the  Xine  Flowers. 

Goods. 

20.  Mound  of  the  little  upaque  Sun. 

SI.  Peace  street. 

22.  Street  of  the  HeaTenly  Eminences. 

23.  Street  of  the  House  of  Eloquence. 

24.  Street  ofthe  Head  looking  backwards. 

25.  Street  ofthe  Approving  Ueid. 

26.  Street  ofthe  YeUow  Head. 

27.  Canal  of  Excellence  of  the  Starting- 

point. 
38.  Serene  Sanctuary  of  the  Ancestors. 
20  Bridge  of  the  Thousand  A  ges. 


every  town,  one  is  always  consecrated  to  ancestry.  Not  a  shop  nor  a  wayside 
inn  but  its  signboard  has  some  reference  to  virtue  and  justice  and  the  "  harmonies 
of  heaven  and  earth." 

The  natural  relations  of  father  and  son  are  thus  confounded  with  those  of 
emperor  and  subject,  and  this  has  been  the  mainstay  of  the  State  in  tho  midst 
of  countless  internal  revolutions,  foreign  invasions,  and  dynastic  changes.  The 
revolutionists  do  not  seem  to  have  ever  aimed  at  the  subversion  of  this  fundamental 
principle  of  government.  Even  the  most  advanced  socialists  have  always 
accepted  the  sacred  character  of  the  Emperor  as  at  once  the  "  Father  and  Mother  " 


cording  to  law, 
nd  the  honours 
re  must  remain 
jtures  delivered 
irst  deals  Avitli 
;s,  streets,  and 
y  the  domestic 
be  erected   in 


MTenly  Eminenoes. 
>u*e  of  Eloquence, 
lad  looking  bnckwardi. 
[>proving  Ueid. 
'llow  Head, 
ence  of  the  Starting- 

ry  of  the  Ancestors, 
hoiuand  A  ge». 


nor  a  wayside 
he  "  harmonies 

with  those  of 
i  in  the  midst 
changes.  The 
is  fundamental 

have  always 
r  and  Mother  " 


M.  T9ENQ-CHINE8E  MINISTER  IN  PARIS. 


■"■^•*meT'm^j,A<mjimmm''-~- ' 


LIMITATIONS  OP  THE  IMPERIAL  AUTHORITY. 


817 


of  his  people.  In  recent  times  only  the  Chinese  freethinkers,  acting  under  the 
influence  of  foreign  ideus,  and  probably  unconscious  of  the  ultimate  consequences  of 
their  revolt,  have  for  the  first  time  attempted  to  throw  ridicule  on  the  supremo 
ruler,  scrawling  ribald  sentences  on  the  walls,  which  passers-by  read  with 
amazement.  According  to  the  old  theory,  the  sovereign,  ascending  the  throne 
in  the  name  of  Heaven,  was  none  the  less  to  be  worshijiped,  whatever  might  be 
his  personal  virtues  or  vices.  "However  old  the  cap,  we  put  it  on  our  head; 
however  clean  the  shoes,  we  put  them  on  our  feet.  Kie  and  Chew  were  vile 
wretches,  but  they  were  kings ;  Ching-thang  and  Wu-wang  wore  great  and  holy 
persons,  but  they  were  subjects,"  writes  Confucius  in  the  Shuking. 


Limitations  of  the  Imperial  Authority — The  Emperor's  Household. 

Yet  although  absolute  in  principle,  since  it  is  of  the  di>'ine  essence,  the  sovereign 
power  is  practically  limited.  All  the  provinces  enjoy  certain  traditional  rights, 
which  have  the  sanction  of  ages,  and  which  the  Government  always  respects. 
Public  opinion  also,  however  submissive,  is  none  the  less  intelligent,  and  in  its  eyes 
"  the  emperor  and  the  subject  who  violate  the  laws  are  both  equally  guilty." 
"  Secure  the  affection  of  the  people,  and  you  will  secure  the  empire,  lose  the 
affection  of  the  people,  and  you  will  lose  the  empire,"  says  a  popular  proverb. 
The  law  is  laid  down  for  the  sovereign  himself ;  it  is  summed  up  in  the  "  nine 
rules "  of  Confucius,  which  recommend  to  the  Emperor  moral  perfection,  respect 
for  the  sages  and  parents  as  well  as  for  officiuls  and  magistrates,  paternal  love  of 
the  subject,  encouragement  of  learning  and  the  arts,  hospitality  towards  stxtingers, 
consideration  for  his  allies.  Guided  by  the  Censors,  whose  duty  it  is  ever  to  remind 
him  of  these  precepts ;  bound  on  all  sides  by  the  rigorous  rules  of  a  ceremonial 
filling  two  hundred  volumes;  attended  by  two-and- twenty  historiographers,  who  daily 
record  for  posterity  all  his  sayings,  doings,  and  commands,  the  Emperor  almost 
necessarily  loses  all  individuality,  all  personal  impulse,  and  becomes  a  mere 
instrument  in  the  hands  of  a  minister  or  a  faction.  He  ceases  to  be  responsible  for 
his  own  acts,  although  by  a  State  fiction  held  none  the  less  responsible  for  the 
happiness  and  misfortunes  of  his  subjects.  In  this  respect  the  theory  of  the 
imperial  power  is  more  logical  in  China  than  in  other  monarchical  states. 
Sovereigns  are  usually  inclined  to  take  credit  to  themselves  for  the  prosperity,  but 
seldom  for  the  calamities,  of  their  people.  The  moral  code  of  the  Chinese  emperors 
is  more  consistent.  "  Are  my  subjects  cold  P  "  said  the  Emperor  Yao.  "  I  am  to 
blame.  Are  they  himgry  ?  It  is  my  fault.  Have  they  met  with  any  disaster  P  I 
take  the  responsibility."  Yao  also  charged  himself  with  the  national  calamities. 
"  During  the  reigns  of  Yao  and  of  Shun,  all  felt  it  a  duty  to  follow  the  example  of 
their  virtues.  I  must  needs  be  far  from  resembling  them,  seeing  how  many 
criminals  now  exist."  "  I  alone  am  guilty,"  said  Ching-thang  when  speaking  of 
the  woes  of  his  people ;  "  I  alone  must  be  immolated."  Responsibility  thus 
increasing  with  power,  Mengtze  goes  the  length  of  sanctioning  regicide  when  the 


• 


IT 


ai8 


EAST  ASIA. 


sovereign  outrugcH  juHtice.     "  There  is  no  difference,"  he  suid,  "  between  murder  by 
the  sword  or  by  nmludniiiiistrulion." 

The  Government  being  nuHlelled  on  the  fumily,  both  the  mother  and  consort  of 
the  Emperor  are  entitled  to  the  highest  honours.  Like  him,  the  reigning  Empress 
has  the  golden  seals  and  jade  stone,  symbols  of  supreme  power,  and  to  her  poetry  has 
consecrated  the  fomj,  a  fabulous  animal  analogous  to  the  phunix.  She  receives  the 
homage  of  the  l«)mperor  himself,  who  every  five  days  pays  her  an  official  visit  and 
bends  the  knee  in  her  presence.  The  three  other  legitimate  wives  yield  her  implicit 
obe<lience,  as  do  all  the  other  members  of  the  harem,  who  are  Umitcd  by  the  book 

Fig.  152.— RiMMEH  Palacs— Bko>i7.f  I-ionr,  Rmblemr  op  thb  Imi'IUIAL  TowKn. 


of  ceremonies  to  one  hundred  and  thirty.  A  special  minister  takes  charge  of  the 
imperial  household,  and  directs  the  education  of  the  princes,  who  have  mostly  no 
rank  except  in  the  Manchu  armies.  From  their  number  the  Emperor  chooses  his 
heir,  who  is  nearly  always  one  of  the  Empress's  children.  At  the  death  of  the 
soA'ereign  all  social  life  is  suspended.  The  grandees  put  on  white,  the  colour  of 
mourning,  for  a  twelvemonth,  the  others  for  one  hundred  days,  during  which  period 
no  feasts  or  weddings  can  be  celebrated.  Bright-coloured  garments  are  laid  aside, 
all  leave  their  hair  unshaven,  and  the  barbers,  whose  office  is  interdicted,  become  for 
the  time  State  pensioners. 

"  Lost  in  his  greatness,"  the  Son  of  Heaven,  called  also  the  "  Man  of  Solitude," 


niMiililrtHIMWI 


MMM 


■ttii 


LIMITATIONS  OF  TUB  IMPERIAL  AUTIIOIIITY. 


810 


lurdcr  by 

•oiiHort  of 
;  Empress 
joetry  bus 
ci'ivos  tbe 
I  visit  and 
sr  implicit 
^  tbc  book 


large  of  tbe 
re  mostly  no 
•  cbooses  bis 
leatb  of  tbe 
be  colour  of 
jrbicb  period 
e  laid  aside, 
,  become  for 

)f  Solitude," 


probably  Immjuuso  no  one  bas  tbo  right  to  be  his  friend,  delegates  his  functions  to 
the  Nciko,  u  Cabinet  composetl  of  Munchus  and  Chinese  in«oquul  numlK'rs,  which 
draws  up  the  laws,  issues  decrees,  and  sees  to  their  execution.  In  virtue  of  the 
principle  by  which  instruction  and  the  public  examinations  are  the  source  of  all 
honours,  the  two  presidents  of  the  Ne'iko— that  is,  the  two  Imperial  Chancellors — are 
the  directors  of  the  Academy  of  the  Hanlin.  Their  office  is  to  propose  tbe  laws  in 
the  supreme  council,  to  determine  the  form  of  public  mandates,  to  submit  official 
documents  to  the  Empt>ror  for  his  signature  with  the  vermilion  pencil,  and  to 
publish  all  decrees  in  the  Khif/pno,  or  official  journal,  known  in  P^urope  as  tbo 
PekiiKj  Gazette.  Before  being  prt^sented  to  the  Council  of  tbo  Neiko,  all  State 
questions  are  submitted  either  to  tlio  tribunal  of  the  Censors,  the  High  Court  of 
Justice,  or  the  Lit-pu,  which  comprises  the  six  Ministries  of  Finance,  Civil  Service, 
Board  of  Works,  War,  Rites,  and  Penalties.  Besides  these,  another  department  bas 
charge  of  the  Colonies;  that  is,  of  the  imperial  possessions  beyond  the  eighteen 
provinces  of  China  proper.  But  the  Tsingli-iinmen,  or  Foreign  Office,  constituted 
in  1801,  and  now  the  most  important  of  all,  has  no  official  existence,  being  com- 
posed of  the  members  of  the  other  departments. 

The  Emperor  may,  if  ho  pleases,  suppress  all  discussion,  in  wbi^b  case  he 
addresses  himself  to  his  private  Cabinet,  which  deliberates  in  secret.  His  acts  may 
doubtless  be  controlled  by  the  tribunal  of  Censors,  who  have  the  right  of  remon- 
strating, while  petitioning  to  be  beheaded  or  torn  to  pieces  if  their  warnings  be 
not  justified  or  their  statements  revealed.  But  this  tribunal  usually  confines  itself 
to  watching  over  tbe  public  and  private  conduct  of  tbe  mandarins  and  their  sub- 
jects by  an  organized  system  of  espionage.  The  result  of  this  is  that  their  lucrative 
posts  easily  enable  the  mandarins  to  come  to  an  understanding  with  the  Censors, 
and  thus  continue  the  work  of  extortion  to  their  mutual  benefit. 

Hence  it  is  not  surprising  to  find  that  instances  of  extortion  and  oppression  of 
all  sorts  are  so  universal  as  scarcely  to  excite  any  surprise  amongst  the  people. 
Meadows  mentions  the  case  of  a  military  mandarin  of  low  rank  stationed  some 
years  ago  near  Wbampoa,  who  in  the  course  of  his  exactions  demanded  money 
from  the  head  boatman  of  a  watch-boat,  employed  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  district 
for  the  prevention  of  night  robberies  on  tbe  river  below  Canton.  The  boatman, 
relying  on  the  support  of  his  employers,  among  whom  were  several  literati,  refused 
to  give  anything.  The  mandarin  thereupon  induced  a  man,  taken  for  some  trifling 
offence,  to  make  such  declarations  in  bis  depositions  as  went  directly  to  prove  that 
the  boatman  had  been  guilty  of  robbery,  and  then  issued  a  warrant  for  his  appre- 
hension. The  inhabitants  of  Whampoa,  represented  by  a  literary  graduate  named 
Fung,  would  not,  however,  permit  the  man's  being  seized ;  but  knowing  him  to  be 
innocent,  said  he  should  himself  go  to  Canton  and  demand  a  trial.  This  he 
accordingly  did,  the  graduate  Fung  at  the  same  time  petitioning  the  Governor- 
General  on  his  behalf.  But  the  mandarin  had  already  reported  the  case  to  his  chief, 
the  admiral  at  the  Bogue,  and  the  latter  had  written  to  Canton  about  it.  In 
addition  to  this,  the  mandarins  are  at  all  times  loath,  from  a  kind  of  esprit  de  corps, 
and  a  feeling  of  the  necessity  of  mutual  support  in  their  extortions,  to  aid  the  people 


890 


EAST  ASIA. 


when  in  opposition  to  a  member  of  their  own  class,  and  were,  moreover,  at  that  time, 
as  now,  (loin^  all  they  could  to  regain  the  jMiwer  over  the  people,  which  they  had 
lost  througli  the  weakness  displayed  during  the  wars  with  the  English.  The 
conseciuence  was  that,  for  these  various  reasons,  the  death  of  the  unfortunate  man 
was  determined  on.  He  was  accordingly  beaten  and  otherwise  tortured  till  ho 
confessed  himself  guilty  of  the  charge  brought  against  him,  and  soon  after  executed, 
with  several  other  eqiuilly  innocent  people  who  had  Iwen  implicated  in  the  same 
manner  by  the  Whampoa  mandarin.  The  graduate  Fung  had  his  degree  taken 
from  him  for  having  interested  himself  iu  behalf  of  u  robber.* 

Education — Pithlic  Examinations. 

There  is  no  special  board  of  education,  because  the  whole  machinerj'  of  the 
administration  is  assumed  to  have  no  other  object  except  the  instruction  of  the 
people.  Students  able  to  read  the  five  KiiKj  and  the  other  classics  may  already  look 
forward  to  a  brilliant  career,  one  of  the  fundamental  principles  of  government  being 
that  place  is  the  reward  of  merit  attested  by  the  public  competitive  examinations. 
"  Here  is  taught  the  art  of  government,"  says  an  inscription  over  the  gate  of  the 
Peking  Academy.  Promotion  to  higher  posts  is  still  obtained  by  fresh  examinations, 
so  that  the  whole  administration  may  be  regarded  as  u  vast  scholastic  hierarchy. 
When  the  coffers  are  empty,  the  Government  no  doubt  often  departs  from  the  rule, 
conferring  honours  for  "presents,"  or  bribes;  but  the  people  do  not  forget  the 
origin  of  these  functionaries,  and  will  even  taunt  them  with  having  obtained  pro- 
motion by  money  instead  of  merit.  Many  of  the  Manchu  military  mandarins  also 
owe  their  oppointment  to  their  nationality,  and  they  are  consequently  held  in  less 
esteem  than  the  civil  functionaries.  At  the  annual  feasts  the  learned  mandarins 
take  the  east  side,  which  is  the  post  of  honour,  while  in  the  temples  of  Confucius 
the  military  officers  are  excluded  altogether  from  the  ceremonies  in  honour  of 
heaven  and  earth. 

In  all  the  large  cities  one  of  the  chief  buildings  is  the  public  examination  hall, 
which  consists  of  a  multitude  of  rooms  and  courts,  surroundetl  by  cells  for  the 
candidates,  who  are  supplied  with  nothing  but  white  paper,  pencils,  and  inkstand, 
and  guarded  by  sentinels  from  all  communication  with  each  other.  Sometimes  as 
many  as  10,000  or  12,000  present  themselves,  remaining  for  several  days 
imprisoned,  writing  moral  and  political  essays,  commenting  on  selected  texts  of  the 
sacred  books,  composing  sentences  and  maxims  in  prose  and  verse.  Candidates 
have  been  known  to  die  of  exhaustion  in  their  cells,  in  which  case  the  outer  wall  is 
pierced,  and  the  body  secretly  removed.  Except  certain  despised  classes,  police 
agents,  actors,  barbers,  palanquin  bearers,  boatmen,  mendicants,  descendants  of 
rebels,  all  are  allowed  to  compete,  and  the  examiners  will  even  shut  their  ej'es  to 
the  status  of  the  candidates,  provided  they  have  a  fixed  domicile.  There  is  no 
limit  as  to  age,  old  men  and  precocious  youths  often  presenting  themselves; 
but  such  is  the  severity  of  the  tests,  that,  on  an  average,  less  than  a  tenth  of  the 

•  •'  Chinese  Notes,"  p.  170. 


PUBLIC  EXAMINATIONS. 


821 


thut  time, 
they  bad 
i«li.  The 
unutc  inun 
cd  till  ho 
r  executed, 
1  tho  Mtino 
greo  tukcn 


lery  of  the 
tion  of  tho 
ilreudy  look 
mcnt  being 
aminutiona. 
^to  of  the 
uminutions, 
}  hierarchy, 
am  the  rule, 
forget  the 
tained  pro- 
idarina  also 
held  in  less 
L  mandarins 
[  Confucius 
honour  of 

nation  hall, 
cells  for  the 
td  inkstand, 
)metinie8  as 
iveral    days 
texts  of  the 
Cuadidates 
)uter  wall  is 
isses,  police 
cendants  of 
leir  ej'es  to 
There  is  no 
themselves ; 
enth  of  the 


competitors  obtain  the  siiilstii,  a  rank  correnponding  with  our  B.A.  Those  who  have 
pasmd,  even  l)ofore  obtaining  an  upiiointment,  iMH'oini;  ulinoMt  indoiMMidont  of  tho 
communal  authorities,  and  constitute  a  sjHH-ial  and  numerous  class  in  t\w  State. 
Amongst  them  are  found  the  most  onlightene<l  memlMTs  of  the  community,  tlie 
most  during  innovators,  by  whom  the  work  of  social  reform  is  being  most  actively 
promoted. 

Kvery  year  the  Chancellor,  delegated  by  tho  Academy  of  tho  Hanlin  ("  Plumage 
of  tho  Rod  Phoenix  "),  inquires  into  tho  condition  of  the  licentiates  of  tlie  previous 
year,  classifying  them  in  tho  order  of  merit,  and  even  occasionally  degrading  them. 
But  tho  examinations  for  tho  Kiu-jcn,  or  higher  degree  of  "  promoti>d  men,"  take 
place  every  throe  years  only  in  tho  provincial  capitals,  under  tho  ])re8idency  of  two 
members  of  tho  Ilunlin.  Tho  successful  competitors,  scarcely  more  than  l.JJOO 
for  tho  whole  empire,  receive  tho  congratulations  of  the  magistrates,  and  public 
rejoicings  take  place  in  their  honour.  Three  years  afterwards  they  nmy  present 
themselves  in  Peking,  to  undergo  tho  examination  for  tho  rank  of  Mm^,  or  '•  full 
doctor,"  entitling  thorn  to  a  special  dross,  precedence  at  the  ceremonies,  and  a  high 
post  in  the  Government.  Other  examinations  admitting  to  the  Academy  of  tho 
Hanlin  take  place  in  the  Imperial  Palace,  under  the  very  eyes  of  tho  Emijoror, 
or  at  least  of  the  highest  court  dignitaries,  amongst  whom  they  intrigue  for 
promotion. 

For  the  reality  is  far  from  corresponding  with  the  brilliant  picture  often  drawn 
of  this  system.  Even  supposing  that  appointments  always  depended  on  tho 
results  of  the  examinations,  it  may  be  asked  how  a  good  memory  and  a  profound 
knowledge  of  the  classics  can  be  any  guarantee  of  political  .intelligence  and 
capacity.  Is  it  not  rather  to  be  feared  that  by  being  restricted  to  antiquated 
studies,  over  twenty  centuries  behind  the  age,  the  future  statesman  will  become 
a  victim  of  arrested  development,  and  thereby  rendered  incapable  of  imderstanding 
the  present  conditions  P  However  perfect  his  penmanship,  the  magistrate  is 
none  the  less  exposed  to  the  temptations  of  venality  and  peculation.  The 
unanimous  testimony  of  travellers,  as  well  as  the  popular  comedies,  ballads,  and 
political  squibs,  accordingly  show  that  the  lettered  functionaries  are  by  no  means 
inferior  to  the  ignorant  Manchus  in  the  arts  of  oppression  and  maladministration. 
As  a  rule,  the  people  are  less  afraid  of  the  mandarins  who  have  purchased  their 
office  than  of  those  appointed  by  competition.  Being  richer,  they  are  less 
avaricious,  and  although  less  familiar  with  fine  maxims,  they  are  more  upright  and 
loss  enslaved  to  official  "  red-tapeism." 

Nevertheless  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  surprising  stability  of  the  Chinese 
political  system  in  the  midst  of  countless  foreign  invasions  and  internal  convulsions 
is  in  a  large  measure  due  to  these  public  examinations,  which  are  conducted  with 
great  impartiality,  and  which  render  the  highest  offices  of  the  Government 
accessible  to  the  meanest  citizen.  A  great  number  of  the  only  class  of  individuals 
whose  abilities  would  enable  them,  if  subjected  to  continual  oppression,  speedily  to 
overturn  the  Government,  are  by  the  existing  system  of  public  examinations 
continually  raised  above  all  oppression,  and  become,  in  fact,  the  parties  who  commit 


Mm 


.')22 


EAST  ASIA. 


I 


it.  A  Htill  jfroatiT  numl)(>r  ho\w  to  ruiw  thoinfM'lvoM  to  tho  «arao  ponition,  und  uro, 
topift'tluT  with  tlu'ir  rt'lutioiiH,  thuH  induccHl  to  riiduru  nucIi  ovilH  putiontly  ruthor 
than  Hcck  to  overthrow  u  (iovornincnt,  thu  churactcriNtic  foaturu  of  which  in  u 
HyHtcin  thoy  hoi>c  eventually  to  derive  more  imthoiuiI  advautaj^eH  from  than  would 
bo  Hutficieiit  to  eom]H>nwite  tliem  for  what  thoy  Huifer.  With  tluH  latter  Ixnly 
of  literati,  rising  HeholarH  and  their  near  relatioMH,  the  aetual  holderH  of  ofHuo  are, 
nior(H)ver,  alwayH  obli^e<l  to  Iw  Homewhat  more  HcrupulouH  and  tender  in  their 
dealingH.  Hence  the  only  chiMH  which  the  mamlariuH  have  to  repruHH  and  overcomo 
by  force  in  com])omHl  of  (M^rNonH  who  have  cither  no  natural  ability,  or  uro  t«K)  {)oor 
to  procure  an  odmvition — jH^rHouH  who,  with  u  mcMlerato  pro{M)rtion  of  talented  and 
e<lucated  loaderH,  wouhl  from  their  numlwr  and  their  deH|)erution  bo  truly  formid- 
able, but,  left  aH  they  aro  to  themsolven,  only  break  out  into  tumultH  und  innurrec- 
tionH,  which,  like  the  Jucquorio  in  Franco,  und  tho  inHurroction  of  tho  common 
people  in  the  minority  of  liiehurd  II.  in  England,  und  thoHo  that  provuiled  in  tho 
south  of  (rennuny  and  in  Ilungnry  during  tho  end  of  tho  fifteenth  und  tho  first 
quarter  of  tho  sixteenth  centuries,  uro  ultimutoly  put  down  with  terrible  loss 
to  themselves,  uftor  mme  well-deserved  punishments  have  boon  iniiictod  und  some 
ruvuges  committed  by  them  ut  tho  first  outbrouk. 

In  China,  in  addition  to  tho  ubsenco  of  tulent  und  knowledge  on  tho  side  of  the 
insurrectionists,  it  so  happens  that  tho  educution,  which  tho  promotion  of  tulent 
and  ability  only  to  tho  bonour  und  weulth  conferred  by  office  diffuses  so  extensively, 
is  of  u  nature  which  tends  muterially  to  prevent  ideus  of  resistunco  sprcuding  umong 
the  ]H<ople.  p]vcry  mun  is  induced  to  Icuni  himself,  und  infuse  unxiously  into 
the  minds  of  bis  children  from  their  curliest  infuncy,  a  sot  of  doctrines  ull 
inculcating  tbc  duty  of  patient  endurance,  tho  necessity  of  subordination,  und  tho 
beauty  of  a  quiet,  orderly  life.  Tho  feelings  with  which  tho  people  aro  thus 
imbued  would  not,  of  course,  bo  sufficient  of  themselves  to  prevent  a  successful  rise 
against  tho  cruel  oppressions  uctuully  existing.  But  they  help  to  do  so,  and  in 
every  case  they  give  a  speedier  effect  to  tho  ixjwer,  moral  and  physical,  which 
is  put  in  motion  to  suppress  commotion.  For  it  is  only  very  strong,  and  therefore 
very  rare,  minds  that  are  able  to  offer  a  continued  practical  resistance  to  the  deep 
impressions  of  early  youth.* 


The  Mandarins. 

All  the  civil  and  military  officials,  often  grouped  under  the  collective 
designation  of  Pe-kwnn  ("Hundred  Functions"),  boor  the  generic  name  of 
Kimng-fa,  trunsluted  in  Europeun  languages  by  the  term  "mandarin,"  which 
was  originally  the  Portuguese  pronunciation  of  the  Hindu  title  of  the  notive 
magistrates  in  Gou.t  They  ure  divided  into  nine  orders,  outwardly  distinguished 
by  the  colour  and  material  of  the  "button,"  or  knob,  about  the  size  of  a 
pigeon's  egg,  which  is  attached  to  the  official  cap  of  straw,  felt,  or  silk,  either 


*  Th.  Meadows,  op.  eit.  p.  190. 

t  Col.  Yule's  "  Book  of  Ser  Blirco  Polo.' 


TIIK  MANDAHINS. 


828 


n,  anA  ore, 
[itly  ruther 
which  iM  a 
han  wouhl 
luttor  b«Hly 
f  ((ffico  aro, 
LT  ill  thoir 
1(1  overcome 
iiro  t«H)  \woT 
alcntpd  and 
•uly  f«»rmi(l- 
1(1  iiiHurrec- 
tho  common 
milc(l  in  tho 
md  tho  first 
terrible  Iohs 
mI  and  aomo 

0  side  of  the 
ion  of  talent 
)  extensively, 
ading  among 
ixiously  into 
doctrines  all 
tion,  and  the 
pic  are  thus 
uccessful  rise 
lo  so,  and  in 
ysical,  which 
and  therefore 
e  to  the  deep 


he  collective 
iric  name  of 
arin,"  which 
)f  the  native 
distinguished 
he  size  of  a 
silk,  either 


conic  in  Hhapo,  or  with  upturned  brim.  Their  titlcH  arc  not  tr»n«nitt('d  to  their 
otlNpring,  and  even  when  ennuhled,  the  liituoiir  in  retroMjH'ctive  only,  iillectin^^  not 
their  posterity,  Imt  their  unceNtry.  The  civil  niiindurin  in  even  forbidden  to  take 
hiH  father  with  him  to  Imn  government,  lent,  in  cumi  they  dilfereil  in  opinion,  the 
Hon  might  be  plu<'^'«l  lH>tween  two  ('(pially  iniperiouN  duticN,  olH<di(>nco  and 
filial  piety.  Hereditary  titles  are  rcNcrved  for  the  deNcendantH  of  (JonfueiuM  and 
the  erniK'rorH,  but  ev< />  the  luttev  irc  Hubje(!ted  to  the  regular  oxaniinationH  for 
public;  otfieeN.  The  only  priv  ilej^es  of  the  nicMubcTH  of  the  iin{>orial  family  consiMt 
in  a  mcKlent  iKMimcn  fho  right  to  wear  a  red  or  yellow  girdle  or  a  pcuu'ocdc'M  feather 
in  their  cap,  and  to  be  carried  by  a  toant  of  eight  or  twelve  palancpiin  bearerH. 
In  the  adminintralion  they  eount  for  nothing,  and  special  nianchiriiiH  are  appointed 
to  ke<>p  them  in  duo  subjection,  and  oven  to  apply  the  hmI  in  ca»e  of  inNubordination. 

Like  tho  Kmporor,  every  maiularin  is  at  onco  "father  and  mother"  in  his 
reH|)octive  juriNclietion.  They  were  formerly  spoken  of  as  "clouds,"  because  they 
wore  supposed  to  »'  Hhed  tho  healing  showers  on  tho  thirsty  soil."  All  local 
functions  are  centred  in  their  hands.  They  levy  tho  taxes,  build  roads,  organize 
tho  militia,  and  are,  in  fact,  littlo  potentates  in  their  several  districts,  but  with  tho 
threat  of  deposition  always  hanging  over  them.  As  tho  father  is  respcmsiblo 
for  tho  faults  of  his  children,  the  mandarin  may  bo  denouncc^d  for  all  the  crimes 
murders,  and  outbreaks  that  may  take  place  in  his  jurisdicticm.  Hence,  although 
bound  to  make  a  yearly  report  of  his  errors  in  a  spocnal  memoir  addressed  to  the 
Emperor,  ho  generally  omits  to  mention  the  disorders  that  have  occurred  in  tho 
district.  Formerly  the  mandarins  were  frequently  condemned  to  capital  punish- 
ment, but  now  the  usual  sentence  is  banishment  to  Manchuria,  Zungariu, 
Formosa,  or  othor  outlying  regions.  Recently  tho  foreign  powers  have  unwittingly 
aimed  a  great  blow  at  their  power,  and  tended  in  no  small  degree  to  promote  tho 
political  centralization  of  tho  empire,  by  refusing  to  treat  directly  with  the 
provincial  governors  and  viceroys,  and  by  always  addressing  themselves  to  the 
court  of  Peking. 

One  of  the  most  serious  defects  in  the  existing  administrative  system  is  the 
totally  inadequate  pay  given  to  the  lower  officers,  and  tho  low  rate  at  which 
tho  salaries  of  the  higher  mandarins  are  fixed — low  especially  when  the  wealth  and 
extent  of  the  territories  over  which  they  rule  are  taken  into  consideration.  The 
mandarins  are,  in  consequence,  obliged  to  gain  their  incomes  by  means  of  extortion, 
bribery,  and  illegal  fees  levied  by  their  underlings.  These  retain  a  certain  portion 
themselves,  but  the  greater  part  goes  in  different  ways  to  the  purses  of  the 
mandarins. 

Perhaps  the  total  amount  of  revenue,  public  and  secret,  derived  by  the  actual 
governing  power  in  China  is  not  larger  in  proportion  than  that  obtained  in  England. 
The  great  evil  is  that  by  far  the  larger  part  of  it  is  levied  in  a  very  unequal 
manner,  that  at  once  demoralises  the  nation  and  damps  its  energies. 

The  people,  knowing  that  the  mandarins  cannot  possibly  live  on  their  salaries, 
excuse  and  acquiesce  in  the  imposition  of  certain  generally  understood  irregular  fees, 
which  every  one  who  applies  to  the  courts  must  pay.      On  the  other  hand,  the 


-tM 


824 


EAST  ASIA. 


mandarins  as  a  natural  consequence  take  advantage  of  a  system  thus  endured  as 
a  necessary  evil,  to  enforce  arbitrary  extortions,  and  oblige  people  to  offer  bribes. 
Hence  in  the  whole  country  corruption  and  injustice  are  rife.  In  fact,  all 
mandarins  without  exception  take  money  over  and  above  their  salary,  and  even 
beyond  their  anti-extortion  allowances.  The  great  difference  between  what  the 
Chinese  call  the  "  good  "  and  the  "  bad"  mandarin  is,  that  while  the  former  makes 
people  pat/  for  jmtke,  as  indeed  is  largely  the  case  everywhere,  the  latter  uUh 
JHHticc  to  the  highest  bidder. 

This  irregular  state  of  things,  moreover,  renders  the  mandarins  themselves 
dependent  on  their  clerks  and  police  officers,  and  obliges  them  to  wink  at 
infringements  of  the  law  by  which  they  personally  gain  nothing.  Thus  some  of 
the  lower  functionaries  continue  to  serve  after  the  legal  period  of  five  years,  and 
in  fact  maintain  permanent  possession  of  their  posts,  merely  by  changing  their 
names,  although  the  mandarin  is  liable  to  a  heavy  punishment  for  permitting  it. 
Were  Ke  to  attempt  to  enforce  the  law,  these  officers  would  resist  in  a  body ;  and 
as  it  requires  great  experience  and  tact  to  levy  the  illegal  fees  without  getting  into 
trouble,  the  new  functionaries  would  find  it  very  difficult  to  transact  public 
business  and  raise  the  irregular  revenue,  which  is,  of  course,  the  main  object  of  the 
mandarins.  A  case  occurred  some  time  ago  in  Canton,  in  which  a  new  super- 
intendent of  finances,  who  had  at  a  previous  period  held  a  lower  post  and  then 
been  insulted  by  the  underlings,  in  revenge  immediately  forced  them  to  leave  on 
being  made  superintendent  himself.  But  he  was  eventually  obliged  to  receive 
them  all  back  again  after  putting  himself  to  much  trouble,  and  making  what 
practically  amounted  to  an  apology.* 

At  once  military  commanders,  administrators,  and  judges,  it  is  in  the  latter 
capacity  that  the  mandarins  are  most  dreaded  by  their  subjects.  Notwithstanding 
the  stringent  measures  taken  against  venality,  the  bribes  of  suitors  still  continue  to 
compensate  for  the  low  rate  of  their  salaries,  originally  fixed  according  to  the 
income  they  might  earn  as  artisans.  The  old  edicts  decree  the  penalty  of  death 
against  unrighteous  judges,  but  there  is  practically  no  appeal  from  their  sentences. 
"  It  is  well,"  said  the  Emperor  Kang-hi,  "  that  all  men  should  have  a  wholesome 
fear  of  the  tribunals.  I  desire  that  all  having  recourse  to  the  magistrates  be 
treated  mercilessly,  so  that  all  may  dread  to  appear  before  them.  Let  good 
citizens  settle  their  disputes  like  brothers,  submitting  to  the  arbitration  of  the 
elders  and  maj'ors  of  the  communes.  Let  all  obstinate  and  incorrigible  litigants  be 
crushed  by  the  judges,  for  such  is  their  desert."  In  many  places  differences  are 
still  settled  by  the  heads  of  families  according  to  the  imwritten  code,  and  the 
lex  talionis  is  everywhere  respected.  Private  vengeance  is  also  often  carried  out  by 
suicide.  Debtors  pursued  bj"^  their  creditors,  farmers  oppressed  by  their  landlords, 
the  artisan  injured  by  his  employer,  the  wife  harassed  by  her  mother-in-law,  can 
always  adopt  the  expedient  of  hanging  themselves  in  order  to  obtain  redress.  The 
whole  community  then  takes  up  their  cause  and  avenges  them — symbolically.  A 
broom  is  placed  in  the  hand  of  the  victim,  and  this  broom,  being  moved  to  the 

♦  Meadows,  op.  eit.  p.  168,  169. 


*^%J^ViWyVtf^llllilllt^ill^WMi'''  tJH 


IHHi'lMOUd 


MM 


MiiM 


■MM 


18  endured  as 

0  offer  bribes. 
In   fact,  all 

ary,  and  even 
reen  what  the 
former  makes 
he  latter  scUh 

ns  themselves 

1  to  wink  at 
Thus  some  of 

ive  years,  and 
hanging  their 

permitting  it. 
n  a  body ;  and 
ut  getting  into 
ransact  public 
n  object  of  the 

a  new  super- 
post  and  then 
9m  to  leave  on 
god  to  receive 

making  what 

s  in  the  latter 
otwithstanding 
itill  continue  to 
cording  to  the 
?nalty  of  death 
their  sentences, 
re  a  wholesome 
magistrates  be 
iva.  Let  good 
>itration  of  the 
ible  litigants  be 
differences  are 
code,  and  the 

I  carried  out  by 
their  landlords, 
;her-in-law,  can 

II  redress.  The 
'mbolically.  A 
f  moved  to  the 


THE  MANDARINS. 

Fig.  163.— Vaouaxt  Convictk. 


826 


right  and  to  the  left,  sweeps  away  the  fortunes,  the  pro.sperity,  the  whole  household 
of  the  tyrant. 


826 


EAST  ASIA. 


Pexal  Code. 


The  penal  code  is  clear,  precise,  and  logical,  but  extremely  harsh.  Moot 
sentences  are  passed  after  a  simple  examination  made  in  public.  There  are  no 
recognised  advocates,  and  if  the  mandarin  allows  friends  or  relatives  to  plead  for 
the  accused,  it  is  entirely  an  act  of  condescension  on  his  part.  Being  relatively  far 
less  numerous  thiin  in  Europe,  the  nuigistrates  decide  cases  in  a  nmch  more 
summary  manner.  Still  armed  with  the  right  of  inflicting  torture,  they  exercise  it 
with  the  sjime  severity  as  was  practised  in  the  West  until  recent  times.  Scourging, 
tearing  out  the  niiils,  crushing  the  ankles  or  fingers,  hanging  by  the  armpits,  and 
a  hundred  other  excruciating  torments  are  inflicted  for  the  purpose  of  extracting 
confessions  or  revelations  of  accomplices.  Atrocious  sentences  are  daily  inflicted, 
and  besides  the  three  ordinary  methods  of  putting  to  death,  by  Iwheading, 
strangling,  and  garotting,  the  cotic  provides  for  the  punishment  of  "  slow  death." 
Formerly  flaying  alive  was  protracted  for  days  together,  but  at  present  a  few 
gashes  on  the  face  and  hands  are  substituted,  after  which  decapitation  puts  an  end 
to  the  victim's  sufferings.  Fortunately  the  nervous  system  of  the  Chinese  is  far 
less  sensitive  than  that  of  Europeans.  The  doctors  attached  to  the  hospitals  in 
I  long  Kong  and  Shanghai  all  speak  with  astonishment  of  the  indifference  of  the 
patients  under  the  severest  operations. 

For  lighter  offences  the  usual  punishments  are  the  rod  and  the  canguc,  a  wooden 
collar  weighing  about  75  lbs.  The  convict  condemned  to  wear  this  horrible 
instrument  of  torture,  finding  no  rest  asleep  or  awake,  and  exposed  night  and  day 
to  all  the  inclemencies  of  the  weather,  breaks  down  under  the  pitiless  burden,  and 
implores  wayfarers  to  put  an  end  to  his  intolerable  sufferings  by  death.  The 
pris(ms  arc  loathsome  dens,  where  the  condemned  are  huddled  together,  and 
exposed  to  the  brutality  of  gaolers,  often  chosen  from  the  criminals  themselves. 
Those  who  are  unaided  by  their  relatives  or  the  charitable  societies  run  the  risk  of 
being  starved  to  death.  Women  are  seldom  punished  with  severity,  their  husbands 
or  sons  being  considered  responsible  for  their  faults.  The  principle  of  substitution 
is  fully  recognised,  not  only  in  the  case  of  a  son  presenting  himself  instead  of  his 
father,  but  even  when  a  stranger  offers,  "  for  a  consideration,"  to  undergo  the 
sentence.  As  long  as  the  debt  is  discharged,  justice  is  satisfied,  whoever  be  the 
victim.  Even  in  the  case  of  torture  and  death,  suppliants  are  found  willing  to 
endure  everything  in  order  to  secure  some  advantage  for  their  families.  During 
the  Anglo-French  invasion  of  Pechili,  some  Chinese  assassins  having  l)een  sentenced 
to  death,  substitutes  presented  themselves,  and  loudly  denounced  the  injustice 
which  refused  to  allow  them  to  take  the  place  of  the  criminals.  Those  sentenced 
to  the  rod  easily  find  crowds  of  ready  volunteers,  whence  the  remark  that  "  in 
China  there  are  thousands  who  live  by  blows." 

In  some  districts  a  substitute  may  be  prociired  to  confess  himself  guilty  of  a 
felony,  and  suffer  certain  death  for  about  fifty  taels  of  silver,  a  sura  equivalent  to 
£17  sterling,  but  worth  in  China  perhaps  as  much  as  £100,  regard  being  had  to 
the   relative   price  of   provisions  and  other  necessaries.      Hence   it   is  that  the 


MMM* 


iiitiMiii 


■WMMIUI 


mfm!t(!i0m»!t9'  -flffi  wpyf^iP^n 


PENAL  CODE. 


827 


irsb.  Moot 
here  arc  no 
to  plead  for 
datively  far 
much  more 
«y  exercise  it 

Scourging, 
armpits,  and 
>f  extracting 
lily  inflicted, 
,'  l)cheading, 
slow  death." 
resent  a  few 
1  puts  an  end 
Ihincse  is  far 

hospitals  in 
arouce  of  the 

igiir,  a  wootlen 
this  horrible 
ight  and  day 
i  burden,  and 
death.      The 
together,  and 
us  themselves, 
in  the  risk  of 
leir  husbands 
'  substitution 
instead  of  his 
undergo  the 
hoever  be  the 
and  willing  to 
dies.     During 
Mjen  sentenced 
the   injustice 
lose  sentenced 
lark  that  "in 

)lf  guilty  of  a 
equivalent  to 
being  had  to 

it  is  that  the 


murder  of  mandarins  and  riots  arc  so  frequent  in  those  districts.  When  any  of 
the  richer  classes  are  dissatisfied  with  the  conduct  of  a  mandarin,  they  are  never 
preventetl  from  instigating  the  lower  classes  to  make  disturbances  by  the  fear  of 
personal  punishment.  Some  years  ago  a  magistrate  having  been  killcMl  during  an 
outbreak  in  the  east  of  Kwangtung,  the  proviiu-ial  judge  was  sent  from  Canton 
with  a  strong  force  to  seize  and  punish  the  criminals.  On  his  arrival,  however,  be 
found  a  large  body  of  men  assembled  in  arms  to  oppose  him,  and  the  matter  was 
disposed  of  by  a  secret  compromise,  as  so  fretjuently  happens  in  such  cases  in  China. 
The  wealthy  members  of  the  community,  who  hud  instigated  the  murder  of  the 
district  magistrate,  awed  by  the  force  brought  against  them,  bought  about  twenty 
substitutes  ready  to  personate  the  true  criminals.  They  then  bribed  the  son  of  the 
nmrdered  man  with  a  large  sum  to  allow  these  men  to  call  themselves  the 
instigators,  principals,  and  accomplices.  The  judge,  on  the  other  hand,  being 
obliged  by  the  code  of  the  lioard  of  Civil  Office  to  execute  somebody,  or  see 
himself  involved  in  punishment,  knowing  also  that  if  he  attempted  to  bring  the 
real  offenders  to  justice  they  would  employ  all  their  means  of  resistance,  ending 
possibly  in  the  defeat  of  his  force  and  his  own  death,  gave  way  to  these 
considerations,  supported  as  they  were  by  a  bribe,  and  ordere<i  the  twenty  innocent 
substitutes  to  be  put  to  death.  This  is  one  of  the  many  instances  in  which  the 
pernicious  effects  of  the  practice  of  personating  criminals  make  themselves 
apparent.  A  system  of  falsehood  and  corruption  has  been  engendered  by  it 
that  is  perfectly  appalling,  and,  as  in  this  case,  leads  frequently  to  results  which 
cannot  be  contemplated  without  a  feeling  of  horror.* 

All  capital  sentences  are  submitted  to  the  Emperor,  and  delayed  till  autumn, 
when  the  final  decision  is  mode,  and  the  names  of  the  reprieved  encircled  by 
a  stroke  of  the  vermilion  pencil.  But  in  times  of  disorder  or  political  revolutions 
the  provincial  governors  are  armed  with  absolute  power,  and  move  about  attended 
by  bands  of  executioners,  who  are  kept  busily  engaged  at  their  sanguinary  work. 
When  the  English  attacked  Canton  in  1855,  the  Viceroy  boasted  that  he  had 
dispatched  70,000  of  his  subjects  in  seven  months,  about  330  a  day.  At  present 
the  native  tribunals  in  the  European  concessions  at  Shanghai  and  the  other  treaty 
ports  are  assisted  by  foreign  residents,  whence  the  expression  "  mixed  courts,"  by 
which  they  are  usually  known.  In  these  tribunals  torture  is  never  applied,  at 
least  in  the  presence  of  the  European  judges,  and  in  Hong  Eong  the  English 
have  also  abolished  torture.  There  is  even  some  hope  that  it  may  ere  long 
disappear  from  the  penal  code  of  the  empire. 

An  interesting  social  feature  of  Shanghai  are  these  Mixed  Courts,  where 
"  offences  are  tried  before  two  judges,  one  Chinese  and  one  foreign.  One 
of  the  English  judges  took  mo  with  him  one  day,  and  I  sat  on  the  bench  next  to 
the  Chinese  official,  who  had  the  rank  of  Chih-Fu. 

"  The  room  was  fairly  large,  and  the  judges'  table  raised  on  a  low  platform. 
The  space  in  front  was  divided  into  three  portions  by  railings ;  the  policemen, 
vritncsscs,  &c.,  were  on  the  right,  and  the  prisoner  was  brought  in  to  the  centre 

*  Meadows,  op.  eit.  pp.  173,  174. 


tSkMi 


888 


EAST  ASIA. 


division,  Iwl  by  his  pliiit.  IIo  was  obliged  to  remain  on  his  knees  during  the 
trial. 

"  This  man  had  pretended  that  he  was  a  broker,  and  had  gone  to  the  different 
European  firms,  from  each  of  which  lie  had  obtained  a  sample  of  sugar,  which 
he  afterwards  sold  retail.  IIo  was  convicted  and  sentenced  to  two  months* 
imprisonment. 

"  The  Chinese  official  at  this  stage  of  the  proceedings  offered  me  a  cigar,  and  tea 
was  brought  in  ;  after  which  refection  another  prisoner  was  arraigned  for  driving  a 
jinny  rickshaw  without  a  license,  and  for  which  he  received  twenty  blows  with  a  stick. 

"  The  next  had  stolon  a  watch ;  and  the  lust  in  a  crowded  thoroughfare  had 
refuswl  to  '  move  on.'  It  was  a  very  amusing  sight,  and  strangely  like  •  orderly 
room  '  ill  an  English  barrack."     (Gill,  i.  p.  170.) 

Meantime  the  natives  enjoy  many  traditional  liberties  unknown  in  some 
European  states.  They  may  combine  to  dismiss  an  impopular  mandarin,  politely 
escorting  him  out  of  the  district,  with  much  parade  and  congratulations  on  his 
happy  release  from  the  bui"dens  of  office.  They  may  move  about  freely  in  all  parts 
of  the  empire  without  being  challenged  by  the  gendarmes  to  show  their  papers. 
They  follow  whatever  profession  they  please  without  permits  or  diplomas  of  any 
sort.  The  right  of  publication  through  the  press  or  by  posters  is  generally 
respected,  and  public  meetings  are  held  without  giving  notice  to  the  police.  Even 
in  the  restless  city  of  Canton  the  Government  has  never  attempted  to  close  the 
doors  of  the  Ming-lun-tang,  or  Palace  of  Free  Discussion,  although  it  does  not  for- 
get to  send  orators  who  take  part  in  the  debates,  and  endeavour  to  give  them  a 
turn  favourable  to  the  interests  of  the  mandarins. 

The  fundamental  principle  that  society  rests  on  the  family  has  for  ages  main- 
tained the  old  communal  autonomy.  In  the  villages  all  the  heads  of  families  take 
part  in  the  election  of  their  representatives,  who  are  chosen  mostly  from  the  agri- 
cultural class.  These  rural  officials  fulfil  the  functions  of  mayors,  notaries, 
registrars,  tax-gatherers,  justices  of  the  peace,  arbitrators  in  family  differences, 
ministers  of  agriculture,  and  even  masters  of  ceremonies.  No  stipends  are  attached 
to  the  office,  but  they  are  assisted  by  other  employes,  such  as  foresters,  surveyors, 
writers,  also  appointed  by  the  community.  In  the  towns  all  the  ki'ichang,  or 
householders,  of  each  quarter,  numbering  from  sixty  to  one  hundred,  form  a  Muni- 
cipal Council,  which  elects  its  own  paoc/n'nr/  (mayor),  as  well  as  all  the  other  muni- 
cipal officers.  The  mayors  of  the  several  Chinese  quarters  elect  district  magistrates 
to  look  after  the  common  interests,  but  the  Manchu  quarter  depends  directly  on  the 
Central  Government. 

Army  and  Navy. 

Although  the  military  forces  are  being  gradually  reorganized  on  the  European 
model,  public  opinion  is  still  unfavourable  to  large  standing  armies.  The  people 
have  constantly  in  their  mouth  the  saying  of  Confucius,  that  "  for  every  man  who 
does  no  work  there  is  another  who  lacks  bread ;  "  and  the  little  esteem  entertained 
for  the  military  is  illustrated  by  another  popular  saying,  to  the  effect  that  "  good 


^S!!»M»ss^e«S(WSI!ss^»*.'«ln«•'«>??■'w»r- 


*!*• 


THE  ARMY. 


820 


i  (luring  tbo 

tho  different 
sugar,  whi(!h 
two  montbs' 

cigar,  and  tea 
I  for  driving  a 
8  with  a  stick, 
•oughfare  had 
like  'orderly 

own  in  some 
darin,  politely 
lations  on  his 
;ly  in  all  parts 
their  papers, 
ploraas  of  any 
i  is  generally 
police.  Even 
I  to  close  the 
it  does  not  for- 
»  give  them  a 

for  ages  main- 
families  take 
from  the  agri- 
yors,   notaries, 
ly  differences, 
Is  are  attached 
;ers,  surveyors, 
iO  ki'ichang,  or 
form  a  Muni- 
le  other  muni- 
ict  magistrates 
directly  on  the 


the  European 

s.     The  people 

very  man  who 

em  entertained 

ect  that  "  good 


men  are  not  required  to  make  soldiers,  or  good  iron  nails."  Hitherto  the  recent 
changes  have  only  affected  two  anny  corps — that  of  Tientsin  on  the  Lower  Pei'-ho, 
and  the  50,000  men  who,  since  the  reduction  of  tho  Duugan  rebels,  occupy 
the  western  regions  of  tho  empire  on  tho  llussian  frontier.  Apart  from  these,  the 
various  armed  bodies  are  little  better  than  those  dispersed  in  1800  by  the  Allies 
near  Peking.  The  army  of  the  "  Eight  Banners,"  which  was  formerly  the  main- 
stay of  the  dynasty,  has  retained  its  old  organization.  It  consists  almost  exclu- 
sively of  Manchus  and  Mongols,  all  married,  and  each  with  a  plot  of  ground  or  a 
garden,  so  that  they  are  rather  military  colonists  than  soldiers.  Numbering  about 
2'30,000,  they  are  probably  more  dangerous  than  useful,  their  presence  in  the 

Fig.  164.— Dbfbncbs  of  thr  Mouth  of  the  Pei-ho. 
Scale  1  :  133,000. 


ia 

B 

BaHary 

/■■■■■:r- 

'::.\:^/-  ■.■,-.'r.." ■  ■^■■'^•■•^'■'■'■■' 

59 

9 

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/Xi  ■.•'••'.•■.•■ 

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/ill 

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s 

^^tTZ  ^^ 

sMiMm 

■  - — ^Hl 

^     #^  atUiciii^rwn  3  ft^-' 

.:-'\y\'\  •'■'•"i*".'*/*.  ■;• 

•  "■  •  -  ■^^^^^^Ti^mll 

T«Bt«k«»       ^  ^^m 

•  ■.•■■■.;-•.'■/.•.'/'•'••.''•■'/. 

-' ' '  ^^^^^m 

» 

:,:  ,^ 

liS JSffi^ — ■ :  ■ ; 

/■;.'•/•■•'••■ 

..  •'■•T*  .'•..*.•■'' t-^Hi^p^^ys 

Moat — :    a:.-  •  \ :..-.. 

58 

f- '■•>••'■' 

^^]Sr 1  -  ..'•'••■■ 

iff 

5(3 

M% 

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56 

Eol-G. 

M7M0- 

|l7'4e 

0  to  8)  Feet.  .Hi  Feel  and  upwards. 

Und  or  Sand  expoeed  at  high  water. 
— ^— ^^-^— -^-^-^  8  MilM>. 

Manchu  quarters  constantly  reminding  the  nation  of  its  defeat,  and  thus  keeping 
alive  a  spirit  of  rebellion  against  the  Manchu  power.  The  only  efficient  Manchu 
corps  is  the  Hiaokiying,  which  occupies  the  Peking  district,  and  is  said  to  comprise 
36,000  men  and  26,000  military  students.  The  highest  military  title,  that  of 
Siangkiun,  answering  to  the  Japanese  Shogun,  can  be  held  only  by  a  Manchu. 

The  Lutying,  or  "  Army  of  the  Green  Banner,"  divided  into  eighteen  corps, 
corresponding  with  the  eighteen  provinces,  is  composed  of  600,000  volunteers,  all  of 
Chinese  nationality.  This  militia  is  chiefly  employed  in  the  police,  in  forwarding 
cereals,  in  maintaining  the  embankments,  and  repairing  the  highways.  The  men 
serve  only  within  the  limits  of  their  respective  provinces,  beyond  which  they  can 
seldom  be  induced  to  march,  even  in  urgent  cases.  Thefutai,  or  general,  is  always  a 
64 


880 


EAST  ASIA. 


civilian,  on  the  principle  universally  accepted  in  China  that  ann8  must  yield  to  the 
peaceful  arts.  IJodics  of  militia  are  also  raised  in  the  various  departments  at  the 
expense  of  the  communes,  and  in  time  of  war  the  Government  has  the  power  of 
enrolling  all  able-bodied  men.  Rut  such  levies,  without  any  previous  training,  are 
found  to  be  worthless  in  the  presence  of  disciplined  troops. 

Military  exercises  are  almost  always  carried  on  in  the  imperial  hunting  park, 
which  is  an  immense  tract  of  country  surrounded  by  a  wall,  access  to  which  is 
jealously  forbidden  to  foreigners.  In  addition  to  the  land  service,  the  Lutying 
mans  the  navy  of  the  seaboard  provinces,  and  has  a  distinct  organization  of  divisions 
and  garrisons,  each  under  its  own  general.  The  strength  of  these  provincial  armies 
varies  with  the  size  of  the  province  and  with  the  duties  they  have  to  perform. 
But  the  average  for  each  province  may  bo  about  Jio.OOO  men  and  640  officers. 

Properly  led,  the  Chinese  "  would  make  magnificent  troops,  for  by  nature  they 
are  singularly  obedient  to  authority,  and  would  not  question  the  demands  of  those 
who  once  established  an  influence  over  them.  In  this  they  are  like  other  Easterns, 
but  more  than  others  their  national  characteristic  renders  them  particularly 
incapable  of  military  combinations.  A  Chinaman  can  learn  anything,  but  he  can 
conceive  nothing.  He  may  readily  be  taught  any  number  of  the  most  complicated 
military  manceuvres,  but  place  him  in  a  position  slightly  different  from  that  in 
which  he  has  learnt,  and  he  will  be  found  utterly  incapable  of  conceiving  any 
modification  to  suit  the  altered  circumstances.  This  national  characteristic  is  the 
growth  of  centuries  of  a  narrow  education ;  its  roots  are  deeply  seated,  and  lie  in 
the  insane  reverence  for  antiquity,  which  is  almost  the  beginning  and  end  of  a 
Chinaman's  belief.  Prompt  action,  readiness  of  resource,  ability  to  seize  on  the 
smallest  advantage,  or  to  neutralise  a  misfortune,  and  the  power  to  evolve  rapidly 
fresh  combinations — these  are  the  qualities  that  make  a  soldier,  and  these  are  the 
very  qualities  that  cannot  co-exist  with  the  Chinese  want  of  originality.  This  is 
no  unimportant  matter,  for  it  proves  that,  as  they  are,  the  Chinese  cannot  be 
feared  as  a  military  nation,  but  that  with  a  large  number  of  European  officers,  their 
almost  unlimited  numbers,  their  obedience  to  authority,  and  personal  l>ravery,  when 
properly  led,  would  make  them  almost  irresistible. 

"  Further,  there  is  in  the  Chinese  mind  a  great  dread  of  Europeans.  Supernatural 
powers  are  popularly  attributed  to  foreigners,  and,  although  they  profess  to  hold 
the  barbarians  in  contempt,  in  reality  the  feeling  of  fear  predominates  in  their 
mind,  although,  perhaps,  they  would  not  own  it  even  to  themselves.  But  with 
good  and  skilled  European  officers,  they  would,  as  they  have  done  before,  make 
magnificent  soldiers."  * 

The  naval  are  relatively  more  important  than  the  land  forces,  and  are  also 
more  needed  for  the  defence  of  the  empire.  In  1880  the  navy  consisted  of  40 
steamers,  of  nearly  20,000  tons  burden,  and  carrying  238  guns  The  crews, 
mostly  from  Ewangtung  and  Fokien,  are  generally  skilful  sailoia,  -ud  on  many 
occasions  have  given  proof  of  signal  courage.  Fortifications  have  been  erected  at 
the  entry  of  the  Canton,  Fuchew,  Shanghai,  and  Tientsin  Rivers,  and  for  these 

•  Gill,  op.  eit.  i.  p.  164-6. 


»i^»*- 


THE  CURRENCY. 


881 


8t  yield  to  the 
rtmonts  at  the 
8  the  power  of 
8  training,  are 

hiintiu}?  pirk, 
38  to  which  is 
3,  the  Lutying 
ion  of  divisions 
ovinciul  armies 
VQ  to  perform. 
0  officers, 
by  nature  they 
mands  of  those 
other  Easteras, 
m   particxdarly 
ing,  but  he  can 
ost  complicated 
it  from  that  in 
conceiving  ony 
racteristic  is  the 
eated,  and  lie  in 
ig  !\nd  end  of  a 
to  seize  on  the 
o  evolve  rapidly 
id  these  are  the 
inality.     This  is 
inese  cannot  be 
>au  officers,  their 
al  bravery,  when 

18.  Supernatural 
r  profess  to  hold 
iminates  in  their 
jlves.  But  with 
me  before,  make 

ces,  and  are  also 

consisted  of  40 

Ins     The   crews, 

o,  Aud  on  many 

been  erected  at 

rs,  and  for  these 


and  other  defensive  works  over  400  Krupp  guns  had  already  been  supplied  down 
to  the  end  of  the  year  1879.  A  vast  amount  of  war  muteriuls  is  also  being  pro- 
duced in  the  Government  arsenals,  over  half  of  the  revenue,  estimated  nt 
£25,000,000,  being  employed  in  these  military  preparations.  The  foreign  loans 
contracted  at  various  dates  since  1874  are  also  devoted  to  the  construction  of  forts 
and  ironclads.  The  eleven  wooden  ships  built  at  Newcastle  for  the  Government, 
and  almost  unrivalled  for  speed  and  weight  of  metal,  form  an  efficient  fleet, 
admirably  suited  to  the  defence  of  the  seaboard. 

The  Chinese  make  excellent  sailors,  and  an  experienced  American  skipper  assured 
Captain  Gill  that  he  preferred  them  to  Europeans  or  Americans.  "  They  never  give 
any  trouble,  never  drink  or  quarrel ;  and  although,  in  cases  of  danger,  he  admitted 
that  at  first  they  slightly  lost  their  heads,  yet  he  declared  that,  with  proper  leaders, 
this  lasted  a  very  short  time,  that  then  they  really  had  no  fear,  and  would  work  as 
quietly  and  as  well  as  under  the  most  ordinary  circumstances."  * 

The  Revenuk, 

The  chief  source  of  revenue  is  the  customs,  which  have  been  reorganized  by  Euro- 
peans, of  whom  nearly  five  hundred  are  employed  in  this  important  service,  the  official 
language  of  which  is  English.  But  this  branch  has  charge  only  of  the  foreign 
exchanges,  and  is  replaced  in  the  interior  by  the  likin,  which  is  in  the  hands  of  native 
officers,  and  which  doubles,  trebles,  and  increases  even  tenfold  the  value  of  com- 
modities according  to  the  rapacity  of  the  mandarins.  By  the  terms  of  the  treaties 
a  tax  of  2  J  per  cent.,  added  to  the  import  duty  of  5  per  cent.,  ought  to  exempt 
merchandise  from  all  supplementary  dues.  But,  besides  these,  tolls  are  levied  at 
the  octroi  of  the  large  towns,  on  the  highways,  canals,  and  bridges,  and  there  are 
many  other  vexatious  charges  which  greatly  hamper  the  trade  of  the  interior. 

But  "  give  us  free  access  to  China  ;  protect  us  in  the  exercise  of  our  privileges, 
until  the  Chinese  are  accustomed  to  us  and  understand  us,  and  fix  our  duty  pay- 
ments firmly  and  explicitly,  and  everything  else  will  follow.  The  custom-house 
bugbear  will  disappear,  for  the  goods  will  be  put  down  at  the  door  of  the  customer. 
Teas  and  silks  will  be  bought  cheaper,  for  different  districts  will  be  made  to  com- 
pete when  we  buy  direct  from  the  producer ;  and  European  manufacturers,  with 
moderate  energy  and  enterprise,  will  make  a  fair  start."  t 

<  .  J  > 

-'■*''' 

The  Currency. 

The  want  of  a  convenient  currency  is  also  a  serious  obstacle  to  traffic.  The  old 
monetary  system,  consisting  of  gold,  silver,  and  bronze,  was  abolished  in  conse- 
quence of  its  depreciation  by  Government  falsifications  of  all  sorts.  Nothing  is 
now  issued  except  the  cheti,  or  sapeks,  an  alloy  of  copper  and  tin  in  the  form  of 
discs,  and  strung  together  by  means  of  a  hole  in  the  centre.     A  thousand  of  these, 

•Op.eit.p.n.  "j  '  ■  ..    i 

t  G.  W.  Cooke,  op.  eit.  p.  208. 


m 


Ill  II 


ifl  I! 


li 


15 


882 


EAST  ASIA. 


weighing  over  10  lbs.,  form  the  Urn,  or  monetary  unit,  valued  at  about  48. 
But  numbers  have  no  precise  meaning,  and  change  with  every  district,  so 
that  in  Tientsin,  for  instance,  the  tiao  is  worth  only  <Y'V'i  supcks.  The  tael,  or 
Ian,  supposed  to  weigh  an  oimco  of  silver,  at  a  mean  value  of  about  1,600  sapeks, 
is  a  fictitious  coin,  varying  in  value  in  the  different  marts.  The  foreign  customs 
are  regulated  by  the  im  kwan  tad,  whose  official  value  is  about  (is.,  but  the 
dues  must  be  paid  in  mm,  or  silver  ingots  hall  marked.  The  most  common 
coin  is  the  Mexican  piastre,  specially  minted  for  the  Chinese  market.     There  is  no 

Fig.  155.— Pkoviscial  Chief  Towns,  Fu  and  Chbw,  in  China. 
Scale  1 : 3,000,000. 


Provincial  Chief  Towm. 


Fa. 


Chew. 


600  MUei. 


gold  coinage,  but  paper  money,  formerly  called  "  winged  gold,"  or  "  flying  money," 
has  been  in  general  use  for  fidly  a  thousand  years. 

In  every  part  of  the  empire  exchange  is  a  constant  source  of  endless  trouble. 
"  The  tael  is,  properly  speaking,  a  weight  of  about  1^  ozs.  avoirdupois.  The  term 
•  tael '  is  a  foreign  one,  the  Chinese  word  being  '  liung.'  Almost  every  province, 
and  often  every  important  city  in  a  province,  has  its  own  tael.  Thus  a  piece  of  silver 
that  weighs  a  tael  at  Kung-king  will  weigh  less  than  a  tael  at  Keng-tu  ;  and  as  all 
payments  are  made  by  weight,  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  balance  for  each  place. 
Then  the  quality  of  the  silver  varies  ;  and  besides  this,  in  making  small  payments 
there  is  the  further  complication  of  the  number  of  cash,  or  '  chen,'  to  the  tael, 
which  is,  of  course,  unavoidable. 


yi__ 


-■■-*'=mi«^iii      III  .UliiWHll 


■■Wf' 


ADMINISTRATIVE  DIVISIONS. 


888 


at  about  4b. 

^  diHtrict,  so 
The  tael,  or 
1,600  sapeks, 

iroif^n  customs 
()H.,  but   the 

most  common 

.     There  is  no 


"  It  costs  less  to  curry  u  pound  of  silver  100  miles  than  it  does  to  carry  the 
equivalent  vahie  of  brass,  and  at  places  fur  removed  fn»m  centres  of  civilisation, 
the  tendency  is,  nuturally,  to  brinjj^  njore  to  an  e(iuulity  the  vuluc  of  the  two  inetuls, 
just  as  the  values  of  all  ^oods  tend  to  e(pialise  themselves,  relatively,  the  greuter 
distunce  they  ure  carried.  Hut  however  unavoidable,  the  difficulty  is  none  the  less 
troublesome  to  a  traveller,  who  has  thus  three  things  look  to — first,  the  quulity 
of  the  silver ;  secondly,  the  weight  of  the  tael ;  and  thirdly,  the  number  of  cash  to 
the  tael."  * 


Administrative  Divisions. 

China  proper  comprises  eighteen  provinces,  nineteen  with  Shinking  (Liaotung), 
or  South  Manchuria,  grouped  in  eight  viceroyalties  or  general  governments.  Each 
province  is  divided  into  departments,  or  ,/m,  which  are  again  sulxlivided  into  chew, 
or  circles,  and  hien,  or  districts.  These  terms  are  usually  added  to  the  names  o£ 
the  towns  that  have  been  chosen  as  the  capitals  of  the  respective  divisions.  The 
pao  (<h),  or  communes  properly  so  called,  average  from  fifty  to  seventy  in  every 
hien,  besides  which  there  are  a  number  of  so-called  r/ii/i-chric,  which  depend 
directly  on  the  central  administration  of  the  province.  In  the  regions  inhabited 
by  mixed  populations  the  ttiuf,  or  military  prefectures,  are  numerous,  and  take  the 
name  of  chili-ting  when  they  are  attached  directly  to  the  central  administration. 
Some  of  the  subjugated  aboriginal  tribes  have  also  their  distinct  communes  divided 
into  tu  /«,  tn  chew,  and  tu  «/■.  Peking  is  under  a  special  military  administration, 
whose  jurisdiction  extends  for  some  miles  beyond  the  environs.  The  supreme 
command  is  vested  in  the  tnonglu  for  the  viceroyalties,  in  the  futai  for  the  pro- 
vinces, in  the/«<««w  and  tootai  for  the  circles,  while  the  special  commissioners  take 
the  title  of  Kinchai. 

For  a  tabulated  scheme  of  the  nineteen  provinces,  with  other  statistical  matter, 
the  reader  is  referred  to  the  end  of  this  volume. 

•  Gill,  op.  cil.  p.  272. 


flying  money," 

endless  trouble, 
pois.  The  term 
every  province, 

a  piece  of  silver 
g-tu  ;  and  as  all 

for  each  place. 

small  payments 

m,'  to  the  tael, 


^\\'  Tf '  ^W  ^l^rff^l^ClHiLX^i^— |2lifc 

W0 

^^^^, 

tHfliai..'   -  ''.7i^^'ttmr-,»talKh'.flm!lfmttMutt 

w<.m«,r~-' '-  — 

CHAPTER  VI. 


,  '> 


KOREA. 

HE  peninsula  which  projectfl  between  the  Japanese  and  Yellow  Seas 
southwards  in  the  direction  of  the  southern  islands  of  Nippon  is 
completely  limited  landwards.  Like  Italy,  with  which  it  may  bo 
compared  in  extent,  and  even  to  some  degree  in  its  orographic  con- 
figuration, it  is  separated  from  the  mainland  by  the  Alpine  Taipei- 
shan,  or  "  Great  White  Mountains,"  of  Manchuria.  It  has  also  its  Apennines 
stretching  north  and  south,  and  forming  the  backbone  of  the  peniiiKula.  As  in 
Italy,  the  western  slope  of  the  highlands  forms,  throughout  their  central  and 
southern  sections,  the  vital  portion  of  the  peninsula.  Here  is  developed  the  course 
of  the  Han-kiang,  the  Korean  Tiber,  and  here  is  situated  the  city  of  Seul,  present 
capital  of  the  kingdom.  In  Korea,  as  in  Italy,  the  eastern  seaboard  is  uniform, 
and  almost  destitute  of  inlets,  while  the  west  aide  is  deeply  indented  by  gidfs  and 
bays,  rich  in  islands  and  small  archipelagos. 

Nevertheless  these  general  resemblances  do  not  descerxd  tu  minor  details.  The 
north-east  frontier,  towai-ds  Russian  Manchuria,  is  very  mountainous  and  of  diffi- 
cidt  access,  whereas  the  plains  of  the  Yalu-kiang  valley  present  towards  the  north- 
west an  easy  natural  passage  from  the  interior  of  the  peninsula  to  the  Chinese 
province  of  Liaotimg.  In  this  direction  the  two  frontier  states  thought  it  neces- 
sary to  create  a  sort  of  "  marca,"  or  neutral  zone,  as  a  line  of  reciprocal  defence, 
by  leaving  a  broad  tract  uninhabited  and  uncultivated  on  the  north-west  side  of 
the  Yalu-kiang.  Till  recently  peaceful  settlers  in  this  region  were  liable  to  capital 
punishment,  although  banditti  made  it  their  camping  ground,  endangering  the 
trade  route  running  to  the  "  Gate  of  Korea,"  near  the  city  of  Fungwang-shan 
(Fenghoang-cheng),  or  "  Castle  of  the  Yellow  Wind."  But  according  to  the  latest 
accounts  the  neutral  zone,  which  has  an  area  of  about  5,600  square  miles,  is  begin- 
ning to  be  brought  under  cultivation.  Chinese  settlers  are  gradually  encroaching 
and  reclaiming  the  land,  while  some  Koreans  have  on  their  side  already  formed 
settlements  beyond  the  frontier. 

Like  most  regions  of  the  extreme  East,  Korea  is  known  to  foreigners  by  a  name 
which  has  little  currency  in  the  country  itself.  This  term,  belonging  formerly  to 
the  petty  state  of  Kori^,  has  been  extended  by  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  to  the 


KOREA 


Hi3ft 


whole  poninmtila,  uiult>r  the  furmn  of  Kiiokiuli,  K  itU,  qgl  MtttDt  AVhcn  till  the 
priiicipiilitii's  woro  fiiswl  in  oiio  inoiiiircliy,  towards  u-  vlnne  of  <•  fourficnth  cen- 
tury, tin?  foumry.  ut  that  t-'rac  Hubject  to  Chiiiu,  t(  tlie  offici,  titi*'  ul  liiutNien 
(Tsioseii) — that  is,  '*  Scieiiity  of  the  Morning  " — in  allimion  to  if  m  ^'f«)gr;»p  il  jjosi- 
tion  east  of  the  empire.  Thus  it  is  now  designated  by  a  poetical  exprch  .ii  Mhich 
exactly  indicates  its  position  l)etween  China  and  .Iiii)an.     While  for  tl»     >eoyU'  i»t 


Fig.  166.  -OiNMHAL  Yiiw  or  Kano-rua,  Lowkk  Hano-kiano. 


id  Yellow  SeaB 
I  of  Nippon  is 
ich  it  may  bo 
rographic  cou- 
Alpine  Taipei- 
ita  Apennines 
liiisula.    As  in 
ir  central  and 
>ped  the  course 
if  Seul,  present 
lard  is  uniform, 
3d  by  G^s  and 

)r  details.    The 
18  and  of  diffi- 
^ards  the  north- 
,  to  the  Chinese 
lought  it  neces- 
iprocal  defence, 
rth-west  side  of 
liable  to  capital 
ndangering  the 
Fungwang-shan 
ing  to  the  latest 

miles,  is  begin- 
illy  encroaching 

already  formed 

gners  by  a  name 

»ing  formerly  to 

Japanese  to  the 


,^^1^ 

-'„'...■> 

'\  "  ■■'^*^'  ., 

'    -»    -/*. 

X***^..,,'*'"'       •    ^ 

"»i'*t-.;,i.-i.,»i.>- 

-,          '       V 

■•;^-.':-. 


:i2i^P5 


.^^a 


r          Mt 

^-Mm    ^    mm 

•1  III""  ••■  .^ 

s--^>,  •:-      ■    BT^ 

an  ■•■ 

*a 

■0^ 

f 

« 

, 

■;^?v 


'.j::r..ai%: 


^-     ii« 


the  continent  Japan  is  the  land  of  the  Rising  Sun,  Korea  is  the  "  Serene  "  land, 
illumined  by  the  morning  rays. 

Although  washed  by  two  much-frequented  seas,  and  yearly  sighted  by  thousands 
of  seafarers,  Korea  is  one  of  the  least  known  Asiatic  regions.  Even  the  seaboard, 
which  presents  so  many  dangers  to  navigation,  has  been  so  imperfectly  surveyed 
that  its  contour,  as  laid  down  on  the  charts,  is  still  largely  hypothetical.  Before 
the  seventeenth  century  European  geographers  supposed  that  Korea  was  an  island, 


880 


EAST  ASIA. 


and  it  in  mo  fij^unHl  on  tin*  nioj)H  of  Mcrcntor,  ('rtoliuH,  nnd  Snnw)n.  Hut  itH  ponin- 
Kulor  cliaractcr  waM  rovoalcHl  liy  the  map  wnt  l»y  tlu'  niiMMionarifs  fnmi  iVkiii^,  and 
rcpriMliinHl  hy  D'Aiivillo.  The  tii'Ht  a<'ciimtt'  ohrn'rvatioiiH  date  oidy  from  the 
i'ij<;lil»'t'Mth  (M'litury,  and  it  wan  not  till  17H7  tliat  \m  IVtoumo  di'tonMincd  tlio  |Mmi- 
tion  of  tlio  lai'^t>  island  of  (hiclpacrt  (tiic  'l'an^:lo  of  the  Cliincsc,  and  Tamiiro  of 
till'  Jupant>M>),  and  Miirvi>y«'d  tlu?  Strait  of  Korea  U'tweon  the  two  inland  HoaH.  Ten 
ycarH  aftcrwardH  Itrou^hton  coaNtcd  the  Hoiithcrn  oxtrnnity,  paHsin^  through  tbo 
strait  which  bcurH  his  nuino,  and  which  flows  In'twuen  the  muinlund  and  thu  double 

Fig.  157.— KoRiA  Sthait. 
fi<>mle  i  :  ■.'.HiW.OOO. 


0  to  820  Feet. 


mo  Fact  aad  ninnidt. 
aOMIlCT. 


island  of  Tsu-simu.  Later  on  Krusenstcrn  extended  our  knowledge  of  the  coast 
north  from  the  island  of  Kiu-siu,  and  the  work  of  exploration  was  continued  during 
the  present  century  by  Maxwell,  Basil  Hall,  and  others  of  various  nationalities. 
At  present  the  seaboard  is  being  most  carefully  studied  by  the  Japanese  navigators, 
who  have  already  taken  extensive  soundings  throughout  the  thousand  channels  of 
the  islets,  and  dangerous  reefs  fringing  the  south-west  coast,  and  figuring  on  the 
Chinese  maps  as  part  of  the  mainland.  Thanks  to  all  these  survej's  and  discoveries, 
the  area  of  the  peninsula  may  be  approximately  set  down  at  about  95,000  square 
miles,  or  nearly  half  that  of  France. 


PaOUlUiSS  OF  UISC'UVKUY— FOUKION  IIKLATIONS. 


887 


Hut  it»  ponin- 
11)  iVkiiiK,  uiul 
,nly  J' rum  the 
iiiH«<l  \ho  ix»«i- 
1111(1  Tumuro  of 
and  Hi'HH.  Ton 
iij;  thniu^h  tlu- 
und  tlio  double 


lM 


3dge  of  the  coast 
lontinued  during 
OU8  nationalities, 
lanese  navigators, 
isand  channels  of 
d  figuring  on  the 
s  and  discoveries, 
>ut  95,000  square 


Pro(jkksm  ok  Discovkky — FoHKKiN   Uki.atioxh. 

The  interior  of  the  peninsiihi  ninnot  Ih»  said  to  Ih)  ultogothcr  unknown,  «inre 
its  niountuins  aro  visible  from  the  couHt,  whonce  even  many  plains  and  valluys  may 

Fig.   1S8,    -Kxfl.UHATIIiNH   OK    KollKA    ANI>   Ml  KHULMltNU    NVaTKUII. 
Soula  t  :  700,000. 


M 


)^r^-.^,T 


ISS' 


IS6* 


LofG 


190  Miles. 


be  recognised.  But  although  D'Anville's  map,  of  which  most  others  are  a  mere 
reproduction,  is  based  on  native  documents,  the  direction  of  the  ranges,  the  river 
valleys,  and  the  sites  of  the  cities  are  figured  on  it  without  any  attempt  at  accu- 
racy ;  nor  have  previous  labours  hitherto  been  checked  or  rectified  by  any  explorer 


888 


EAST  ASIA. 


worthy  of  the  name.  In  1653  the  Dutch  writer  Ilamcl  having  been  shipwrecked, 
with  thirty-five  companions,  on  Quclpaert  Island,  he  was  brought  captive  to  the 
capital,  and  during  the  thirteen  years  of  his  captivity  devoted  himself  to  the  study 
of  Korean  manners  and  customs.  But  he  had  no  opportunity  of  exploring  the 
land,  and  his  itinerary  is  confined  to  the  west  coast.  The  western  slopes  have  also 
been  traversed  in  almost  every  direction  by  the  Catholic  missionaries,  who  have 
penetrated  into  the  country  since  1835  either  from  Manchuria  or  by  sea  from 
Shantung.  But  although  obliged  to  travel  in  disguise,  generally  by  night  and 
along  unbeaten  tracks,  to  their  reports  we  are  mainly  indebted  for  our  most  trust- 
worthy information  regarding  the  geographical  features  of  the  land. 

From  its  very  position  between  China  and  Japan,  Korea  could  not  fail  to  have 
been  a  subject  of  contention  for  its  powerful  neighbours.  Before  its  fusion  in  one 
state  it  comprised  several  distinct  principalities,  whose  limits  were  subject  to  fre- 

Fig.  159.— SotTH-WEST  AUCHIPELAGO  OF  KoKKA. 
Scale  1 :  1,300,000. 


0  to  82  Feet. 


33  to  80 


80  to  160  IflO  and  upward*. 

_____  SO  Mile*. 


quent  changes.  These  were,  in  the  north,  Kaokiuli  (Kaoli),  or  Korea  proper;  in 
the  centre,  Chaosien  and  the  seventy-eight  so-called  "kingdoms"  of  Chinese 
foundation,  usually  known  as  the  San  Kan  (San  Han),  or  "  Three  Han ;  "  in  the 
south,  Petsi,  or  Hiaksai  (Kudara),  the  Sinlo  of  the  Chinese,  or  Siragi  of  the 
Japanese ;  besides  the  petty  state  of  Kara,  Zinna,  or  Mimana,  in  the  south-east, 
round  about  the  Bay  of  Tsiosan.  The  northern  regions  naturally  gravitated  towards 
China,  whose  rulers  repeatedly  interfered  in  the  internal  affairs  of  the  country. 
But  the  inhabitants  of  the  south,  known  in  history  by  the  Japanese  name  of  Kmaso, 
or  "  Herd  of  Bears,"  were  long  subject  to  Japan,  while  at  other  times  they  made 
frequent  incursions  into  Kiu-siu  and  Hondo,  and  even  formed  settlements  on  those 
islands.  The  first  conquest  of  the  country  was  made  by  the  forces  of  the  Queen 
Regent  Zingu  in  the  third  qentury.     Towards  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  the  cele- 


PHYSICAL  FEATURES— OROQKAPHIC  SYSTEM. 


889 


een  shipwrecked, 
it  captive  to  the 
iself  to  the  study 
of  exploring  the 
1  slopes  have  also 
•naries,  who  have 
I  or  by  sea  from 
Lly  by  night  and 
jr  our  most  trust- 
nd. 

1  not  fail  to  have 
I  its  fusion  in  one 
sre  subject  to  fre- 


arda- 

Korea  proper ;  in 

ioraa"   of  Chinese 

hree  Han ;  "  in  the 

■,  or  Siragi  of  the 

in  the  south-east, 

gravitated  towards 

irs  of  the  country. 

Bsc  name  of  Kmaso, 

!r  times  they  made 

ettlements  on  those 

orces  of  the  Queen 

sixteenth  the  cele- 


brated Japanese  dictator  and  usurper  Taikosama,  having  conceived  the  project 
of  conquering  China,  began  with  that  of  Korea,  under  the  pretext  of  old  Japanese 
rights  over  the  country  of  the  Kmuso.  After  wasting  the  land  he  compelled  the 
King  to  become  his  tributary,  and  loft  a  permanent  garrison  in  the  peninsula. 
A  fresh  expedition,  although  interrupted  by  the  death  of  Taikosama,  was  equally 
successful.  Tsu-sima  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Japanese,  and  from  that  time 
till  the  middle  of  the  present  century  Korea  continued  in  a  state  of  vassalage, 
sending  every  year  presents  and  tribute  to  Nippon.  According  to  the  missionaries, 
thirty  human  skins  at  first  formed  part  of  this  tribute,  but  were  afterwards  replaced 
by  silver,  rice,  linen  fabrics,  and  medicinal  plants. 

Thanks  to  the  aid  sent  by  the  Ming  dynasty  to  Korea,  in  its  victorious  struggle 
with  the  other  petty  states  of  the  peninsula,  and  in  its  resistance  to  Japan,  its 
relations  with  China  continued  to  be  of  the  most  friendly  character.  Admirers  of 
Chinese  culture,  the  native  rulers  felt  honoured  by  the  investiture  granted  them  by 
the  "  Son  of  Heaven."  But  after  the  Manchu  conquest  of  the  Middle  Kingdom, 
Korea  remaininj,,  faithfid  to  the  cause  of  the  Mings,  the  new  masters  of  the  empire 
invaded  the  peninsula,  and  in  1637  dictated  a  treaty,  imposing  on  the  Koreans  a 
yearly  tribute  of  100  ounces  of  gold,  1,000  ounces  of  silver,  and  a  certain  quantity 
of  furs,  roots,  textile  fabrics,  and  other  natural  and  industrial  products  of  the  land. 
But  although  since  that  time  the  native  ruler  takes  the  title  of  "  Subject,"  China 
exercises  no  real  sovereign  rights  in  Korea.  No  Chinese  emigrants  are  allowed  to 
settle  in  the  peninsula,  and  even  the  envoys  from  Peking  are  obliged  to  leave  their 
suites  outside  the  walls  of  the  capital,  where  during  their  stay  they  remain  confined 
to  the  palace,  more  like  honoured  captives  than  the  representatives  of  a  master. 
Thus,  although  for  over  two  hundred  years  a  vassal  to  both  of  its  powerful  neigh- 
bours, the  peninsula  has  practically  retained  its  autonomy. 

A  third  empire,  having  become  conterminous  with  Korea,  has  begun  to  make 
itself  felt.  Conflicts  have  already  taken  place  between  Bussians  and  Koreans,  and 
the  Government  of  St.  Petersburg  has  more  than  once  assumed  an  aggressive 
attitude.  A  well-sheltered  harbour  on  the  south  coast  of  the  peninsula  would 
certtiinly  be  of  the  greatest  advantage,  both  commercially  and  strategically,  to 
Russia.  From  such  a  station  she  might  command  at  once  both  the  Chinese  and 
Japanese  waters,  and  thus  become  supreme  in  the  Eastern  seas.  But  a  reasonable 
pretext  for  attacking  the  feeble  kingdom  of  Korea  has  not  yet  been  discovered,  and 
meantime  the  influence  of  Japan  has  recently  been  most  active  in  the  peninsula, 
where  she  has  secured  certain  concessions  and  commercial  privileges  still  denied  to 
all  other  foreign  powers  except  the  United  States  of  North  America. 

Physical  Features — Orooraphk;  System. 

According  to  Dallet  the  chief  mountain  range  of  Korea  branches  off  from  the 
Tai-pei-shan  at  the  Paiktu-san,  whose  crest  forms  the  parting-line  between  the 
waters  flowing  north-east  to  Tiumen-ola,  and  south-west  to  the  Yalu-kiang. 
South-east  of  these  highlands,  which  are  still  held  by  independent  tribes,  an 


I 


i 


840 


EAST  ASIA. 


extensive  depression  is  filled  by  the  Tai-ti,  the  only  large  lake  in  Korea,  stretching 
apparently  some  24  miles  east  and  west.  Several  peaks  rising  alwve  the  main 
ridge  bear  the  name  of  Paik-san,  or  "  White  Mountain,"  so  that  this  term  might 
be  extended  to  the  whole  range  from  the  frontier  of  Manchuria  to  Broughton  Bay. 
The  summits  seem  to  be  here  very  lofty,  but  none  of  them  have  yet  been  visited, 
and  elevations  have  been  taken  only  for  the  peaks  on  the  coast  visible  from  the 
sea.  The  Hicu-fung,  near  the  north  side  of  Broughton  Bay,  has  an  altitude  of 
8,200  feet,  while  several  others  rise  to  a  height  of  6,500  feet  and  upwards. 

There  can  be  no  reasonable  doubt  as  to  the  generally  mountainous  character  of 
the  interior.  In  every  direction  the  view  is  broken  by  hills,  some  denuded,  others 
covered  with  dense  forests,  bounding  the  horizon  with  their  peaks,  cones,  sharp 
summits,  and  rugged  crags.  The  valleys  are  everywhere  narrow  and  connected  by 
savage  gorges,  so  that  no  plains  of  any  extent  are  developed  except  near  the 
seaboard.  The  surface  of  the  land  presents  the  general  aspect  of  an  inclined  plane 
falling  abruptly  eastwards  to  the  deep  Sea  of  Japan,  and  sloi^ng  westwards  far  more 
gently  towards  the  shallow  waters  of  the  Yellow  Sea. 

As  far  as  can  be  judged  from  the  available  data,  the  complex  orographic  system 
would  seem  to  be  produced  by  the  intersection  of  the  main  axis,  running  in  the 
line  of  the  meridian  along  the  east  coast,  with  transverse  ridges  belonging  to  the 
Chinese  system.  The  very  form  of  the  inlets  on  the  west  coast  seems  to  show  that 
the  elevations  follow  in  Korea  the  same  direction  as  on  the  neighbouring  mainland.  A 
tongue  of  land  projects  far  into  the  Yellow  Sea  towards  the  Shantung  peninsula,  thus 
enclosing  the  Gulf  of  Pechili  from  the  outer  waters.  In  the  same  way  the  south- 
west extremity  seems  to  be  continued  between  the  Yellow  and  Eastern  Seas  by 
quite  au  archipelago  of  islands,  forming  a  pendant  to  the  Chusan  and  Ningpo  groups 
on  the  Chinese  coast.  Two  at  least  of  the  Korean  ranges  also  run  south-west  and 
north-east,  parallel  with  the  highlands  of  Manchuria,  Mongolia,  Pechili,  and 
Shansi.  One  of  these,  forming  a  continuation  of  the  Shantung  system  beyond  the 
Yellow  Sea,  intersects  the  Paiksan  chain,  east  of  which  it  skirts  the  Korean 
seaboard  as  far  as  Possiet  Bay.  The  other,  beginning  at  the  southernmost 
extremity  of  the  peninsula,  gradually  merges  in  the  eastern  uplands  on  the  convex 
east  coast  commanded  by  the  Tsiongyan-san,  or  Mount  Popov  of  the  Russians.  The 
islets  attached  to  this  ridge  rise  abruptly  from  the  water  to  heights  of  1,500,  2,000, 
and  even  2,200  feet.  The  island  of  Quelpaert  itself,  now  a  Korean  convict  station, 
forms  a  small  chain  running  in  the  same  south-west  and  north-east  direction,  and 
culminating  with  the  white  cliffs  of  the  Aula,  or  Hanka-san,  the  Auckland  of  the 
English  surveyors,  which  attains  au  elevation  of  6,700  feet. 


'i 


li 


The  Korean  Archipelagos. 

The  west  coast  is  fringed  by  numerous  islands  and  small  archipelagos, 
which  have  not  yet  been  accurately  surveyed,  and  the  extent  of  which  was  a 
constant  source  of  surprise  to  the  early  navigators.  "  We  threaded  our  way," 
writes  Basil  Hall,  "  for  upwards  of  a  hundred  miles  amongst  islands,  which  lie  in 


wmttm 


'  1,"'J!iJ'J»" 


MINERAL  WEALTH— FLORA  AND  FAUNA— CLIMATE. 


841 


rea,  stretching 
)ove  the  main 
lis  tenn  might 
roughton  Bay. 
t  been  visited, 
isible  from  the 
an  altitude  of 
wards. 

us  character  of 
lenuded,  others 
8,  cones,  sharp 
id  connected  by 
xcept  near  the 
1  inclined  plane 
twards  far  more 

ographic  system 
running  in  the 
elonging  to  the 
sms  to  show  that 
ing  mainland.  A 
5  peninsula,  thus 
way  the  south- 
Sastem  Seas  by 
I  Ningpo  groups 

south-west  and 
ia,  Pechili,  and 
stem  beyond  the 
irts  the  Korean 
le  southernmost 
ds  on  the  convex 
B  Russians.     The 

of  1,500,  2,000, 
1  convict  station, 
ist  direction,  and 
Auckland  of  the 


immense  clusters  in  every  direction.  At  first  we  thought  of  counting  them,  and 
even  attempted  to  note  their  places  on  the  charts  which  we  were  making  of  this 
coast,  but  their  grt  at  number  completely  baffled  these  endeavours.  They  vary 
in  size  from  a  few  hundred  yards  in  length  to  five  or  six  miles,  and  are  of  all 
shapes.  From  the  mast-head  other  groups  were  perceived  lying  one  behind  the 
other  to  the  east  and  south  as  far  as  the  eye  could  reach.  Frequently  above 
a  hundred  islands  were  in  sight  from  deck  at  one  moment.  The  seu  being  quite 
smooth,  the  weather  fine,  and  many  of  the  islands  wooded  and  cultivated  in 
the  valleys,  the  scene  was  at  all  times  lively,  and  was  rendered  still  more 
interesting  by  our  rapid  passage  along  the  coast,  by  which  the  appearances  about 
us  were  perpetually  changing. 

"  Of  this  coast  we  had  no  charts  possessing  the  slightest  pretensions  to  accuracy, 
none  of  the  places  at  which  we  touched  being  laid  down  within  sixty  miles  of  their 
proper  places.  Only  a  few  islands  are  noticed  in  any  map,  whereas  the  coast  for 
near  two  hundred  miles  is  completely  studded  with  them,  to  the  distance  of 
fifteen  or  twenty  leagues  from  the  mainland.  .  .  .  Farther  on  we  passed  for  a 
distance  of  five  miles  amongst  islands,  all  except  the  very  smallest  inhabited. 
The  villages  are  built  in  the  valleys,  where  the  houses  are  nearly  hid  by  trees  and 
hedges.  The  sides  of  the  hills  are  cultivated  with  millet  and  a  species  of  bean  ; 
and  in  the  numerous  small  gardens  near  the  villages  we  saw  a  great  variety  of 
plants. 

"As  the  peaked  island  which  we  had  undertaken  to  climb  was  steep,  and  covered 
with  a  long  coarse  grass,  it  cost  us  a  tiresome  scramble  to  gain  the  top,  which 
was  about  600  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  mainland  of  Korea  is 
just  discernible  in  the  north-east  and  east  from  this  elevation.  But  it  commands  a 
splendid  view  of  the  islands,  lying  in  thick  clusters  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach, 
from  north-west  quite  round  by  east  to  south.  We  endeavoured  to  count  them. 
One  person,  by  reckoning  only  such  as  were  obviously  separate  islands,  made  their 
number  one  hundred  and  twenty.  Two  other  gentlemen,  by  estimating  the 
numbers  in  each  connected  cluster,  made  severally  one  hundred  and  thirty-six  and 
one  hundred  and  seventy,  a  difference  which  at  once  shows  the  difficulty  of 
speaking  with  precision  on  this  subject.  But  when  it  is  considered  that  from  one 
spot  which,  though  considerably  elevated,  was  not  concentrical,  one  hundred  and 
twenty  islands  could  be  counted,  and  that  our  course  for  upwards  of  one  hundred 
miles  had  been  amongst  islands  no  less  crowded  than  these,  some  idea  may  be 
formed  of  this  great  archipelago."  • 


all  archipelagos, 
of  which  was  a 
•eaded  our  way," 
mds,  which  lie  in 


MiNERAi,  Wealth — Flora  and  Fauna — Climate. 

Amongst  the  volcanic  islands  on  the  coast,  OUonto,  the  Japanese  Matsu-sima, 
and  the  Dagelet  of  European  geographers,  forms  a  cone  over  4,000  feet  high, 
while  its  spurs  plunge  into  depths  of  4,500  feet  and  upwards.  But  the  reports  of 
the  missionaries  throw  no  light  on  the  geological  formation  of  the  highlands  on 

•  "  Voyage  to  Korea,"  &c.  p.  42  tt  leq. 


842 


EAST  ASIA. 


tho  muinluud.  Gold,  however,  is  stated  to  be  abundant  in  several  places ;  but 
mining  operations,  both  for  it  and  for  silver,  are  forbidden  under  severe  penalties, 
for  fear  of  exciting  the  cupidity  of  the  neighbouring  peoples.  Korea  also  possesses 
deposits  of  lead  and  copper,  although  copper  and  bronze  ware  are  imported  from 
Japan.  There  are  said  to  bo  whole  mountains  of  iron  ores,  which  are  washed  down 
by  the  rains  in  quantities  sufficient  to  supply  the  smelting  works.  The  forests 
consist  of  the  elm,  willow,  birch,  pine,  spruce,  and  other  Manchurian  species, 
besides  some  cryptomeria?  and  the  Rhus  vernici/era,  or  lacquer-tree  of  Japan.     But 


Fijf.  160. — Entrance  to  the  Gulf  of  Ficuili. 
Scale  1 : 4,7M),00O. 


0  to  80  Feet. 


SOtolflO 


160  and  upi^aiiM. 
— .  120  Miles. 


the  beech  and  oak  are  absent.  Most  of  the  timber  employed  in  Peking  and  North 
China  comes  from  Korea. 

Of  great  economic  importance  is  the  ginseng  plant,  which  is  extensively 
cultivated  for  the  market  of  China.  It  is  raised  from  the  seed  imder  sheds  covered 
with  pine  bark,  the  roots  arriving  at  maturity  in  about  five  years,  when  they  are 
collected,  dried,  and  exported  in  considerable  quantities  to  Peking.  Here  the 
Korean  variety,  although  less  esteemed  than  that  of  Manchuria,  nevertheless 
commands  high  prices,  ranging  from  60s.  to  80s.  per  lb. 

The  wild  fauna  includes  the  bear,  tiger,  panther,  wild  boar,  and  fox,  whose 
skins  and  furs  form  the  staple  exports  of  the  country.     In  some  districts  the  man- 


'i 


"    ■  /^iii ]iiij$ii|_yi|itwiiii>iwife'^i  I 


MINERAL  WEALTH— FLORA.  AND  FAUNA— CLIMATE. 


848 


;ral  places ;  but 
severe  penalties, 
I  ea  also  possesses 
!  imported  from 
ire  washed  down 
■ks.  The  forests 
ichurian  species, 
of  Japan.    But 


eating  tigers  enter  the  villages,  prowl  about  the  houses,  and  even  penetrate  through 
the  thatch  roofs  for  their  human  prey.  They  are  hunted  chiefly  in  winter,  when 
they  are  often  overtaken  floundering  in  the  half-frozen  masses  of  snow,  and  easilj' 
dispatched  with  spears  and  knives.  The  Korean  horses,  imported  cspoeiallv  from 
the  island  of  Quelpaert,  are  very  small,  like  Shetland  ponies ;  but  the  oxen,  used 
as  mounts,  are  powerful  beasts.  Pigs  and  dogs  are  very  numerous  ;  but  the  latter 
are  cowardly  curs,  useless  for  the  hunt,  and  chiefly  bred  for  their  flesh,  which 
is  largely  consumed,  and  regarded  as  a  great  delicacy.     The  surrounding  waters 


Fig.  161. — Island  op  Quelpasrt. 

Pnale  1  :  nno.OOO. 


IBS* 


0  to  160  Feet. 


leotosao 


890  uid  npwaiilt. 
ISUilee. 


Peking  and  North 

ch  is  extensively 
ider  sheds  covered 
irs,  when  they  are 
eking.  Here  the 
luria,  nevertheless 

ar,  and  fox,  whose 
districts  the  man- 


abound  in  animal  life,  and  here  is  taken  the  species  of  sknte  whose  skin  is  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  sheaths. 

Although  washed  by  marine  waters,  the  climate  of  Korea  resembles  that  of 
China  and  Manchuria.  This  is  due  to  the  shallowness  of  the  Yellow  Sea  and  Gulf 
of  Pechili,  which  are  rapidly  heated  and  cooled  according  to  the  seasons,  and  which 
have  consequently  but  a  slight  influence  in  regulating  the  yearly  temperature.  As 
on  the  mainland,  the  isothermals  corresponding  with  those  of  Europe  are  deflected  in 
Korea  several  degrees  south  of  the  latitudes  which  they  cross  on  the  Atlantic  sea- 
board. Thus  the  mean  temperature  of  France  will  be  found  in  the  south  of  the 
peninsula  under  the  same  parallels  as  Gibraltar  and  Morocco.  But  while  the 
mean  temperature  is  lower,  the  extremes  are  much  greater  than  in  Europe,  a  fact 
due  to  the  prevalence  of  cold  north-east  winds  in  winter,  followed  by  the  warm 
south-west  monsoons  in  summer.     Even  in  the  southern  provinces  the  glass  falls 


~iWe 


n 


JCkM 


lU 


m'' 


fW 


w 


844 


EAST  ASIA. 


in  the  cold  season  several  degrees  below  freezing  point,  and  in  the  central  region  a 
temperature  of  —  7^  Fahr.  has  boon  rocordo<l.  Thanks  to  the  moist  monsoons,  there 
is  an  abundant  rainfall,  and  every  upland  valley  and  lowland  plain  has  its  perennial 
stream.  Hut  the  peninsula,  being  divided  into  two  areas  of  drainage,  is  too  narrow 
to  develop  large  navigable  watercourses,  and  most  of  the  narrow  rapid  rivers,  being 
obstructoil  by  reefs,  are  navigable  even  for  small  craft  only  in  their  estuaries.  The 
largest  are  the  Yulu-kiung  (Amno-kang),  or  river  of  the  "  Yellow  Duck,"  and  the 
Tiumen-ula  (Tuman-kang,  Mi-kiang),  serving  for  part  of  their  course  as  frontier- 
lines  towards  Manchuria  and  Russia  respectively.  Sea-going  junks  ascend  the 
former  for  30  miles,  beyond  which  it  is  navigable  by  boats  for  about  120  miles. 
The  tides  are  very  strong  all  along  the  west  coast,  rising  in  the  Han,  or  river  of 
Seul,  nearly  35  ieet,  and  falling  at  the  turn  with  surprising  rapidity.  Even  at 
Fusun,  on  the  south-cast  side,  there  is  a  rise  of  some  20  feet. 

Inhabitants — Languaoe. 

According  to  the  census  of  1793,  Korea  contained  1,737,325  houses  ond 
7,140,361  inhabitants,  of  whom  3,396,880  were  males  and  3,743,481  females.  More 
recent  official  returns  give  about  the  same  numbers,  although  the  imanimous  testi- 
mony of  the  natives  declares  these  estimates  to  be  far  below  the  truth,  the  people 
having  a  direct  interest  in  avoiding  registration  in  order  to  escape  the  taxes. 
Dallet  thinks  the  peninsula  may  have  a  population  of  10,000,000,  while  Oppert 
estimates  it  as  high  as  15,000,000  or  16,000,000,  but  very  unequally  distributed. 
The  northern  highlands  are  almost  uninhabited,  whereas  the  fertile  and  well-culti- 
vated rice-growing  districts  of  the  south  and  west  are  often  densely  peopled.  In 
most  provinces  new  villages  are  springing  up,  the  waste  spaces  are  being  constantly 
reclaimed,  the  woodlands  cleared,  and  the  wild  beasts  driven  to  the  inaccessible  uplands 
before  the  ever-advancing  colonists.  Even  on  the  bleak  and  rocky  east  coast  the 
population  is  often  very  dense,  the  villages  in  some  places  approaching  so  close  as 
to  form  almost  continuous  towns.  Yet  the  rate  of  mortality  is  very  high,  and 
many  agricultural  districts  suffer  much,  especially  from  the  auito  and  other  dis- 
orders produced  by  insufficient  diet.  Small-pox  makes  even  greater  ravages  than 
in  China,  carrying  off  probably  more  than  one-half  of  the  children,  while  the 
natural  increase  is  still  further  reduced  by  the  almost  universal  practice  of 
abortion. 

The  Koreans  are  in  general  rather  taller  than  the  Chinese  and  Japanese. 
Robust  and  extremely  laborious,  they  are  considered  excellent  workmen  in  the 
ports  open  to  Japanese  trade,  and  in  the  agricultural  settlements  of  Russian 
Manchuria.  The  accoimts  of  missionaries  and  travellers  are  so  contradictory  that 
it  seems  impossible  to  form  any  precise  idea  of  their  main  physical  characteristics. 
They  certainly  offer  a  great  variety  of  types,  extending  from  that  usually  described 
as  Mongolian  to  those  of  Europeans  and  Malays.  One  of  the  extremes,  which 
may  be  called  the  continental  Asiatic,  is  distinguished  by  broad  features,  prominent 
cheek  bones,  oblique  eyes,  small  nose,  lost  as  it  were  in  the  fulness  of  the  cheeks, 


central  region  a 

monsoons,  there 
lius  its  pcrenniul 
ge,  is  too  narrow 
pid  rivers,  being 
ir  estuaries.  The 
r  Duck,"  and  the 
ourse  as  frontier- 
unks  ascend  the 

about  120  miles. 

Han,  or  river  of 
pidity.    Even  at 


,325  houses  and 
Jl  females.    More 

unanimous  tcsti- 

truth,  the  people 
escape  the  taxes. 
300,  while  Oppert 
qually  distributed, 
tile  and  well-culti- 
[isely  peopled.  In 
e  being  constantly 
aaccessible  uplands 
ocky  east  coast  the 
oaching  so  close  as 

is  very  high,  and 
lito  and  other  dis- 
■eater  ravages  than 
hildren,  while  the 
Lversal  practice  of 

ese  and  Japanese. 
it  workmen  in  the 
iments  of  Russian 
1  contradictory  that 
)ical  characteristics, 
it  usually  described 
lie  extremes,  which 
features,  prominent 
Iness  of  the  cheeks, 


''v^i^f^^iiiff^^i^lKfMii'^ktiiismM^-::^..  \^,-</MmfiM 


.I«li 


•JUi 


s'^>-*TS«!paia5S^?!BS!S3?. 


INIIA]11TANT8— LANGUAGE. 


845 


thick  lips,  scant  boiml,  copjiory  complexion.  Another,  winch  may  In*  called  the 
"  insular"  tyjM',  and  of  which  nativesofthe  liiu-kiu  Anhij)cla^'o\vouldsccni  to  he  the 
purest  representatives,  is  characterized  hy  oval  features,  prominent  nose,  protruding 
teeth  always  visihle  between  the  half-open  lips,  tolerably  well-furnished  Ix'ard, 
and  delicate  skin,  approaching  in  complexion  to  the  almost  greenish  Mahiy  tint. 
Many  are  noted  for  their  light  chestnut  hair  and  blue  eyes,  u  trait  nowhere  else 
observi'd  in  the  extreme  Kast,  except  jK'rhaps  amongst  the  aborigines  of  the 
Nan-shan  uplands  in  South  China.  Hut  for  the  speech  and  costume,  one  might 
often  fancy  one's  self  surroundnl  by  ]Cur«)iK>an8.  The  women  nt  ver  mutilate  the 
feet,  as  in  Clunu ;  but  one  of  the  ]lan  tribes  was  formerly  accustomed  to  flatten 
the  heads  of  the  chihlren,  while  unnc  of  the  coast  jwoplo  hud  adopted  the  practice 
of  tattooing  from  the  JajHinese. 

These  various  races,  which  have  become  more  or  less  cf)mpletely  fused  in  the 
common  Korean  nationality,  are  afKliate<l  by  Klaproth  to  the  Tungus  stock  of  East 
SilH'ria.  liut  the  Chinese  clement  is  also  strongly  represented,  for  the  "  Three 
Han,"  who  gave  their  name  to  u  great  part  of  the  peninsula,  were  descende<l  from 
natives  of  Pechili  ami  >Shantung,  who  migratetl  to  Korea  in  the  fourth  and  fifth 
conturii's  of  the  vulgar  era.  The  various  local  dialects  present  very  slight 
differences,  from  which  it  would  seem  that  the  different  ethnical  elements  have 
long  been  fused  in  one  nation.  This  common  speech  differs  essentially  both  from 
Chinese  and  Japanese.  It  is  u  polysyllabic  and  agglutinating  language,  with 
u  varitnl  phonetic  system,  includuig  as  many  as  fourteen  vowels  and  several 
gutturals  and  aspirates.  In  structure  it  approaches  the  Ural-Altaic  type,  while 
the  verbal  inflection  resembles  the  Basque  in  modifying  the  endings  according  to 
the  sex  and  condition  of  the  speakers.  The  alphabet,  said  to  be  over  two  thousand 
years  old,  is  at  once  syllabic  and  purely  phonetic,  with  altogether  rather  more 
than  two  hundred  lelters,  much  simpler  than  the  Chinese  idtnigraphs.  But  the 
lettered  classes  despise  this  orthographic  system.  The  grammars  and  dictionaries 
prepared  by  the  missionaries  having  been  burnt  during  the  persecutions,  there  have 
hitherto  been  no  available  means  for  the  study  of  this  language.  But  one  of  the 
priests,  who  escaped  from  the  massacres,  has  recently  publishetl  a  large  Korean- 
French  dictionary,  and  a  Korean  grammar  in  French  ajjpeared  in  Tokio  in 
1881. 

The  preference  given  by  the  lettered  classes  to  the  Chinese  ideographic  system 
is  partly  due  to  its  greater  convenience  for  holding  communication  with  the 
neighbouring  nations  amongst  whom  that  system  is  current.  "  In  China,  Japan, 
Korea,  ond  the  islands  in  the  adjacent  seas  the  spoken  languages  are  different  from 
one  another ;  the  written  language,  on  the  contrary,  is  the  same  in  uU.  Thus 
a  native  of  China  is  unintelligible  to  a  Korean  or  Jjipanese  while  he  is  speaking, 
but  they  mutuoUy  understand  one  another  when  their  thoughts  are  expressed  in 
writing.  The  cause  of  this  moy  be  thus  explained.  We  in  Europe  form  an  idea 
in  the  mind,  and  this  we  express  by  certain  sounds,  which  differ  in  different 
countries ;  these  sounds  are  committed  to  writing  by  means  of  the  letters  of  the 
alphabet,  which  are  only  symbols  of  sound,  and  consequently  a  writing  in  Europe  is 
65 


1i' 


ii 


840 


EAST  ASIA. 


uniiitolHjfible  1o  every  one  who  is  ij^norant  of  the  spoken  lunj?un}?p  in  which 
it  hupiM'iiH  Id  1m>  wriltou. 

"The  ChiiU'Hc  mid  the  other  iui'Ivoh  in  these  sens  huve,  on  the  eontrury, 
no  ulphiihet — no  symljols  of  sound  [in  jjfenerul  usej.  Their  ideas  urc  committed  to 
writinf^  ut  onco  withoul  the  intervention  of  sound,  and  their  churftcters  may 
therefore  he  cuUed  symliols  of  ideas  [ideojjfruphs]]-  Now,  us  the  6amo  characters 
are  a(h)i)ted  in  all  these  countries  to  express  the  same  ideas,  it  is  clear  that  their 
writinj^s  will  be  perfectly  intelligible  to  each  other,  although  their  spoken  languages 
may  bo  (piite  ini-omprehensible. 

"  The  case  of  the  Arabic  numerals  in  EurojH)  furnishes  a  ready  illustration  of 
this  symbolical  language.  There  is  nothing  in  the  symbols  1,  2,  3,  &c.,  by  which 
their  pronunciation  can  be  ascertained  when  presented  to  the  eye.  Yet  they 
communicate  meaning  independent  of  sound,  and  are  respectively  intelligible 
to  the  inhabitonts  of  the  different  countries  of  Europe,  while  at  the  same  time  the 
sounds  by  wh'ch  a  native  of  one  country  distinguishes  the  written  symbols  1,  2,  <'i, 
&c.,  are  unintelligible  to  all  the  rest."  * 

The  introduction  of  numerous  foreign  words,  Chinese  in  the  north,  Japanese  in 
the  south,  has  given  rise  to  certain  jargons  current  in  the  trading-places.  The 
Japanese  variety  is  widely  spoken  in  the  southern  seaports.  But  the  language  of 
culture  is  (vhinese,  which  all  the  lettered  classes  are  bound  to  know.  But  as 
spoken  in  Korea  it  is  us  unintelligible  to  the  natives  of  China  us  liutin  in  the 
mouth  of  an  Englishman  would  be  to  the  ancient  Romans.  Every  place,  person, 
and  object  has  two  names,  one  n  more  or  less  modified  Chinese,  the  other  Korean, 
and  these  two  elements  are  u.versely  intermingled  in  the  speech  of  the  different 
classes.  Chinese  prevails  in  the  official  style,  while  the  national  language  has  been 
preserved  especially  in  the  religious  services.  The  mass  of  the  people  use  both, 
in  accordance  with  their  various  degrees  of  instruction  and  social  position. 
According  to  the  missionary  Daveluy,  the  current  form  in  many  places  consists 
almost  exclusively  of  Chinese  words  provided  with  Korean  inflections. 

Social  Condition — Religion. 

Chinese  influences  altogether  preponderate  in  the  Korean  civilisation.  The 
administration  and  usages  of  the  official  world  are  servile  imitations  of  those  of  the 
Middle  Kingdom,  to  which  Korea  is  tributary  in  an  intellectual  far  more  than  in  a 
political  sense.  Neverthei  'ss  the  ix>ople  have  preserved  their  national  customs, 
which  often  present  a  striking  contrast  to  those  of  the  Flowery  Land.  While  in 
the  empire  the  whole  people  are  regarded  as  forming  but  one  family,  the  various 
sections  of  the  Korean  nation  constitute  real  castes.  Under  the  King  and  his 
family,  the  nobles  descended  from  the  old  tribal  chiefs  enjoy  the  privileges  of 
fortime  and  power  in  various  degrees,  according  to  the  class  to  which  they  belong. 
The  civil  aristocracy,  more  instructed  in  Chinese  science  and  letters,  monopolizes 
the  higher  functions.     Next  comes  the  military  aristocracy,  which  takes  precedence 

*  Basil  Hall,  op.  eit.  p.  17. 


8t)CIAL  CONDITION— HELIOION. 


M7 


>  in  which 


miu}?( 


m  tho  contrary, 
lire  coiiuuittod  to 
churactorH  may 
same  churacters 
H  clear  that  thoir 
HlMjken  languages 

:»dy  illustration  of 
,  3,  &f.,  by  which 
e  oye.  Yet  they 
tively  intelligible 
the  same  time  the 
en  Byrabols  1,  'i.  •!. 

north,  Japanese  in 
ading-places.     The 
iut  the  language  of 
to  know.      But  as 
na  us  Latin  in  the 
<:very  place,  person, 
the  other  Korean, 
ch  of  the  different 
anguagc  has  been 
le  people  use  both, 
ind   social   position, 
lany  places  consists 
jctions. 


civilisation.     The 
tions  of  those  of  the 

far  more  than  in  a 

national  customs, 

y  Land.     While  in 

family,  the  various 

the  King  and  his 
ly  the  privileges  of 
whicb  they  belong. 

letters,  monopolizes 
lich  takes  precedence 


ir 


of  all  tho  nobility  «>f  more  rec«<nt  creation.  Such  in  the  roMi)ect  in  whitli  the 
nobles  arc  held,  that  pl(>lM>iaus  must  dismount  in  their  presence,  scarcely  dining  to 
l(H)k  ut,  much  Utss  address,  them.  Tlu>y  are  exempt  lioth  from  tu.vatiuii  and  military 
service,  and  their  dwellings  serve,  like  the  muilia'val  sanctuaries,  as  places  of  refuge 
for  all  their  retainers.  A  class  of  "  half  nobles,"  including  the  secretaries, 
translators,  interpreters,  and  other  secondary  otticials,  serves  as  a  transition  from 
the  full  aristocracy  to  the  burgesNt-s,  who  comprise  merchants,  dealers,  and  most  of 
the  artisans.  Another  (juite  distinct  caste  is  that  of  the  jHiasaiitry,  pastors,  hunters, 
and  fishers,  comprising  tho  great  bulk  of  the  nation.  Then  come  the  "  despised  " 
castes,  subdivided  into  several  groups,  which  hold  ahmf  from  each  other,  and  which 
include  tho  but'^hers,  tanners,  smiths,  and-  bon/es.  Helow  all  is  the  mjcial  sub- 
stratum  of  the  serfs,  belonging,  some  to  th(>  Crown,  others  to  the  nobles  and 
burgesses.  They  have  the  right  of  purchasing  their  freedom,  and  many  marry  free 
women,  in  which  case  their  offspring  belongs  to  the  class  of  freedmen.  They  are 
in  other  respects  treated  with  kindness,  and  are  in  practi(*e  scarcely  to  be  distin- 
guished from  tho  ordinary  workmen. 

Buddhism,  which  is  the  official  religion,  was  introduced  towards  the  end  of  the 
fourth  century  of  the  vulgar  era.  Rationalism  of  the  (/'liinesc  type  is  professed  by 
the  literati,  nor  has  the  old  animism  yet  disappeared  ;  while  traces  are  even  found 
of  a  fire  worship,  which  connects  the  inhabitants  of  the  ])eninsula  with  the  Siberian 
wild  tribes.  In  all  the  houses  the  embers  are  kept  alive  under  the  ashes,  for  were 
they  to  be  extinguished,  tho  fortunes  of  the  family  would  l)e  extinguished  with 
them.  At  the  change  of  the  seasons,  and  ut  other  important  periods,  tho  (ire  must 
be  rekindled  from  a  flame  obtained  by  the"  friction  of  two  pieces  of  wood.  The 
official  ceremonies  ussociatc<l  with  the  worship  of  Fo  (Buddha)  are  almost  entirely 
neglected,  and  the  contempt  in  which  the  bonzes  are  held  Itas  been  extended  to  the 
religion  professed  by  them.  In  many  towns  and  villages  there  are  no  temples,  nor 
even  any  domestic  shrines.  The  statues  of  the  gods  and  saints  are  mere  blocks  of 
wood  set  up  by  the  wayside,  and  as  works  of  art  far  inferior  to  the  idols  of  the 
Polynesians.  When  one  of  these  gods  rots  away  or  gets  blown  down  by  the  wind, 
the  children  amuse  themselves  with  rolling  it  about,  amid  the  laughter  of  the 
passers-by. 

Christianity  has  some  adherents  in  the  country.  At  the  time  of  Taikosama's 
conquest  the  first  army  corps  was  comma,  ided  by  a  Catholic  prince,  with  the 
incongruous  title  of  Dom  Austin  Konisi  Yul'^iibga.  Since  then  many  of  the  natives 
have  from  time  to  time  embraced  the  foreign  religion,  and  during  the  present 
century  new  communities  have  been  founded  by  French  priests  penetrating 
secretly  into  the  land.  At  one  time  the  congregations  were  estimated  at  almut 
100,000,  including  even  some  members  of  the  royal  family.  But  several  fierce 
persecutions  broke  out,  and  in  1866  as  many  as  nine  missionaries,  together  with 
10,000  native  Christians,  were  massacred.  The  French  expedition,  sent  to  demand 
satisfaction,  failed  to  obtain  any  concessions  from  the  King,  and  the  practice  of  the 
foreign  religion  still  remains  legally  on  act  of  high  treason. 


w 


BtR 


KA8T  ASIA. 


TTaiiith  axd  OfsTOMH — Tkaok — TxptrimiiRn. 

Ah  in  China,  jxtlyK'nny  ih  iMTinittcd,  ulthoii^h  tho  iiiohh  of  tho  pooplo  hnvo 
rarely  nn»ro  than  one  wifr.  Marriajf(>  in  unattrndtHl  by  uny  loug  Hyiobolical 
cfn'MionioM,  aH  in  China.  On  [>ayinont  of  tho  purchaHC  money  the  huHlmnd  oarrioH 
oir  hiH  "  projHTty,"  and  Ijenccfurth  trcatM  hor  aH  he  ph'aNON,  for  tlie  Korean  wifo 
hiH  neither  a  name  nor  even  a  h'j^al  existence.  liein^  without  roHjMtnHihilitieH,  Mho 
can  Im)  neither  jnd^ed  nor  punished  except  in  time  of  relM>lIion.  Althougli  Hel(h)ni 
badly  treated,  tho  women  enjoy  still  Ichh  lilH'rty  than  in  China.  Thow  of  tho 
upjH'r  claMHCH  are  contiiuHl  to  an  apartment  inviolable  even  to  tho  police,  and  they 
are  never  seen  abroad  during  tho  day.  Hut  in  tho  oveninj?  tho  Btrcetn  are  given 
up  to  the  women.  The  men  still  lingering  behind  hasten  to  return  home,  and 
shouhl  they  m(>et  any  hulies  on  tho  way,  they  must  cross  to  tho  other  side,  and 
hide  their  face  in  a  fan.  To  act  otherwise  would  betray  u  lamentable  want  of 
propriety.  Dallet  menticms  instances  of  Korean  women  who  committtnl  suicide 
because  strangers  had  touche<l  them  with  the  tip  of  their  finger.  They  arc  said  to 
bo  distinguislRMl  for  pretty  features  and  a  charming  expression. 

Funt^ruls  are,  as  a  rule,  scarcely  more  solemnly  conducted  than  weddings.  In 
ordinary  cases  tho  Inxly  is  simply  placed  on  a  bier,  or  merely  wmpiwd  in  a  shroud, 
and  buried  without  any  pomp.  liut  tho  rich  and  nobles  still  often  confonn  to  the 
ritual  of  tho  Chew,  which,  owing  to  its  extromo  rigour,  has  fallen  into  abej^ance  in 
China  itself.  Mourning  for  parents  lasts  throe  yours,  during  which  the  son  must 
regard  himself  as  dead  to  the  world,  renouncing  uU  his  functions  and  ordinary 
pursuits.  Robed  in  white,  ho  hides  his  face  under  a  large  hat,  and  wears  a  long 
veil  or  u  fan,  a  custom  of  which  the  French  missionaries  frequently  took  advantage 
to  move  about  in  disguise.  Sons  in  mourning  must  also  burst  out  into  sobs  and 
groans  at  u  fixed  hour  three  times  a  day. 

While  la(*king  tho  cunning  of  the  Chinese,  the  Koreans  excel  them  in  courage 
and  in  hospitality,  to  which  there  are  no  limits.  Ilonest,  simple,  and  good-natured, 
they  easily  form  friendships,  but  keenly  resent  injuries.  Serious  and  reserved  in 
the  presence  of  strangers,  they  readily  unbend  amongst  acquaintances,  indulging 
even  in  dancing  and  other  "  frivolities,"  which  the  Chinese  woidd  regard  as  worthy 
only  of  savages.  Theatrical  representations,  so  popular  in  China  and  Japan,  are 
lmkno^vn  in  Korea ;  but  the  people  are  very  fond  of  music,  and  especially  of 
stringed  instruments  and  Europeon  airs,  which  the  Chinese,  ignorant  of  harmony, 
are  so  slow  to  appreciate. 

An  instructive  and  entertaining  account  of  his  first  interview  with  the  natives 
of  the  islands  on  the  west  coast  is  given  by  Captain  Basil  Hall  in  his  "  Voyage  to 
Korea."  "  Shortly  after  anchoring,  a  boat  came  from  the  shore  with  five  or  six 
natives,  who  stopped  when  within  60  yards  of  the  brig,  and  looking  at  us  with  an 
air  of  curiosity  and  distrust,  paid  no  attention  to  the  signs  which  we  made  to  induce 
them  to  come  alongside.  They  expressed  no  alarm  when  we  went  to  them  in  oar 
boat,  and  on  our  rowing  to  the  shore,  followed  us  till  we  landed  near  a  village. 
The  inhabitants  came  iii  a  body  to  meet  us,  forming  an  odd  assembly,  different  in 


MMIBiWpt*" 


IIADITS  AND  rU8TOMS— TRADE— rNDUSTRIKS. 


340 


\iM\g  Hyii'l)olii'ul 
lu  huHlMiiul  ciirrie* 
tho  Komm  wife 
?MiM)nHil)iliti<'H,  hIio 
Although  Hfl<l<»ni 
la.  Thow  of  tho 
0  poHcH>,  unci  thoy 

Btrei'tH  arc  given 
ri'turn  homo,  and 
bo  othor  Hido,  and 
miontublo  want  of 
committHl  miiiido 
Thoy  are  Huid  to 

lian  weddingH.  In 
nippod  in  a  shroud, 
Eton  confonn  to  the 
m  into  abeyance  in 
rhich  the  son  must 
tions  and  ordinary 

and  wears  a  long 
ntly  took  advantage 

out  into  sobs  and 

el  them  in  courage 
,  and  good-naturc<l, 
iou8  and  reservetl  in 
aintances,  indulging 
old  regard  us  worthy 
hina  and  Japan,  are 
,  and  especially  of 
jnorant  of  harmony. 


ic 


lew  with  the  natives 
lU  in  his  "Voyage  to 
ore  with  five  or  six 
ooking  at  us  with  an 
ch  we  made  to  induce 

(rent  to  them  in  oar 
nded  near  a  village, 
assembly,  different  in 


many  ronpects  from  anything  wo  liud  wen.     Tlioir  colour  was  a  dcop  cojipor,  and 
tlioir  appoaranco  forbidding  and  Himiowhat  Hiiviigo. 

"  S«imo  nion,  who  apiM'ari'<l  to  lie  Mupcrinr  to  tl  o  rest,  were  distiii^uiMhod  by  a 
liat,  tho  brim  of  which  wan  ni'arly  IJ  ftH't  in  diainotor,  and  tho  crown,  which  was 
alMiut  i)  inohoH  high,  and  M-arooly  largo  enough  to  admit  tho  top  of  tho  hoad,  was 
Nlm{M'd  liko  a  Hugar-loaf  with  tho  onil  cut  olf.  The  texture  of  thin  Ntrange  hat  in  of 
a  Hno,  o|M'ii  work,  like  tho  dragon-Hy'f*  wi>>g.  It  appears  to  he  made  of  liorw«-hair 
varniMlu'd  over,  and  in  fastened  under  tho  chin  by  a  hand  strung  witli  hirge  ImmuIh, 
mostly  black  and  white,  but  occuMionally  re<l  and  yellow.  Some  of  the  elderly  men 
wore  stilT  gauxo  caps  over  their  hair,  which  was  formed  into  a  high  eonicul  knot  on 
the  top  of  tho  hoad.  Their  dross  consisted  of  l{K)se  wide  trowsers,  and  a  sort  of 
frock  reaching  nearly  to  tlie  kne<',  made  of  a  coarse,  open  grass  i-loth,  and  on  their 
fo<«t  neat  straw  sandals.  Thoy  wore  of  the  middle  size,  remarkably  well-made  and 
robust-looking. 

"  At  first  they  expressed  some  surprise  on  examining  our  chithes,  but  afterwards 
t(K)k  very  little  interest  in  anything  belonging  to  us.  Their  chief  anxiety  was  to 
get  rid  of  us  as  soon  as  possible.  This  they  expressed  in  a  manner  too  obvious  to 
bo  mistaken  ;  for,  on  our  wishing  to  enter  tho  village,  they  first  made  motions  for 
us  to  go  tho  otlier  way ;  and  when  wo  jjcrsevercd  thoy  took  us  rudely  by  tho  arms 
and  pusliod  us  off.  Being  very  desirous  to  conciliate  thoni,  wo  showed  no  impa- 
tience at  this  treatment ;  but  our  forbearance  hud  no  effect,  and  after  a  numltor  of 
vain  attempts  to  muko  ourselves  understood,  wo  went  away,  not  much  ploused  at 
their  bohuviour. 

"  On  leaving  these  unsociable  villagers,  we  went  to  the  top  of  the  highest  peak 
on  tho  island,  whence  we  were  oble  to  look  down  on  the  village  witliout  ourselves 
being  observed  by  the  natives.  The  women,  who  had  deserted  the  place  on  our 
landing,  had  now  returned.  Most  of  them  were  beating  rice  in  wooden  mortars, 
and  they  had  all  children  on  their  backs.  The  village  consists  of  forty  houses, 
rudely  constructed  of  reeds  plastered  with  mud ;  the  roofs  are  of  all  shapes,  and 
badly  thatched  with  reeds  nnd  straw,  tie<l  down  by  straw  ropes.  These  huts 
are  not  disposed  in  streets,  but  are  scattered  about  without  order,  and  without  uny 
neatness  or  cleanliness,  and  the  spaces  between  them  arc  occupied  by  piles  of  dirt 
and  pools  of  muddy  water.  The  valley  in  which  this  comfortless  village  is  situuted 
is,  however,  pretty  enough,  though  not  wooded.  The  hills  forming  the  valley  are 
of  an  irregular  shape,  and  covered  at  the  top  with  grass  and  sweet-scented  flowers  ; 
the  lower  parts  arc  cultivated  with  millet,  buckwheat,  a  kind  of  French  bean,  and 
tobacco,  which  lust  grows  in  greut  quantities. 

"  We  saw  bullocks  and  poultry  ;  but  the  natives  would  not  exchange  them  for 
our  money,  or  for  anything  we  had  to  offer.  They  refused  dollars  when  ottered  as 
u  present ;  and,  indeed,  appeared  to  set  no  value  upon  anything  we  showed  them, 
except  wine  glnsses  ;  but  even  these  they  were  unwilling  to  receive.  These  people 
have  a  proud  carriage,  with  an  air  of  composure  and  indifference  about  them,  and 
an  absence  of  curiosity,  which  struck  us  as  being  very  remarkable.  Sometimes 
when  we  succeeded,  by  dint  of  signs  and  drawings,  in  expressing  the  nature  of  a 


y.S*' 


.^;®«feo«^ses 


i  1 

i 

p 

M    ii 


»50 


EAST  ASIA. 


question,  they  treated  it  with  derision  and  insolence.  On  one  occasion,  being 
anxious  to  buy  a  clumsy  sort  of  rake  made  of  reeds,  I  succeeded  in  explaining  my 
wish  to  the  owner,  one  of  the  lowest  class  of  villagers.  He  laughed  at  first  good- 
humouredly,  but  immediately  afterwards  seized  the  rake,  which  was  in  my  hand, 
and  gave  it  a  rude  push  towards  me,  with  a  disdainful  fling  of  the  arm,  accompany- 
ing this  gesticulation  by  words,  which  seemed  to  imply  a  desire  to  give  anything 
upon  condition  of  our  going  away.  One  man  expressed  the  general  wish  for  our 
departure  by  holding  up  a  piece  of  paper  like  a  sail,  and  then  blowing  upon  it  in 
the  direction  of  the  wind,  at  the  same  time  pointing  to  the  ships,  thereby  denoting 
that  the  wind  was  fair,  and  that  we  had  only  to  set  sail  and  leave  the  island."  * 

Being  almost  closed  to  foreign  markets,  the  country  produces  little  beyond 
what  is  needed  for  the  local  demands.  As  in  China,  the  staple  food  is  rice,  besides 
which  wheat,  millet,  maize,  and  all  sorts  of  fruits  and  vegetables  are  cultivated. 
But  the  watery  climate  deprives  the  fruits  of  their  flavour,  as  it  does  the  flowers  of 
their  perfume.  Cotton,  introducc<l  about  five  hundred  years  ago,  is  widely 
cultivated,  and  ginseng  forms  an  important  item  in  the  contraband  trade  across  the 
border.  Tea  grows  wild  iu  the  south,  but  is  little  cultivated ;  this  beverage  being 
almost  restricted  to  the  upper  classes.  The  vine  also  yields  choice  grapes,  from 
which  no  wine  is  made ;  but  tobacco  is  largely  grown  on  the  uplands,  which  also 
produce  millet  and  hemp. 

Two  thousand  years  ago  masters  of  the  Japanese  in  most  arts,  the  Koreans  now 
excel  only  in  the  manufacture  of  certain  arms,  and  of  paper  prepared  from  the  pulp 
of  the  Bntssonetia  papyrifcra.  They  weave  and  dye  linens  and  cottons,  but  not 
woollen  stuffs,  which  would  be  so  useful  in  the  cold  season.  Silks  are  imported 
from  China  ;  but  the  superb  conic  head-dresses,  with  upturned  brims  about  a  yard 
broad,  are  chiefly  produced  in  the  island  of  Quelpaert,  from  bamboo  fibre  dyed 
yellow  or  black-lacquered.  The  native  houses  are  mostly  mere  mud  hovels  raised  on 
piles  and  thatched  with  rice  straw.  In  the  towns  the  finest  buildings  resemble 
those  of  Japan  in  their  structure  and  fittings.  Work  being  held  in  dishonour, 
misery  is  very  general.  For  the  upper  classes,  usury  and  legalised  piimder  of  all 
sorts  are  almost  the  sole  means  of  existence. 

"  From  these  and  other  causes,  the  Koreans  are  often  reduced  to  such  distress 
that  they  are  driven  to  cross  the  frontiers  into  Russian  territory,  where  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  race  may  be  more  conveniently  studied  than  in  the  coimtry  itself. 
Tlie  extensive  floods  and  famine  of  the  j'ear  1869  compelled  so  many  to  take 
refuge  in  the  neighbouring  lands  that  their  further  immigration  was  prohibited  by 
the  Russian  Government.  Some  of  the  unfortimate  fugitives  were  escorted  back 
to  Korea,  where  they  were  decapitated,  the  sentence  of  death  being  the  penalty 
attached  to  all  leaving  the  country  without  permission. 

"  Those  who  are  settled  in  Vladivostok  are  described  as  very  industrious.  They 
dress  in  white,  and  tie  up  their  hair  in  the  shape  of  a  horn.  Their  summer-hats 
resemble  those  of  the  Gilyaks,  except  that  they  are  hexagonal  instead  of  circular. 
I  went  into  some  of  their  houses,  the  walls  of  which  were  of  mud  plastered  on  a 

•  Op.  cit.  p.  2,  et  leg. 


Ja* 


—      -\<^a«- 


GOVERNMEN  T— ADMINISTBATION. 


861 


)ne  occasion,  being 
i  in  explaining  my 
ighed  at  first  good- 
!h  was  in  my  hand, 
he  arm,  accompany- 
e  to  give  anything 
eneral  wish  for  our 
blowing  upon  it  in 
ps,  thereby  denoting 
ive  the  island."  * 
jduces  little  beyond 
!  food  is  rice,  besides 
ibles  are  cultivated. 
it  does  the  flowers  of 
3ars  ago,    is  widely 
aand  trade  across  the 
this  beverage  being 
choice  grapes,  from 
i  uplands,  which  also 

rts,  the  Koreans  now 
epared  from  the  pulp 
and  cottons,  but  not 
.  Silks  are  imported 
id  brims  about  a  yard 
\  bamboo  fibre  dyed 
mud  hovels  raised  on 
st  buildings  resemble 
y  held  in  dishonour, 
jalised  plunder  of  all 

duced  to  such  distress 
)ry,  where  the  charac- 
in  the  country  itself, 
lied  so  many  to  take 
;ion  was  prohibited  by 
es  were  escorted  back 
ath  being  the  penalty 

jry  industrious.  They 
1.  Their  summer-hats 
al  instead  of  circular, 
of  mud  plastered  on  a 


framework  of  straw.  The  floor  was  of  beaten  earth,  with  a  mud  fireplace  in  the 
centre,  and  a  divan  round  the  walls.  In  the  best  houses  the  wife  had  a  separate 
apartment.  Fire  burns  in  the  centre  by  day,  and  the  flues  under  the  divan  are 
heated  morning  and  evening.  The  people  live  on  millet  and  rice,  and  use  a  spoon 
of  bronze  with  a  nearly  circular  flat  bowl.  Taking  one  from  a  man  who  was 
eating,  I  presented  the  spoon  in  one  hand  and  a  silver  coin  in  the  other,  intimating 
that  I  wished  to  buy;  and  when  he  had  taken  the  coin  the  master  of  (he  house 
came  up,  and,  receiving  from  me  the  spoon  and  from  the  man  the  coin,  he  gra- 
ciously returned  them  both,  implying  that  he  ffate  me  what  I  desired."  * 

Till  quite  recently  most  of  the  foreign  trade  was  carried  on  by  smuggling ; 
but  in  1876  the  Japanese  succeeded  in  obtaining  the  right  of  residence  in  their  old 
factory  of  Fusan  on  the  south  coast,  which  has  since  grown  into  a  respectable  town, 
with  some  3,000  inhabitants  in  1878,  and,  amongst  other  public  buildings,  a  temple 
raised  to  the  honour  of  the  old  Japanese  conquerors  of  the  land.  Its  exports 
consist  mainly  in  rice  and  raw  silks,  and  its  trade  has  increased  nearly  eightfold  in 
three  years.  It  is  now  connected  by  a  fortnightly  steam  service  with  Nagasaki. 
Another  concession  was  made  to  Japanese  diplomacy  in  1880,  when  the  port  of 
Gensan,  12  miles  south  of  Lazarev,  was  thrown  open  to  their  trade.  Its  harbour 
is  deeper  and  better  sheltered  than  that  of  Fusan,  and  it  has  already  begun  to  do 
a  brisk  traffic  in  peltries,  tobacco,  gold  dust,  and  "  sea  cabbage,"  Encouraged  by 
these  successes  Japan  has  become  more  importunate  in  her  demands,  but  all  efforts 
of  other  powers  to  obtain  a  footing  in  the  country  have  hitherto  failed. 


Government — Administration. 

In  Korea,  the  Sovereign  is  absolute  master  of  his  subjects,  who  render  him 
almost  divine  honours.  It  is  high  treason  to  utter  his  name  or  to  touch  his  person, 
while  to  be  touched  by  him  is  regarded  as  a  priceless  honour ;  those  who  have  been 
so  privileged  adorn  with  a  red  ribbon  the  part  of  their  dress  sanctified  by  the 
royal  finger.  A  mere  movement  of  this  finger  suffices  for  a  disgraced  minister  to 
drink  the  poisoned  cup.  Although,  as  in  China,  the  King  is  attended  by  an  official 
censor,  the  chief  duty  of  this  functionary  is  to  sing  the  praises  of  his  Majesty.  In 
the  capital,  a  school  of  design  is  exclusively  devoted  to  training  artists  occupied  in 
reproducing  his  sacred  features.  Yet  all  this  absolute  power,  unlimited  by  the 
laws,  is  a  pure  fiction,  for  the  nobles,  like  the  Japanese  daimios  of  old,  are  the  real 
rulers  of  the  land.  For  fear  of  seeing  thom  all  combine  against  the  throne,  the 
Sovereign  dare  not  aim  a  blow  at  any  of  their  privileges. 

OflScially  the  administration  is  a  copy  of  that  of  China ;  and  Seul,  the  capital, 
is  still  inspired  from  Peking.  On  the  anniversary  of  the  Emperor's  birth,  us  well 
us  on  the  new  year  and  at  the  equinoxes,  the  King  of  Korea,  surrounded  by  his 
family  and  courtiers,  prostrates  himself  publicly  in  the  direction  of  Peking.  When 
he  sends  an  en\  oy  to  the  Imperial  Court,  he  kneels  four  times  and  bums  incense ; 

•  H.  LanBdell'e  "Through  Sibeiia,"  1882,  ii.  p.  339. 


''<!^^»m^mmmm,*mms^ 


I* 

ll    " 


862 


EAST  ASIA. 


and  his  letter  of  homage  is  borne  in  ii  palanquin  of  honour  draped  with  yellow 
curtains,  lie  also  receives  the  Imperial  ambassador  in  the  attitude  of  an  inferior, 
while  his  consort  receives  from  I'eking  the  official  permission  to  assinno  the  title  of 
Queen.  At  the  King's, death  social  life  is  suspended  for  twerity-seven  months, 
during  which  peri(»d  sacrifices,  marriages,  and  burials  are  interdicted,  the  course  of 
justice  is  arrested,  and  all  human  and  animal  life  must  bo  respected. 

Next  to  the  King,  the  most  important  person  is  the  "  favourite,"  chosen  from 
the  nobles  or  ministers.  Through  him  all  favours  and  penalties  are  dispensed,  and 
without  his  advice  nothing  of  moment  is  transacted.  The  Supremo  Council  of 
State  consists  of  nine  members,  three  of  the  first  order,  the  "  Chief  of  the  Just 
Government,"  the  "  Just  Governor  of  the  Left,"  and  the  "  Just  Governor  of  the 


Fig.  162.— Han>kano,  oh  Sbul  Kitrb. 
Boole  1 :  600,000. 


13  Wltm. 


Right;"  six  of  the  second  order:  the  ministers  of  ranks  and  degrees,  of  finance, 
rites,  war,  justice,  and  public  works.  According  to  the  regulations  all  the  man- 
darins ought  to  belong  to  the  lettered  class,  receiving  their  promotion,  as  in  the 
Middle  Kingdom,  by  a  series  of  three  competitive  examinations  conducted  in  the 
Chinese  language.  But  these  regulations  have  long  been  a  dead  letter,  and  func- 
tions are  now  openly  sold  to  the  highest  bidder.  The  penal  code,  also  modelled  on 
that  of  China,  has  fortunately  been  considerably  modified,  thanks  to  the  natural 
gentleness  of  the  people.  Prisoners  are  often  temporarily  released  to  take  part  in 
the  feasts  of  the  family  or  of  the  new  year.  Great  honours  are  rendered  to  old  age, 
and  at  certain  times  septuagenarians  are  entertained  by  the  King ;  while  the  Queen 
gives  a  private  reception  to  a  deputation  of  virtuous  wives  and  daughters.     But 


'•ill 


'  .\fft'i»ii.:Mmik 


TOPOORArHY. 


8S8 


iipcd  with  yellow 
:lo  of  an  inferior, 
ssumc  the  titlo  of 
ity-scvcn  months, 
ited,  the  course  of 
ed. 

•ite,"  chosen  from 
iro  dispensed,  and 
premo  Comicil  of 
Jhief  of  the  Just 
Governor  of  the 


degrees,  of  finance, 
itions  all  the  man- 
iromotion,  as  iu  the 
18  conducted  in  the 
ad  letter,  and  func- 
le,  also  modelled  on 
nks  to  the  natural 
■used  to  take  part  in 
rendered  to  old  age, 
g ;  while  the  Queen 
nd  daughters.     But 


notwithstanding  all  this,  and  in  spite  of  many  Iwncficent  provisions  for  the  protec- 
tion of  the  people,  they  continue  none  the  less  to  In;  oppri'8.sc(l,  crushed  hv  taxes, 
and  exposed  to  famine  and  mist>ry.  The  faniino  of  1M77-8  is  said  to  have  curried  off 
a  million  of  Koreans,  or  about  one-eighth  (»f  the  wliole  population. 

The  army,  theoretically  comprising  ull  uble-bodied  uien,  or  ulM)ut  a  million  alto- 
gether, consists  in  reality  of  a  very  sinuU  number  of  combatants.  Before  the  (»pen- 
ing  of  Fusan  to  Japanese  trade  the  only  weapons  were  spears,  swords,  and  mat(!h- 
locks  of  the  sixteenth  century 

type.     At  present  the  Govern-  *'>8'  l*** — ^Admimstuative  Divibions  of  Korka. 

ment  imports  rifles  from   Nip-  scale  j :  10,000.000. 

]X)n,  and  manufactures  others 
on  the  same  model.  The 
guardsmen  of  Seul  are  drilled 
by  Japanese  officers,  und  gun- 
boats of  the  latest  description 
have  been  purchased  in  Japan. 
On  critical  occasions  the  tiger- 
hunters  are  called  out,  and  these 
were  the  men  pitted  against  the 
French  in  1866.  Till  recently 
the  guard  wore  coats  lined  with 
thick  wadding,  and  said  to  have 
been  proof  against  musket  shots 
and  sword  cuts.  But  this  uni- 
form was  so  cumbrous  that  it 
greatly  impeded  the  free  and 
rapid  movement  of  the  men. 
A  considerable  force  of  native 
troops,  equipped  in  this  way, 
would  have  been  almost  at  the 
mercy  of  a  handful  of  well- 
armed,  and  efficiently  com- 
manded European  soldiers. 

Topography. 

Hnnyanri,   or    Hanchung-fu,  _^__^____  isoMJie*. 

better  known  by  the  name  of 

Seul,  or  "  Capital,"  is  the  seat  of  the  Administration  and  the  royal  residence.  It  is  a 
largo  city,  built  on  no  particular  plan,  and  surrounded  by  a  wall  nearly  6  miles  in 
circumference.  According  to  the  census  of  1793  it  had  a  population  of  190,000,  but 
modern  writers  estimate  it  at  100,000  or  150,000.  Well  situated  at  the  southern  foot 
of  the  Hoa-shan  and  west  of  the  Kwan-ling  chain,  which  shelters  it  from  the  cold 
north-east  winds,  it  is  enclosed  southwards  by  a  bend  of  the  Han-kang  river,  which 


■•^«?B^1S!^^^^iES 


854 


EAST  ASIA. 


ii 


is  here  crossed  bj'  a  stone  bridge.  Towards  the  north-west  the  river  gradually 
develops  the  estuary  of  the  Po-hai  on  the  Gulf  of  Pechili,  with  which  it  communi- 
cates thi'ough  two  channels  nortli  and  south  of  the  large  island  of  Kanghoa.  But 
they  are  accessible  only  at  high  water,  and  according  to  the  pilots  all  craft  have  to 
anchor  12  miles  below  Seul.  The  capital  contains  no  conspicuous  buildings  except 
the  vast  royal  palace  and  the  academy,  which  is  attended  by  live  hundred  students. 

The  approaches  of  Seul  are  defended  by  four  strongholds,  including  Kanghoa, 
which  has  a  population  of  15,000  or  20,000.  In  the  neighbourhood  is  the  royal 
borough  of  Sou,  at  once  the  Windsor  and  Westminster  of  Korea,  where  the  kings  are 
reported  to  he  buried  in  "  golden  coffins."  In  18G8  some  American  and  German  adven- 
turers entered  the  country  secretly,  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  off  the  treasures  of 
this  necropolis,  but  being  discovered  in  time  they  were  driven  off  by  the  peasantry. 

Sunto  {^Siongto,  Kainriirj,  Karc/iaiiff),  the  ancient  capital,  destroyed  by  the 
Japanese  towards  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  has  again  acquired  great 
importance  as  a  trading  place.  Lying  nearer  to  the  coast  than  Seul,  it  is  more 
accessible  to  foreign  shipping.  A  still  more  ancient  capital  was  Piiiynn  (^Piengan), 
one  of  the  chief  cities  of  the  north-west  province.  Like  its  neighbour,  Ic/m,  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Yalu-kiang,  it  enjoys  a  considerable  local  traffic.  In  the  extreme 
south  the  chief  emporium  is  Taiku  {^Daikio^,  where  are  held  two  large  annual  fairs, 
at  which  the  imports  from  Japan  are  distributed. 

According  to  an  official  geography,  partly  translated  by  Dallet,  there  are 
altogether  one  hundred  and  six  walled  towns  in  the  kingdom. 

Korea  is  divided  into  eight  provinces,  all  bearing  Chinese  names,  and  each 
again  sulxiividefl  into  circuits  and  districts.  Communal  interests  are  intrusted 
to  the  Council  of  Elders,  who,  in  the  more  remote  villages,  enjoy  a  certain  degree  of 
independence. 

At  the  end  of  the  volume  will  lie  found  a  table  of  the  eight  provinces,  or  to 
("  routes  "),  as  they  are  called,  with  their  chief  towns. 


F 
I 


Since  these  sheets  were  passed  through  the  press,  news  has  reached  Europe  that 
Korea  has  at  last  been  induced  to  remove  the  barriers  of  exclusiveness  by  which 
she  has  hitherto  been  shut  out  from  the  rest  of  the  world.  In  the  month  of 
June,  1882,  the  Governm'  p.t  of  Seul  concluded  commercial  treaties  both  with  the 
United  States  and  England,  granting  to  these  States  equal  privileges  and  "  all  the 
advantages  of  the  most  favoured  nations."  By  one  of  the  clauses  of  the  treaty  with 
England,  the  importation  of  opium  is  expressly  forbidden. 


iWsl     tt 


the  river  gradually 
h  which  it  communi- 
d  of  Kanghoa.  But 
(ilots  all  craft  have  to 
nous  buildings  except 
ive  hundred  students. 
,  including  Kanghoa, 
ourhood  is  the  royal 
I,  where  the  kings  are 
in  and  German  adven- 
S  off  the  treasures  of 

off  by  the  peasantry. 
i\,  destroyed  by  the 
ignin  acquired  great 
than  Seul,  it  is  more 
:as  Piiiynn  (^Piengan), 
neighbour,  Ic/iu,  near 
iffic.  In  the  extreme 
wo  large  annual  fairs, 


I  . 


i 


:  : 


by   Dallet,   there   are 

ese  names,  and  each 
aterests  are  intrusted 
oy  a  certain  degree  of 

eight  provinces,  or  to 


3  reached  Europe  that 
xclusiveness  by  which 
d.  In  the  month  of 
treaties  both  with  the 
rivileges  and  "  all  the 
ascs  of  the  treaty  with 


>m 


"/■.■■■  "L  H'l'iWIii.i  IM 


o 

.« 

z 
O 
[- 

u 
a. 
< 


o 


mmmmtmimmmmmv' 


(Klj     hM 


m  M 


m 

'M  "M, 

mmmm 


CHAPTER  VII. 

JAPAN. 

jLTHOUGII  comprising  thotisatuls  of  islands  and  islets,  Japan  is  a 
very  small  state  compared  with  its  great  neighbour,  the  vast 
Chinese  Umpire,  of  which  it  looks  like  a  simple  geographical 
dependence.  But  notwithstanding  its  limited  size,  Japan  is  one  of 
the  most  interesting  countries  in  the  world,  both  as  regards  its 
physical  features,  its  inhabitants,  history,  and  especially  the  transitional  state 
through  which  it  is  now  passing.  Of  all  non-European  nations  the  Japanese 
ah)ne  have  fully  and  spontaneously  accepted  the  culture  of  the  West.  They  alone 
have  honestly  endeavoured  to  adopt  all  its  manifold  material  and  moral  conquests. 
They  had  not  the  misfortune,  like  so  many  other  pcojjles,  of  fir-st  losing  their 
political  in(le|)endence,  and  then  reluctantly  accepting  the  culture  of  their 
conquerors.  Nor  has  the  supremacy  of  a  foreign  religion  grouped  them  together, 
like  a  flock  of  sheep,  in  the  fold  of  their  evangelisers.  Thus  enjoying  full  political 
and  religious  liberty,  they  have  adopted  European  ideas,  not  as  subjects,  but  in  the 
character  of  free  disciples.  As  they  had  formerly  endeavoured  to  enter  the 
Chinese  world  of  thought  and  culture,  they  are  now  essaying,  with  a  certain 
youthful  ardour,  to  assimilate  themselves  to  the  West ;  whereas  the  Chinese 
themselves,  proud  of  their  ancient  civilisation,  conscious  of  their  latent  strength, 
and  distrustful  of  those  "  foreign  barbarians  "  who  came  bombarding  their  cities 
and  burning  their  palaces,  accepted  the  teachings  of  the  stranger  with  much 
hesitation,  and  under  the  pressure  of  irresistible  events.  Whatever  be  the  success 
of  the  experiment,  Japan  henceforth  belongs,  in  all  that  regards  scientific 
knowledge  and  industrial  progress,  to  the  comity  of  those  nations  amongst  whom 
has  been  developed  the  so-called  "  Aryan  "  or  "  Western  "  culture.  These  peoples, 
who,  at  the  opening  of  the  present  century,  numbered  collectively,  perhaps,  one 
hundred  and  fifty  millions  of  human  beings,  now  comprise  as  many  as  five  hundred 
millions,  distributed  over  Europe,  the  New  World,  parts  of  Africa,  Australia,  and 
Asia  itself. 

The  geographical  position  of  Japan  adds  a  special  value  to  this  new  accession 
to  their  numbers.     Lyin^  midway  between  San  Francisco  and  liondon  by  the  rout« 


mmm 


856 


KAST  ASIA. 


of  tho  Pacific  and  Rustua,  tho  Empire  of  the  *'  TUsiiifi;  Sun  "  coniplotos  the  zone  of 
lunds  brought  within  the  sphere  nl'  NN'cstorn  ideas  in  the  nortliern  hi  iniKph«Te.  It 
enahleH  Mast  and  West  to  join  hands,  whih>  l>y  sea  it  coniniands  all  the  hi^hnays 
1*'iidin^  towards  Malaynia,  Australia,  Inchi-China,  and  the  lands  Ixmlerin^  on  tho 
Indian  Ocean  and  Pacific  sealMtards.  Its  |M)pulution  is,  njori>()ver,  sutKciently  large 
and  industrious  to  enable  it  rapidly  to  aeipiiro  an  important  position  in  the  general 
niov(>meiit  of  commerce  and  modern  history.  Nipjiou  is  already  fuiuiliarly  sixiken 
of  as  tho  "  Great  liritain  "  of  the  extreme  East. 

FoUM EXTKXT NaMK. 

Tho  Japaneso  Archipelago  forms  u  perfectly  limited  gon^cnphicul  wliolc,  at 
least  if  in  it  be  still  included  the  island  of  Sakhalin,  taken  by  Russia  in  IST/)  in 
exchange  for  the  Kurile  group ;  for  Sakhalin  obviously  <-onstituteH  the  northern 
section  of  a  long  chain  of  olevaie<l  laiuls  continued  through  Yi*so  and  half  of  Hondo 
south-eastwards  to  tho  Ogasavara  ( Renin)  Archipelago.  Towards  tho  north-euHt 
this  axis,  which  stretches  for  about  l.HOO  miles  nearly  in  a  line  with  the  meridian, 
throws  oft'  tho  gently  curvwl  group  of  the  Kurilos,  connecting  tho  volcanic  area  of 
Yeso  with  that  of  Kamchatka.  Rut  in  the  extreme  East  all  lands,  the  continental 
coastlines  no  less  than  the  insular  groups,  uniformly  affect  this  curvilinear  disjM)si- 
tion.  Hondo  itself,  tho  chief  island  in  Japan,  describes  a  curve  whose  convex  side, 
like  that  of  the  Kurilos,  faces  seawards.  Further  south  the  Liu-Kiu  (Riu-kieu) 
Archipelago  is  traced  in  the  same  way  l)etween  Kiu-siu  and  Formosa.  Japan  thus 
consists  altogether  of  a  longitudinal  axis  and  of  three  arcs  following  successively 
in  the  direction  from  the  north-oast  to  the  south-west.  The  south  side  of  Yeso 
about  Volcano  Ray,  tho  Nik-ko  highlands  in  the  main  island,  and  the  central 
uplands  in  Kiu-siu,  form  so  many  nuclei  at  tho  intersection  of  these  various  lines, 
and  it  is  precisely  at  these  points  of  intersection  that  the  most  active  centres  of  tho 
Igneous  forces  are  found. 

The  three  curves  of  tho  Kurilos,  Hondo,  ond  Liu-Kiu  rise  alwve  tho  deepest 
known  oceanic  waters.  Hut  on  their  west  side  they  are  separated  from  the  main- 
land oidy  by  superficial  cavities.  Through  Sakhalin,  Japan,  so  to  say,  touches  the 
continent ;  while  through  Kiu-siu  and  the  intermediate  island  of  Tsu-sima  it 
approaches  Korea  in  waters  nowhere  more  than  400  feet  deep.  A  profound  trough 
is  dovelopcfl  only  between  the  Gulf  of  Tartary  and  the  two  straits  of  Tsu-sima, 
where  the  sounding  Ime  has  recorded  1,500  fathoms  near  Cape  Kozakov  on  the 
north-east  coast  of  Korea.  Towards  tho  middle  of  the  Sea  of  Japan  still  greater 
depths  probably  occur. 

Independently  of  tho  Kurile  and  Liu-Kiu  groups,  Japan  proper  consists  of  four 
largo  islands :  Yeso  or  "  Land  of  the  Rarbariuns,"  Hondo,  Sikok  or  the  "  Four 
Provinces,"  and  Kiu-siu  or  the  "  Nino  Districts ; "  besides  countless  islands  and 
islets,  some  attached  to  the  adjacent  coast  by  submarine  Ininks,  some  rising  as 
volcanoes  above  deep  waters.  The  native  geographers  often  speak  of  -3,850  islands, 
but  even  this  number  does  not  include  all  the  reefs  and  rocks  fringing  the  coasts. 


iSr®*"- 


FORM -EXTENT— NAME. 


as? 


)lrtos  thp  zone  of 
lu  iiiinplHTo.  It 
all  the  hinhwavH 
lM)r<U'iiiij;  (Ml  tho 
HiifHiii'iitly  lurjifo 
on  in  tlio  general 
lainiliurly  «iHiki'n 


nphieul  whole,  at 
UusHia  in  IST-i  in 
[utes  the  northern 
indhulf  of  Hondo 
•(Is  the  north-east 
vith  the  meridian, 
le  volcanic  urea  of 
Is,  the  continental 
urvilinear  <lisi)08i- 
whosc  convex  si<le, 
iu-Kiu  (Riu-kieu) 
nosa.     Japan  thus 
)wing  successively 
south  side  of  Yeso 
and  the  central 
;he8C  various  lines, 
!tivc  centres  of  tho 

al)ovc  the  deepest 
cd  from  the  main- 
to  say,  touches  the 
tid  of  Tsu-sima  it 
\  profound  trough 
ruits  of  Tsu-sima, 
pc  Kozakov  on  the 
Japan  still  greater 

)er  consists  of  four 
ok  or  the  "  Four 
mtless  islands  and 
ks,  some  rising  as 
k  of  3,850  islands, 
ringing  the  coasts. 


One  of  the  native  names  of  the  archijM'lago  is  Oho-ya-sima,  or  "  Kig^^*  Large 
Islands;"  Sado,  Tsu-sima,  Oki  and  Iki  in  the  Sea  of  •iiipaii,  mid  Aviid/.i  in  tlic 
Iidand  Sea,  iN-ing  also  included  amongst  the  main  islands.  On  th'  otiier  hand, 
Yeso  is  not  reckoned,  in-ing  till  reeently  regar<li'<l  as  a  foreign  land.  TIk'  main 
island  of  Hondo,  or  llnntsi,  that  is,  "(,'hief  Land,"  ealle«l  also  Tsiudo  or  "Central 
liund,"  and  Naitsi  or  "  Interior  Land,"  is  more  commonly  designated  in   I']iiri)|N< 

Fig.  164.— Ci  Kv««  OK  TH«  jArAKRim  Archii'rlaoo. 

Hoiil''  I  :  ;ii>,uuo,«w. 


enoMileo. 


by  the  name  of  Nip-pon,  or  Ni-hon.  But  this  term,  meaning  tho  "  Rising  Sun," 
in  reference  to  the  position  of  Japan  east  of  China,  belongs  projxjrly  to  tho  whole 
archipelago,  and  is  always  so  used  by  the  natives.  It  is  the  Ji-p6n-kweh  of  the 
Chinese,  whence  Marco  Polo's  Zipungu,  or  Zipang,  transformed  by  tho  Malays  into 
Zipang  and  by  Europeans  into  Japon,  Japan. 

Tho  history  of  this  word  Japan  is  extremely  curious  and  interesting.     It  is  not 
merely  synonymous,  but  absolutely  identical  with  the  corresponding  native  term 


■^i>«ttm 


KAHI  A»U. 


1 


Nip-|M»ii.  "The  ori>;iiiul  rhincw  fomi  wud  Nit-pon,  mpiniinf?  tho  Tiiiiul  of  the 
Uisiii^r  Sun,  lli<>  Orient,  from  ml,  tiww,  aiiil  /^o/j,  origin.  Tlie  word  wiis  in  iliiH 
fmin  luliiptrd  alMiiit  tli<>  m-Vfiitli  rcntiiry  ot'  the  CiuHtiiin  imii  liy  tlit>  'liipantHc,  who 
WMHi  aMMiiiiilati'd  tlir  t  tu  tin" /»,  wIn'Mcc  Xi/i-fxni,  Nip-lion,  and  t'Von  A\t/-/iiiii.  Hut 
in  riiina  tin*  /  wuh  HrHt  dmpprd,  whoneo  Ni-jmii,  or  Ni-pcti,  und  ihc  initial  iV 
tlirouyfli  Mon^olif  inHiu-ncf,*  aftcrwardH  clian^cil  t<) ./,  wlu'nco  .li-pcn,  thr  form  I'ur- 
ront  in  tho  tinif  of  Marco  lN»lo,  wIioho  Vt-nt'tian  Zipnnijii  dcrivon  directly  from  it, 
and  is  tin-  parent  of  all  the  Kuropean  vurieticM  of  the  word  Jit/mn.  TIuh  word  waH, 
08  Htated,  from  I  lie  tirst  applied  to  the  whole  archipelago,  and  not  exclusively  to 
the  larp>  island,  for  which  the  Japanese  had  no  general  name  till  that  of  Hondo, 
that  in,  Original,  or  Main  Division,  wus  intriMliiced  Homu  hIx  years  a^^u.  Iloncu  in 
our  maps  Nip-pon  oujj^ht  to  Iw  eitlior  altogether  supprcsHod  or  extended  to  the 
whole  group — thut  is,  made  synonymouH  w",th  Japan,  both  being  varieties  of  tho 
common  prototype  Nit-p :»n."  t 

Pkoorkss  ok  Discovery. 

Japan  was  first  reached  in  154:}  by  the  Poituf,'ue8e  navigators  Mendez  Pinto, 
Bit  go  Zamaito,  and  Horrallo,  driven  by  stress  of  veather  to  the  island  of  Tanega, 
nouth  of  Kiu-sin.  They  were  well  received,  oommerciul  relations  were  established 
between  Japan  and  Malacca,  und  marriages  were  even  contracted  between  the 
strangers  and  some  wealthy  native  women.  Hut  the  missionaries  soon  made  their 
appearance,  and  religious  wars  had  already  broken  out  before  the  close  of  the  six- 
teenth century.  The  Christians  were  ultimately  expelled  or  massacred,  and  tho 
country  closed  to  all  Europeans  except  the  Dutch,  who  were  allowed  to  retain  their 
factory  of  De-sima,  near  Nagasaki,  on  the  condition  of  spitting  or  trampling  on 
the  cross.  Confined  to  this  remote  corner  of  tho  archipelago,  the  Dutch  found 
opportunities  to  study  tho  natural  history  of  the  country  ond  tho  manners  of  its 
inhabitants,  and  the  great  works  of  Kiimpfcr  und  Siebold  still  rank  amongst  tho 
most  valuable  documents  we  possess  on  tho  Empire  of  the  Rising  Sun. 

Even  the  geographical  works  published  by  tho  natives  themselves  during  tho 
eighteenth  century  bear  evident  traces  of  European  influences.  On  a  general 
survey  of  the  land,  begun  in  1778  and  concluded  in  1807,  tho  learned  Yino  prepared 
0  map  of  the  islands  on  a  scale  of  1  :  500,000,  in  which  ho  endeavoured  to  reconcile 
thfc  observations  of  the  natives  with  the  contour  of  the  seaboord  as  traced  on  the 
Dutch  chorts.  Towards  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  Mogami  Tokoudai  had 
already  explored  and  described  the  Kuriles,  and  the  islands  off  the  south-west  coast 
of  Japan  had  been  visited  by  tho  two  bi  others,  Simo-dani.  Lastlj',  Mamiya  Rinzo 
surveyed  the  coast  of  Manchuria,  and  by  sailing  through  the  strait  between 
Sakhalin  and  Siberia,  which  now  bears  his  name,  proved  Sakhalin  to  be  an  island, 
thus  solving  a  problem  which  hud  successively  baffled  La  P^rouse,  Broughton,  and 

*  During  tho  Yen,  nr  Mongol  dynasty  (1260 — 1366),  the  Mandarin  or  court  language  woa  greatly 
influenced  by  the  ^Mongol  phonetic  system, 
t  A.  H.  Kcane's  •  Asiii,"  p.  609. 


11 1:!^  j 


PUOOUKHS  OF  DISCOVKIIY. 


KruBonntorn.  "Tlw  •liipiiiii>m>  have  viinquiHlu'd  iiic,"  <'xcliiiiiu'<l  KruKt'tiMfcrii,  on 
hcariiifi^  tin*  news  of  Maniiyti  Uinzo'H  Kiici't'ss.  In  |S|  I,  wIh-m  tli«>  I{uM«(iaii  travrllor 
Uulovuin  wuH  dutuiiioU  u  captive  hy  tho  •lupancHo  (iovcrniiivnt,  Kinzo  uiid  otlx't 


Fig.  10ft.     Htiiait  "k  Ymo. 


0lofl4Fe< 


64  Feet  and  upwanls. 
,  12  MUes. 


savants,  who  were  already  familiar  with  the  ordinary  methods  of  determining 
latitudes  and  longitudes,  acqmred  from  him  the  art  of  calculating  longitudes 
directly  by  observation  of  the  stars,  and  solar  and  lunar  distances. 


/^ 


a»h 


litHfiaVF-.^. 


860 


EAST  ASIA. 


Since  the  recent  changes  forcip'-era  and  natives  are  working  harmoniously 
together  in  the  exploration  of  the  country.  On  the  seaboard  the  Japanese  navy, 
jointly  with  those  of  other  powers,  takes  part  in  the  preparation  of  special  charts, 
while  geologists  and  minnig  engineers  study  the  relief  of  the  land  and  the  character 
of  the  rocks.  Several  maps  of  Nijj-pon  have  thus  been  already  prepared,  which 
are  superior  in  accuracy  to  those  of  Albania,  Macedonia,  and  other  parts  of  Europe. 
Altogether  the  people  display  a  surprising  love  of  geographical  studies.  Traders, 
excursionists,  and  artisans  seldom  make  a  trip  without  taking  a  map  of  the  district 


Fie.  166. — The  Kurile  Islands. 
Scale  1  : 9,000,000. 


I  Volcanoes- 


ISO  Milen. 


with  them,  and  guide-books  to  the  large  cities  and  famous  sights  of  the  land  are 
both  more  ancient  and  far  more  numerous  than  in  Europe. 

The  Kurile  Archipelago. 

The  chain  of  partially  submerged  mountains  forming  the  Kurile  Islands  develops 
a  curve  of  almost  mathematical  precision  some  400  miles  in  extent.  Separated 
from  Kamchatka  by  a  strait  scarcely  8  miles  wide  and  60  feet  deep,  the  "  Thousand 
Islands "  (Tsi-sima),  as  the  Japanese  call  the  group,  begin  with  the  volcanic 
Sumchu,  followed  by  the  long  and  mountainous  island  of  Paramushir,  which  forms 


I  ,^t\,,<.ifu>m  iPiwmiiyfH  I  <m§^ 


[?,  develops 
Separated 
Thousand 

[e  volcanic 
lich  forms 


THE  KURILE  ARCHIPELAGO.  361 

geographically  the  true  termination  of  Kamchatka.     But  south  of  Paramushir  a 


X 


to 


..■  1    ■  I    ,   '1' 


lift,, 


I;  'if  1  '■ 


iili 


broad  strait,  connecting  the  Pacific  with  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  completely  cuts  off 
Onnekotan,  Harainukotan,  Siaskotan,  Matua,  Rashua,  Simusir,  and  other  smaller 
50 


mmtuMmmlm 


mmMk 


-  'gi**'*^* 


«.Fi|i,  ,«^jfj<i 


862 


EAST  ASIA. 


islets,  which  are  the  upheaved  cones  of  mountains  rooted  in  the  depths  of  the  ocean. 
Beyond  these  a  continuous  chain,  broken  only  by  narrow  channels,  is  formed  by 
the  remaining  islands  of  Urup,  Yeturup,  the  largest  of  all,  being  nearly  half  the 
size  of  ti  0  whole  archipelago,*  and  Kunasiro,  also  a  considerable  island,  projecting 
far  into  the  bay  at  the  northern  extremity  of  Yeso.  The  two  last  named,  together 
with  the  neighbouring  Sikotan,  belonged  politically  to  Japan,  even  before  the 
treaty  by  which  she  acquired  the  whole  group,  and  here  is  consequently  the  hamlet 
or  "  station "  of  Tomari,  administrative  capital  of  this  almost  uninhabited  and 
little  known  archipelago.  Such  is  the  uncertainty  of  its  nomenclature,  that  it  is 
impossible  to  gather  from  the  confused  accounts  of  explorers  the  number  of  its 
active  volcanoes.  Milne  reckons  as  many  as  fifty-two,  of  which  the  highest  is  the 
snowy  AlaVd  (Araido),  on  the  north-west  side  of  Paramushir,  variously  estimated 
from  12,000  to  15,000  feet.  There  appear  to  be  two  on  Yeturup,  and  three  on 
Onnekotan ;  and  earthquakes  are  also  frequent,  causing  shipping  disasters  in  its 


i'ig.  168. — Section  ok  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk. 
Scale  1  :  i»,000,000. 


Boole  ot  Depth!  SO  times  that  of  Distances. 
____^_^____  aOO  Miles. 

Burrounding  waters,  or  drying  up  the  springs  on  the  islands.  Immediately  east  of 
the  archipelago  the  Pacific  attains  depths  of  8,000,  10,000,  and  even  15,000  and 
20,000  feet,  while  on  the  west  side  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk  nowhere  exceeds  2,600  feet- 
The  Kuriles  would  thus  seem  to  form  a  sort  of  advanced  scarp  of  the  mainland 
towards  the  great  depression  of  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

The  Island  of  Yeso. 

The  surface  of  Yeso  is  characterized  by  numerous  irregularities  in  its  general 
relief.  The  main  axes,  continuing  to  Sakhalin  southwards  and  the  Kuriles  south- 
westwards,  aio  fused  together  in  the  square  mass  of  Yeso,  where  they  break  into 
irregular  ridges,  everywhere  eroded  by  running  waters,  and  presenting  much 
uncertainty  in  their  general  direction.     The  most  regular  chain   is  developed 

*  Area  of  the  Kuriles :  6,930  sq.  miles ;  of  Yeturup  :  '2,760  sq.  miles. 


'il   4 


mmmm 


mm 


THE  ISLAND  OF  YESO. 


868 


parallel  with  the  southernmost  of  the  Kuriles,  terminating  in  Cape  Siretoko  at  the 
extremity  of  the  long  peninsula,  wliicli  has  an  absolute  elevation  of  5,480  feet. 
Further  south  the  Solfatara  of  Itasibc,  or  Devil's  Mountain,  rises  some  3,000 
feet  higher,  while  the  range  falls  gradually  towards  the  interior.  But  the 
Tokatsi-take  and  other  culminating  points  of  the  island  towards  the  south-east, 
within  30  mile  <  xroi  i  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  have  an  altitude  of  over  8,300  feet. 


Fig.  169. — TsvoAR  Strait,  between  Yebo  and  Hondo. 
Scale  1  :  760,000. 


!8 


general 
south- 
uk  iuto 
T  much 
veloped 


0  to  30  Jteet.  180  to  6B0  Feet.     680  Feet  and  upwnrda. 

— — __-^_—  10  MUea. 

From  this  district  the  largest  rivers,  the  Tesiho,  Naka-gava,  Isikari,  and  Tokatsi, 
diverge  towards  the  north-west,  the  south-west,  and  south. 

Yeso  is  evidently  one  of  the  oldest  upheaved  lands  on  the  globe.  It  is  every- 
where deeply  furrowed  by  the  action  of  running  waters,  and  nearly  all  the 
lacustrine  cavities  have  had  time  to  be  drained  except  near  the  coast,  where  a  few 
more  recent  lakes  have  been  formed  near  the  volcanoes,  by  which  the  primitive 


— ^-       -  JJIWIIBtMMHWll'MlUIIIIWUmWatWK 


mmmimi-: 


pr 


'^.  i.f'^T^' 


864 


EAST  ASIA. 


.11 


relief  of  the  land  has  been  diversely  modified.  These  lakes  lie  altogether  in  the 
east  aud  amid  the  uplands,  strotehiiifjr,  like  a  vast  amphitheatre,  around  Volcano 
Bay,  at  the  south-west  corner  of  the  ishind.  The  relief  has  also  been  modified  by 
considerable  upheavals  due  probably  to  igneous  forces.  Some  of  the  highest 
mountains  arc  volcanoes,  conspicuous  amongst  which  is  llisiri,  or  Delangle  I'eak, 
rising  near  the  north-west  angle  to  a  height  of  0,000  feet.  The  volcanoes  run 
mainly  north-east  and  south-west,  in  continuution  of  the  nuiin  axis  of  the  Kuriles, 
and  here  the  igneous  rocks  consist  chiefly  of  trachytes,  basalts,  and  more  recent, 
lavas.  The  most  recent  eruptions  that  have  occurred  in  Yeso  were  those  of 
Komaga  in  1852  and  18o0,  and  Tarumai  in  1807  and  1874.  Komaga  is  said 
to  have  been  much  higher  before  the  outbreak  of  1852,  when  the  upper  cone  fell  in, 
and  the  ashes  were  wafted  by  the  winds  to  the  Kuriles,  the  nearest  of  which  lies 
260  miles  to  the  north-east.* 

Notwithstanding  its  proximity  to  Nip-pon,  Yeso  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
connected  with  the  southern  island,  during  recent  geological  epochs.  The  shortest 
distance  between  them  is  only  about  11  miles  and  the  greatest  depth  scarcely  more 
than  120  fathoms.  Yet  no  soundings  seem  to  point  ut  the  former  existence  of  a 
connecting  barrier,  while  a  comparison  of  the  flora  and  fauna  on  the  opposite  sides 
of  the  intervening  Tsugar  Strait  shows  that  they  must  have  been  separated  for  a 
vast  period  of  time.  In  the  southern  portions  of  Yeso,  the  woods  are  almost  wholly 
composed  of  hard  wood,  whilst  in  Nip-pon  conifers  are  abundant.  In  Nip-pon  we 
find  a  sheep-faced  antelope  or  goat,  a  monkey,  and  a  black  bear,  none  of  which 
exist  in  Yeso.  The  avifauna  of  the  two  islands  also  present  several  striking  points 
of  contrast.  Thus  the  jaj's  and  woodpeckers  are  of  different  species,  and  in  Yeso 
there  is  a  birch  grouse  which  is  not  to  be  found  in  Nip-pon,  while  ptarmigan  and 
pheasants  are  confined  to  the  southern  island.  Hence  Milne  concludes  that  the  two 
lands  have  not  been  connected  for  many  ages.* 

The  Mainland  or  Hondo. 

In  the  main  island  of  Hondo,  which  is  separated  from  Yeso  by  the  narrow 
Tsugar  or  Matsmayo  Strait,  most  of  the  ranges  run  parallel  to  each  other  in  the 
direction  from  the  north-north-east  to  the  south-south-west,  and  are  here  and 
there  blended  together  by  side  branches,  transverse  ridges,  and  lines  of  volcanic 
eruption.  Nearly  all  the  peaks  over  6,500  feet  in  height  are  volcanoes,  whose  lava 
streams  hrxxe  been  at  different  epochs  diffused  over  the  granites  and  schists 
constituting  the  backbone  of  the  archipelago.  The  ashes  ejected  by  the  craters, 
and  carried  by  the  winds  to  every  part  of  Hondo,  have  contributed,  with  the 
alluvia,  to  form  the  soil  of  the  limited  low-lying  tracts.     I'or  most  of  the  land  is 

•  The  chief  elevations  of  Yeso  are  :  — 


Feet. 

Husibe  Oni 8,620 

Tokatsi-Take 8,300 

YuvariDake 8,100 

Sappuro-Take 6,600 

Siribetz-Take 6,100 


Feet. 

YebosiDak' 6,009 

Utsiura 4,300 

Yezan 4,220 

Tarumai 3,000 

O'Akan 2,000 


t  "The  Stone  Age  in  Japan,"  in  Journal  of  JiitKrop.  Institute,  May,  1881. 


^, ■.,„■„, 


THE  MAINLAND  OF  HONDO. 


865 


everywhere  broken  by  u  succession  of  bills  and  dales,  so  that  the  combined  area  of 
all  the  plains  scarcely  exceeds  one-eighth  of  the  whole  surlace.  The  mountains, 
however,  are  generally  rounded  otf  and  of  easy  access,  seldom  presenting  those 
rugged  crags  and  precipitous  heights  characteristic  of  most  Alpine  regions.  The 
almost  total  absence  of  sandstones  and  limestones,  which  tend  to  become  broken 
into  vertical  masses,  the  copious  rainfall,  and  the  natural  richness  of  the  vegetation, 
have  given  to  the  Japanese  land.scapcs  a  preponderance  of  gently  imdulating  lines, 
and  moderately  sloping  valleys  watered  by  rapid  but  winding  streams.     Here  and 


Fig.  170. — Mouths  of  the  To.ne  uava. 
Boale  1 :  810,000. 


EofG 


0  to  64  Feet. 


G4  to  leo  Feet. 


160  Feet  and 
upwards. 

16  MUcs. 


Feet. 
6,009 
4,300 
4,220 
3,000 
2,000 


there  the  higher  crests  are  streaked  with  lines  of  perennial  snow,  which,  according 
to  Milne,  in  some  places  develop  miniature  glaciers. 

In  the  north-west  a  low  schistose  range,  separated  from  the  rest  of  Hondo  by 
the  deep  valley  of  the  Kitakami  River,  runs  parallel  with  the  main  axis  of  the 
island.  This  outer  chain,  as  it  may  be  called,  runs  northwards  to  Sendai  Bay, 
whose  shallow  waters  are  studded  with  the  "  eight  hundred  islands  "  of  Matsu- 
sima,  mostly  covered  with  shrubs  and  cryptomeriae,  and  forming  an  aquatic  garden, 
which  the  Japanese  regard  as  one  of  the  "  three  wonders  "  of  their  country.  The 
base  of  the  islands  has  been  worn  by  the  water  into  natural  caves  and  galleries, 
while  grottoes  have  been  artificially  excavated  on  the  steeper  slopes.  One  of  the 
peaks  has  also  been  carved  into  the  form  of  a  colossal  Buddha. 

South  of  the  Sendai  Plain  the  range  resumes  its  fonner  direction,  but  still 
remains  completely  isolated  by  broad  valleys  from  the  highlands  of  the  interior. 
Formerly  it  terminated  southwards,  also  in  a  gulf.  But  this  inlet  has  been  filled 
up  by  the  alluvia  of    the  Tone-gava,  which,  after  watering  the  plain  with  ite 


iiiiirwr- 


I    iniilMiiiii 


866 


EAST  ASIA. 


innumerable  channels,  winds  round  the  hilly  district,  stretching  cast  of  Yedo 
(Tokio)  Bay.  The  sedimentary  mutter  brought  down  by  this  river,  encroaching 
simultaneously  on  both  sides,  has  completely  elFaccd  the  old  marine  inlet,  so  that 
the  island  is  now  connected  with  the  mainland  by  marshy  plains,  which  have  become 
gradually  solidified.      Hut  although  thus  now  rooted  in   the  mainluiid,  the  three 


Fig.  171.— OcA-siMA  Irland,  and  Ohokata-hatsuio  Ska. 
Scale  1  :  600,000. 


,  12  HOes. 


sections  of  the  eastern  coast  range  are  distinguished  from  all  the  others  by  the 
total  absence  of  volcanoes.  Yet  along  the  base  of  these  schistose  hills  the  most 
imequivocal  evidences  have  been  discovered  of  the  upheaval  of  the  land.  The 
little  port  of  Kisenuma,  lying  north  of  Sendai  Bay,  was  still  much  frequented  till 
the  middle  of  the  present  century,  but  is  now  abandoned,  in  consequence  of  the 


wf^^'T' 


THE  NTKKO  HIGHLANDS— A  BUDDHIST  LEGEND. 


867 


gradual  shoaling  of  the  channel.  Yet  here  there  is  no  river  to  wiish  down  detritus, 
nor  huvc  the  tides  formed  any  bar  across  the  harbour.  During  the  present  genera- 
tion the  coast  near  Kisenuma  seems  to  have  been  upheaved  altogether  as  much  as 
6  feet.  The  drying  up  of  the  Tokio  plains  and  neighbouring  inlet,  now  watered 
by  the  Tone-gava,  would  thus  appear  not  to  be  due  so  much  to  the  alluvia  washed 
down  as  to  the  upheaval  of  the  laud. 

On  the  west  side  another  coast  range  runs  parallel  with  the  main  axis  of  Hondo, 
but  being  mostly  submerged,  this  chain  can  only  be  traced  by  isolated  masses 
throughout  the  greater  part  of  its  course.  The  first  of  these  forms  a  peninsula  at 
the  northern  extremity  of  the  island,  beyond  which  follow  the  Ivaki-yama  and  the 
Oga-sima,  or  "  Stag  Island,"  connected  with  the  mainland  by  a  long  strip  of  sand, 
and  culminating  with  8amukaze-yama,  2,550  feet  high.  Thus  is  formed  the 
landlocked  inlet,  or  "  great  lake  "  of  Ohokata  Hatsiro-gata,  which  communicates 
with  the  sea  through  the  Funa-gava  channel,  navigable  by  vessels  drawing  16  feet. 
Further  south  follow  the  Tobi-sima,  Avo-sima,  Sado,  and  the  peninsula  of  the  Noto, 
by  which  Toyama  Bay  is  enclosed  on  the  west.  To  the  same  western  coast  range, 
perhaps,  also  belong  the  Oki  Islands,  lying  180  miles  further  south,  some  of  whose 
peaks  are  of  igneous  origin. 

The  main  range  itself  begins  with  the  magnificent  Osore-san  volcano,  which 
rises  to  a  height  of  5,250  feet  between  Tsugar  Strait  and  Avomori  Bay,  over 
against  Yeso.  Beyond  the  bay  the  chain  is  continued  uninterruptedly  to  the 
centre  of  the  island  at  a  mean  elevation  of  2,000  to  3,000  feet,  above  which  the 
summits,  mostly  extinct  volcanoes,  rise  to  an  average  height  of  5,000  feet.  But 
the  central  ridge  is  flanked  right  and  left  by  still  more  imposing  igneous  cones, 
amongst  which  some  of  the  most  conspicuous  are  the  Tiokai-san  (8,000  feet),  snow- 
clad  for  nine  months  in  the  year,  and  the  Bantai-san  (6,100  feet),  which  reflects 
its  wooded  slopes  in  the  neighbouring  lake,  Inavasiro,  and  from  the  summit  of 
which  a  superb  view  is  afforded  of  the  surrounding  plains  and  highlands. 

The  Nikko  Highlands — ^A  Buddhist  Legend. 

In  this  section  the  central  range  is  deflected  westwards  to  another  parallel 
ridge,  which  in  its  turn  forms  the  water-parting  between  the  Tone-gava  and  Tenriu 
on  the  east,  and  the  Tzikuma,  or  Sinano-gava,  on  the  west.  Here  is  the  magnificent 
group  of  the  Nikko- san  Highlands,  renowned  throughout  the  empire  for  their 
snowy  peaks,  wooded  slopes,  sparkling  streams,  and  romantic  beauties  of  every 
sort.  The  Nantai-san,  towering  to  a  height  of  8,450  feet  above  the  sea,  close  to 
the  picturesque  lake  Tsiusenzi,  is  one  of  the  sacred  mountains  of  Japan,  and  the 
glorious  avenues  of  this  region  are  probably  unrivalled  in  the  whole  world. 
"  Speak  not  of  beauty  till  you  have  seen  Nikko,"  says  the  local  proverb.  Owing  to 
its  proximity  to  Tokio,  this  place  is  visited  by  multitudes  of  sightseers  during  the 
summer  months. 

At  Nikko  there  is  an  ancient  Buddhist  temple  said  to  have  been  erected  by  the 
famous  saint  Sho-do  Sho-nin,  concerning  whom  a  curious  legend  has  been  preserved. 


nm»  IMftfeTJWfc.^  xmCBWCinCW  v^y.-y.  -VC4«MJ 


IfcSiMiiiliiiiiHWM  I  a^'wjiiiJigJiiiw'jiWiiwMb^-- 


5J08 


EAST  ASIA. 
Fig.  172. — NiKKO'-PoRTico  OK  THK  Tkmpi.e  or  the  Folk  Dkaookh. 


From  his  earliest  years  this  saint  devoted  himself  to  the  worship  of  the  gods,  and 
passed  his  time  in  raising  toy  pagodas  of  earth  and  stone  in  their  honour,  therehy 


.  .i^f^imimtfm.i 


ASAMA-YAMA  AND  KUZI-SAN. 


800 


enrtiinj?  from  his  playnmtoH  the  title  «»f  "  tcniplo  Imildor."  When  twenty  years  of 
iijye  he  Heeretly  left  liis  liome,  and  retired  to  the  cave  of  the  Thousand- Handed 
Kwan-non  at  Idzarii.  Here  he  had  a  dream  in  midwinter  of  u  f^reat  mountain  to 
the  north,  on  tho  numniit  of  wliich  hiy  a  sword  over  three  feet  in  len^jlh.  On 
awaking  he  set  out  for  the  indieated  spot,  and  notwitlistnndinjf  the  deep  snow,  at 
hist  behehl  the  ohjeet  of  his  vision.  Aseendin;?  the  moan  lain  he  ■ontinued  to  h"ve 
an  austere  life  for  three  years,  diu'inf";  which  he  was  fed  on  fruits  liroujjlit  to  him 
by  supernatural  apfcncy.  lie  tlien  returned  to  Id/aru  and  remained  f(»r  tlve  years 
as  n  novice  in  a  temple  administered  by  Chinese  priests.  Returning  to  the 
mountain  now  called  Kobu-ga-hura,  he  beheld  from  its  summit  four  miraculous 
clouds  of  different  colours  rising  straight  uj)  into  the  sky,  and  he  at  once  set  off  to 
reach  them,  carrying  his  praycr-lxioks  and  images  in  a  bundle  on  his  back.  But 
his  advance  l)eing  barred  by  u  broud  impetuous  river,  he  fell  upon  his  knees  in 
prayer,  when  there  appeared  on  tho  opposite  bank  a  gigantic  being  with  skulls 
strung  round  his  neck,  who  promised  to  help  him  as  he  had  once  helped  the  pilgrim 
11 'wen  Tsang  over  the  river  of  Golden  Sand.  Saying  which  he  flung  across  a  pair 
of  green  and  blue  snakes,  whereupon  the  waters  were  spanned  by  a  long  bridge, 
like  a  rainbow,  over  which  the  saint  crossed  to  the  other  side.  Then  he  had  a  vision 
informing  him  that  the  hill  to  the  north  was  the  "  Mount  of  the  Four  Gotls,"  the 
abode  of  the  Azure  Dragon,  the  Vermilion  Hird,  the  AVhite  Tiger,  and  the  Gloomy 
Warrior.  On  reaching  the  summit  he  found  that  this  was  the  goal  of  his  journey, 
for  there  were  the  four  clouds  rising  up  before  him  Here,  therefore,  he  built  a 
shrine  for  the  image  of  the  Thousand- Handed  Kwan-non,  and  named  it  the 
"Monastery  of  the  Four  Dragons."     Sho-do  Sho-nin  died  in  a.d.  817. 

AsAMA-YAMA    AND   FuZI-SAN. 

The  water-parting  skirting  the  east  side  of  the  Sinano  Valley  is  also  crowned 
by  man  \  volcanic  peaks,  conspicuous  amongst  which  are  Sirane-yama  and  Adzma- 
yama,  the  former  of  which  was  the  scene  of  a  violent  eruption  in  1871.  In  the 
neighbourhood  are  some  petroleum  wells,  one  of  which  has  been  sunk  to  a  depth  of 
740  feet.  Farther  south  the  main  range  is  intersected  by  a  chain  of  volcanoes 
running  north-north-west  and  south-south-east,  amongst  which  the  most  famous 
are  the  Asama-yama  and  Fuzi-san.  The  former,  which  attains  an  elevation  of 
8,400  feet,  is  one  of  the  highest  and  most  active  in  the  archipelago.  The  memory 
still  survives  of  the  tremendous  eruption  of  1783,  when  the  surrounding  country 
'  was  covered  by  lava  streams  and  pumice,  when  forty-eight  villages  were  destroyed, 
and  manv  thousand  lives  lost. 

A  vast  river  of  molten  rock  utterly  ruined  a  famous  primeval  forest  of  con- 
siderable extent  besides  a  large  number  of  hamlets  on  the  north  side.  Red  hot 
masses  of  stone  were  hurled  in  this  direction  as  well  as  towards  the  east  and  south- 
east, while  a  dense  shower  of  ashes  turned  the  day  into  night.  The  neighbourhood 
of  the  Nake-sen-do  between  Oiwake  and  the  Usui-toge,  which  had  formerly  been 
highly  cultivated,  was  suddenly  converted  into  a  wilderness,  and  a  large  number  of 


,jmim 


mmmtm 


mmttmnmiti 


-\mni' 


070 


EAST  ASIA. 


villiipt's  ill  'l>i«  iliHtric*  aiul  in  the  AfifatNumii  flrpiirtinont  of  thoprovinrrof  Kcxlzuko 
were  s\\v\A  iiway  with  all  their  iiilnil)itaiits.  MonkfyN,  (Uht,  ddj^H  and  oIIut  aiiiiiiulM 
woro  l)uri('(l  iiiulcr  tin-  .sliowtTs  of  red  hot  »tono«  and  uhIivh,  nhilo  thow  tiiat  had 
('Hcapcil  inmu'diatc  (h'Mfriiction  pcriHlicd  of  hunger.  Kor  tyu'  fullinff  rock,  lava  and 
aslu's  had  rovorod  tho  ground  to  u  depth  of  from  two  t«)  tivc  ftft  for  many  miles 
roiMul  ahout,  and  had  completely  dostroyed  the  vegetation.  Another  ernption,  hut 
of  a  much  less  formidahle  charucter,  took  place,  in  tho  your  1M70,  when  the  ashes 
ejected  from  tho  crater  formtnl  u  luyer  soveral  inclioH  in  thickness  on  tho  roofs  of 
tho  neighl)(turing  houses 

The  crater  of  Amimu-yumu  is  circular,  and  nearly  u  mile  in  cireumfercnco,  with 
vertical  honeycomlxHl  and  churrcd  sides,  usually  full  of  sulphurous  vapours  welling 
from  the  hottom  and  from  all  tho  crevices  in  its  rocky  walls.  On  tho  south  side 
of  the  volcano  are  two  precipitous  r(M;ks,  ono  outsiilc  the  other,  separated  by  a  con- 
siderahle  intervening  space.  These  rocks,  ono  of  which  is  nearly  (covered  with 
vegetatittn,  look  like  the  remains  of  two  successive  concentrii!  craters,  the  present 
cone  being  the  third  and  most  recent.  Unfathomable  crevusstw  extend  tho  greater 
part  of  tho  way  down  to  its  base,  and  from  the  summit,  which  may  be  reached  in 
less  than  six  liours,  an  extensive  view  is  obtained  of  the  surrounding  highlands. 

Hut  the  typical  volcano  of  the  archipelago  is  tho  sacred  (Fuzi-san  Fusi-yama), 
guardian  of  the  land,  and  the  most  hallowed  object  in  the  empire.  Formerly  wor- 
shipped by  the  Yama-buzi  Buddhist  sect,  this  mountain,  which  takes  its  name 
from  the  flowering  Fuzi  (  V'^i/ntrriu  Japonciimii'^  co\ormg  its  slopes,  is  the  everlasting 
theme  of  j)oetry  and  art,  and  is  reproduced  often  in  a  somewhat  conventional  man- 
ner on  lacquer- ware,  porcelain,  woven  fabrics,  earthenware,  fans,  books,  furniture, 
and  artistic  articles  of  every  kind.  To  give  it  a  greater  appearance  of  height,  it 
is  usually  represented  with  steep  sides  and  pointed  peak,  whereas  in  reality  the 
slope  is  very  gentle,  yet  still  high  enough  to  dominate  all  the  surrounding  lands, 
and  display  every  transition  of  climate,  from  the  rich  semi-tropical  plains  at  its  base, 
to  tho  snows  of  an  almost  Arctic  region  on  its  rounded  crest.  Covered  with  snow 
for  ten  months  in  the  year,  and  glittering  in  the  bright  solar  rays  against  the  azure 
or  hazy  sky,  it  often  mergoe  imperceptibly  in  the  circumambient  aerial  spaces.  It 
exceeds  by  some  !i,000  feet  most  of  the  other  Japanese  volcanoes,  and  completely 
dwarfs  all  eminences  within  the  horizon.  Almost  round  in  form,  its  base  has  a 
circumference  of  no  less  than  90  miles,  and  according  to  the  local  legend  its  huge 
mass  was  upheaved  in  a  single  night  during  a  terrific  eruption  in  the  year  286  of 
the  old  era,  when  lake  Biva  was  also  formed.  At  present  eruptions  take  place 
only  at  long  intervals,  not  more  than  six  having  been  recorded  since  the  year  799. 
The  last,  which  occurred  in  1707,  continued  for  a  space  of  two  months,  during 
which  the  secondary  cone  of  Hoyei-san  (9,500  feet)  was  formed  above  a  crevasse 
on  the  south  slope.  The  neighbouring  plains  were  buried  in  ashes  to  a  depth  of 
10  feet,  whole  villages  disappeared,  the  sky  was  darkened  above  Yedo,  60  miles  off, 
and  black  clouds  of  dust  were  borne  seawards  beyond  the  bay.  Since  then  the 
towns  and  villages  have  reappeared,  and  the  15,000  or  20,000  yearly  pilgrims  have 
resumed  their  visits  to  the  holy  mount.     Those  who  make  the  ascent  are  clothed 


I 


"^■•*!T"disfr' 


^^iW 


.■.,•»  »,i->/«-  ■ 


THi:  HKJULANDS  OF  SOUTH  lloXDO. 


871 


in  whito,  and  on  rcnphin^f  flm  crfttor  drink  flrsf  of  the  "  f^ttldcn  H|irin>,'"  iitid  llicii 
of  tlio  "  HilveT  Nprinff,"  iiftiT  which,  at  ii  j^ivcii  Migiial,  they  rinj,'  thrir  Ixlls  iiiid  lull 
proHtnitn  in  honour  of  the  Nun.  Hctuniinjf  to  the  ha.sc,  they  j^ct  t'  i  fr  white  rok'N 
NtanijH'd  by  tho  priest  of  u  toniph',  lK'(|Uca(hin>(  them  un  a  prt'cious  hcirhtom  fron> 
father  to  non.  Sir  Ilutlierford  Ah-oi'k  was  the  firHt  Knmpean  to  aNeend  Ku/i  in  IMIK), 
wince  when  the  not  very  dilKndt  feat  has  been  performed  hy  huudredM  of  travellern. 
The  crater,  alnrnt  !)00  yards  in  diameter,  contains  two  diNtinct  fiinnelH,  which  niuv 
ho  doMceuded  by  mounH  of  proj«'ctin>|;  U;df;feH. 

TllK    Ill(i|(l,.VNI)S  OK   fcJoiITH    HoNrM). 

The  system  to  which  Fuzi  iK'ton^^N  in  continued  AouthwardH  to  form  the  long 
volcanic   peuiusulu  of   Idzu,  ut   the  neck  of   which  ia  the  picturesque   district 


Fig.  173.-  OuLr  OF  Simoda  and  Oho.rima. 

ScbIp  1  !  i,!!00,nno. 


I39*50, 


0  to  itX)  itai. 


ItiU  t<i  04U  Fiot. 


640  I'eet  and  upwanU. 
84  Mile*. 


of  Sagami.  Here  several  watering-places  have  sprung  up  near  the  hot  springs, 
and  the  town  of  Hakone,  on  the  charming  lake  Asino-umi,  has  become  a  favourite 
summer  retreat.  East  of  this  place  the  route  between  Tokio  and  Kioto  crosses  the 
range  by  the  Hakone  pass  (2,800  feet),  which  was  formerly  defended  by  a  fortified 
Kwan  or  gate,  forming  the  central  barrier  of  Nip-pon,  whence  the  terms  Kwan-to 
and  Kwan-sai  ("  East  of  the  Gate,"  and  "  West  of  ti.c  Gate")  applied  to  the  two 
divisions  of  Hondo  lying  east  and  west  of  the  meridian  of  Hakone.  The  Idzu 
peninsula  terminates  southwards  with  a  lofty  blnff  overlooking  the  town  and  bay 
of  Simoda,  where  the  islet  of  Mikomoto  (Rock  Island),  memorable  for  the  ship- 
wreck of  the  Nile  in  1867,  is  now  surmounted  by  a  lighthouse.  Simoda  Bay  was 
also  the  scene  of  a  remarkable  submarine  earthquake  in  1854,  when  all  the 
shipping  in  the  harbour  was  destroyed,  and  the  Russian  vessel  the  Diana  rolled 
over  and  over  forty-three  times  in  thirty  minutes. 

East  of  Simoda  lies  the  island  of  Oho-sima,  called  the   Vries  Volcano  by 


'.;    '^\   '.'* 


872 


EAST  ASIA. 


Europeans,  which  is  the  most  active  on  tnis  seaboard.  It  was  in  a  state  of 
eruption  when  vidited  by  Broughton  in  1757,  and  broke  out  again  in  1870,  when 
an  islet  was  upheaved  between  31°  and  32°  N  latitude. 

South  of  the  granitic  chain  running  north-west  of  Fuzi-san,  Hondo  is  crossed 
from  sea  to  sea  by  a  transverse  depression,  in  which  is  situated  the  charming  lake 
Suva.  Immediately  beyond  this  depression  the  land  again  rises  to  a  high  range, 
running  north-east  and  south-west  between  the  basins  of  the  Tenriu  and  Kiso 
Rivers.  Parallel  to  this  is  the  Hida  chain,  which  falls  from  the  coast  gradually 
down  to  the  valley  of  the  Kiso-gava,  and  which  is  the  most  rugged  and  wildest 
of  all  the  Hondo  mountains.  Being  snow-clad  for  a  longer  period  than  any  other 
in  the  island.  Rein  gives  it  the  name  of  the  "  Snowy  Range,"  and  it  is  crossed 
from  east  to  west  by  the  Harinoki  and  Hida  passes,  both  8,000  feet  high.  It  is 
crowned  by  the  Tate-yama,  On-take,  and  Mi-lake,  attaining  elevations  of  9,500  and 
10,000  feet,  besides  eight  large  craters,  some  now  filled  by  highland  lakelets. 
Thousands  of  pilgrims  yearly  visit  this  romantic  region,  to  worship  the  idols 
of  Isanagi  and  Isanami,  divine  ancestors  of  the  Mikado's  family.  European 
explorers  describe  in  enthusiastic  language  the  glorious  prospect  commanded  from 
these  volcanic  heights,  whence  the  eye  sweeps  over  all  the  land  and  surrounding 
seas.  Although  there  has  been  no  eruption  during  the  histoi'ic  period,  sulphurous 
vapours  are  still  emitted  from  the  ground  in  many  places,  while  another  chain  of 
igneous  crests  runs  north  of  the  Snowy  Range  parallel  with  the  coast.  Here  the 
chief  cone  is  the  Yake-yama,  which  has  been  ascended  by  the  geologist  Von 
Drasche. 

The  remarkable  solf  ataras  of  Tate-yama  have  recently  been  visited  and  described 
by  Mr.  W.  G.  Dixon.  "  Traversing  through  the  mist  one  or  two  ridges,  and 
passing  between  two  little  tarns — that  on  the  left  of  an  intensely  green  colour — we 
descended  into  a  wide  bleak  hollow  with  jagged  sides,  from  which  a  thunderous 
noise  was  arising.  The  air  cleared  of  its  vapours  revealed  a  most  striking  scene 
with  extraordinary  contrasts  of  colour :  moimds  of  volcanic  matter,  white,  yellow, 
blue,  purple,  pink,  crimson,  black,  as  many  shades  as  in  a  rainbow.  Overhanging 
these  was  the  brilliant  green  of  one  of  the  spurs  of  Tate-yama,  and  above  all  a  rich 
cobalt  sky. 

"  We  descended  into  the  hell-like  valley  with  due  caution,  for  great  or  small 
springs  were  bubbling  on  all  sides.  The  loudest  noise — a  noise  as  of  a  dozen 
boilers  letting  off  steam — came  from  a  bright  yellow  hole  a  few  feet  in  circum- 
ference, whence  a  thick  cloud  of  steam  mixed  with  sulphuretted  hydrogen  was 
issuing  with  terrific  force,  ejecting  lumps  of  the  deposited  sulphur  to  a  distance  of 
10  or  15  feet.  A  few  yards  off  a  similar  but  smaller  jet  was  vehemently  hissing. 
Across  a  sulphurous  mound,  about  50  yards  distant,  was  a  pool  of  some  6  feet  in 
diameter,  consisting  of  green  sulphur  mud  in  a  state  of  violent  ebullition,  the  green 
liquid  in  the  centre  at  times  leaping  8  or  10  feet  into  the  air.  Then  about  equally 
distant  from  this  and  the  roaring  funnels  another  large  pool  was  boiling,  but  with 
less  sulphur  in  its  water,  which  was  of  an  ordinary  brown  muddy  colour.  Other 
geysers  were  scattered  around,  most  of  them  of  pure   hot  water,  and  smaller 


f*^' 


a  state  of 
.870,  when 

)  is  crossed 
rming  lake 
ligh  range, 
I  and  Kiso 
,t  gradually 
and  wildest 
1  any  other 

is  crossed 
ligh.  It  is 
f  9,500  and 
id  lakelets, 
p  the  idols 
European 
anded  from 
mrrounding 

sulphurous 
ler  chain  of 
.  Here  the 
ologist  Von 

id  described 
ridges,  and 
colour — we 
thunderous 
iking  scene 
lite,  yellow, 
verhanging 
re  all  a  rich 

sat  or  small 
of  a  dozen 
in  circum- 
drogeu  was 
distance  of 
itly  hissing. 
6  feet  in 
1,  the  green 
•out  equally 
g,  but  with 
)ur.  Other 
nd  smaller 


|«'|i'iW" 


LAKE  BIVA. 


873 


bubblings  everywhere.     On  the  slopes  of  the  hollow  stood  a  few  stone  idols.     A 
couple  of  men  were  gathering  sulphur."  * 

West  of  the  Hida  range  the  horizon  is  broken  by  the  Siro-yamu,  or  Ilaku-san, 
that  is,  "  White  Mountain,"  which  is  so  called  from  its  abundant  snows,  and  which 
was  the  scene  of  eruptions  in  1239  and  again  in  1554.  Owing  to  the  generally 
colder  climate  of  the  west  side  of  Hondo,  the  IIaku-san,while  3,000  feet  lower  than 
Fuzi,  receives  a  far  greater  quantity  of  snow,  and  its  upper  crevasses  remain 
streaked  with  white  throughout  the  summer  months.  According  to  a  local 
tradition,  it  has  never  been  entirely  free  from  snow  for  the  last  two  hundred  years 
and  even  at  its  base,  near  the  Itsinose  hot  springs,  the  ground  is  occasionally 
covered  with  frozen  masses  over  20  feet  deep.  Botanists  have  discovered  a  greater 
variety  of  vegetable  species  on  Siro-yaraa  than  on  any  other  mountain  in  Japan,  a 
circumstance  attributed  by  them  to  the  peculiar  climatic  conditions  of  these 
uplands. 

Lake  Biva. 

A  low  ridge  running  south  and  south-west  from  the  Siro-yama  bifurcates  round 
a  vast  and  profound  cavity  filled  by  the  waters  of  lake  Biva  (the  "Guitar"), 
which,  according  to  the  legend,  was  fon.  ed  at  the  time  when  Fuzi-san  rose  above 
the  surface.  But  long  before  this  period  there  existed  an  inland  freshwater  basin, 
the  Avo-umi,  which  word,  contracted  to  Aomi,  Omi,  has  become  the  name  of  the 
province  encircling  the  lake.  This  basin  has  certainly  been  the  scene  of  igneous 
eruptions.  The  island  of  Tsikubu-sima,  containing  one  of  the  most  venerated  Sinto 
shrines  in  the  Empire,  was  upheaved  in  the  northern  part  of  the  lake  in  the  year 
82  of  the  new  era,  and  other  islets  seem  to  be  also  of  igneous  origin.  The  surface 
stands  some  330  feet  above  sea  level,  and  in  the  profounder  cavities  the  sounding 
line  has  recorded  depths  of  280  feet.  The  volimie  of  water  is  thus  far  inferior  to 
that  of  Geneva,  with  which  Biva  is  often  compared,  and  which  it  about  equals  in 
extent.  Like  Geneva,  it  is  enclosed  by  moimtains,  some  cultivated,  some  wooded, 
but  all  presenting  bold  or  graceful  outlines.  In  autumn,  when  the  heavy  clouds 
of  the  monsoon  have  been  dispersed  by  the  winds,  the  varied  contours  of  the  sur- 
rounding highlands,  with  their  green,  violet,  bluish,  or  rosy  tints,  blend  har- 
moniously in  a  marvellous  landscape,  changing  incessantly  with  the  shifting  play 
of  light  and  shade.  Eastwards  rises  the  Ibuki-yama,  the  loftiest  crest  in  this  vast 
amphitheatre,  in  the  popular  fancy  formerly  peopled  with  maleficent  spirits. 
South-westwards  stands  the  famous  Hiyei-san,  whose  Buddhist  monasteries  were 
inhabited  by  3,000  monks  down  to  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century.  These 
real  masters  of  the  land,  assembling  in  the  Temple  of  Kimon  ("  The  Devil's  Gate  "), 
were  bound  to  pray  night  and  day,  beating  drums  and  ringing  bells,  in  order  to 
dissipate  the  evil  influenct^s  proceeding  from  Ibuki-yama,  and  thus  protect  the 
sacred  city  of  Kioto,  situateu.  at  the  southern  foot  of  the  mountain.  The  romantic 
region  encircling  Biva  and  its  emissary,  the  Yodo-gava,  is  the  true  cradle  of  Japanese 
nationality,  to  which  the  grand  historic  memories  thus  lend  an  additional  charm  in 

•  "The  Land  of  the  Morning,"  18S2.  p.  652. 


I  ifi'tifj^n-^i^yv' 


874 


EAST  ASIA. 


the  eye  of  the  intelligent  traveller.  In  the  russet  clouds  of  the  west,  says  the 
legend,  is  reflected  the  blood,  still  boiling  in  the  surrounding  craters,  which  has 
been  shed  by  all  those  who  have  ever  fallen  on  the  battle-fields  of  their  native 
land. 

"  Near  Seta,  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  lake,  there  is  a  shrine  dedicated  to 
the  memory  of  Tawara  Toda  Hidesato,  a  famous  hero  who  flourished  in  the  tenth 
century  of  the  Christian  era.  At  that  time  the  lake  was  haunted  by  a  dragon, 
who  was  continually  harassed  by  a  huge  centipede,  living  on  Mikami-yama,  which 
overlooks  the  south-east  end  of  the  lake.  One  day,  when  about  to  cross  the  bridge 
at  Seta,  Hidesato  found  it  occupied  by  the  dragon,  who  glared  at  him  with  eyes  as 
large  and  bright  as  a  pair  of  suns,  and  ejected  flames  from  his  gaping  jaws. 
Nevertheless,  the  hero,  nothing  daunted,  boldly  stepped  over  the  monster's  back 
without  deigning  to  cast  a  glance  behind  him.  He  had  not  gone  far  when  a  dwarf 
appeared  in  front  of  him,  and  after  praising  the  courage  of  which  he  had  just  been 
witness,  asked  him  to  slay  the  oppressor.  The  warrior  accepted  the  task,  and 
returned  with  the  dwarf  to  the  lake,  where  they  plunged  in,  and  after  walking  a 
few  miles  along  the  bottom,  came  to  a  magnificent  palace,  adorned  with  purple  and 
gold,  which  stood  in  a  court  strewn  with  lapis  lazuli  and  paved  with  jade.  The 
dwarf  went  in  first,  and  reappearing  shortly  in  robes  of  state,  invited  Hidesato  to 
enter  and  take  his  seat  at  a  banquet.  Towards  midnight  the  approach  of  the 
enemy  was  announced,  and  Hidesato,  armed  with  his  mighty  bow,  which  required 
the  united  efforts  of  five  ordinary  men  to  pull,  and  three  arrows  each  fifteen  hand- 
breadths  long,  stood  ready  to  receive  him.  On  came  the  centipede,  his  huge  dark 
mass  illuminated  by  a  few  thousand  torches  borne  in  his  claws.  Hidesato 
discharged  his  first  arrow  at  the  monster's  iron  forehead,  but  it  bounded  off  without 
so  much  as  leaving  a  dent  behind.  A  second  bolt  also  failed  to  take  effect,  and 
there  was  but  one  left.  Suddenly  bethinking  himself  of  an  expedient,  he  moistened 
the  point  with  spittle,  and  shot  it  with  unerring  aim  into  tl  same  spot  as  before. 
This  time,  instead  of  glancing  ofE  the  polished  p*  nee,  the  shaft  buried  itself  up  to 
its  feathers  in  the  body.  The  lights  instantly  disappeared  and  the  enormous 
carcass  fell  to  the  earth  with  a  noise  like  thunder.  As  k  reward  for  his  prowess, 
the  dragon  presented  Hidesato  with  an  inexhaustible  roll  of  silk,  which  grew  again 
when  part  was  cut  off,  and  the  famous  bronze  bell  which  he  gave  to  the  temple  of 
Miidera"  (Sa^oM?).  '    . 

The  peninsula  projecting  southwards  from  lake  Biva,  as  well  as  the  western 
extremity  of  Hondo,  are  almost  distinct  regions,  which  are  attached  to  the  great 
island  only  by  narrow  strips  of  land.  Nevertheless  they  resemble  the  rest  of  the 
country  in  their  highland  character.  Southwards  rises  the  Oho-mine,  one  of  the 
few  groups  where  no  volcanic  formations  have  been  discovered,  and  at  the  pame 
time  one  of  the  wildest  and  best  wooded  regions  in  the  archipelago.  Towards  the 
west  the  Daizen,  an  old  igneous  cone,  commands  a  low  range  crosse<^  by  several 
passes  scarcely  1,000  feet  high. 


-^t  jv*'»rr    ''    *'    i>\- 


THE  INLAND  SEA. 


875 


t,  says  the 
which  has 
lieir  native 

edicated  to 
the  tenth 
a  dragun, 
ima,  which 
the  bridge 
ith  eyes  as 
ping  jaws, 
ster's  back 
en  a  dwarf 
i  just  been 
)  task,  and 
'  walking  a 
purple  and 
jade.  The 
lidesato  to 
ach  of  the 
jh  required 
teen  hand- 
huge  dark 

Hidesato 
off  without 
effect,  and 
moistened 
t  as  before, 
itself  up  to 

enormous 
IS  prowess, 
2;rew  again 
}  temple  of 

le  western 
the  ^reat 
rest  of  the 
one  of  the 
;  the  pame 
owards  the 
by  several 


,     The  Inland  Sea. 

The  winding  marine  inlet  which  separates  Hondo  from  the  southern  islands  is 
in  reality  a  mere  succession  of  fiords  and  nada,  or  independent  basins,  which  have 
been  united  in  a  common  "  Mediterranean  "  sea  stretching  for  about  240  miles  east 
and  west,  and  everywhere  studded  with  innumerable  wooded  islands  and  islets. 
Sailing  through  these  placid  waters,  the  traveller  is  surprised  at  every  turn  of  the 

Fig.  174.— Lake  Biva. 
Scale  1  :  760,000. 


'--J 


SSr 


EofG 


.I55*50- 


i5G'80' 


18  Miles. 


channel  by  a  fresh  vista,  a  continuous  panorama  of  enchanting  scenery  thus  unfold- 
ing itself  in  endless  variety.  In  the  Seto-utsi,  or  "  Inland  Sea,"  as  it  has  been 
appropriately  named,  the  coastline  resembles  that  of  Norway,  but  under  an  Italian 
sky,  and  clothed  with  the  vegetation  of  che  Eastern  Archipelago.  At  the  dawn  of 
time,  sing  the  national  poets,  here  the  divine  pair,  Isanagi  and  Isanami,  were  seated 
on  the  heavenly  bridge  upheld  by  pillars  of  clouds,  whence  they  delighted  to  con- 
template the  white-crested  sea-horses  chasing  each  other  beneath  them.  Listlessly 
reposing  on  the  clouds,  the  immortal  dipped  his  bright  red  spear-head  in  the  deep, 


.■.*• 


f"'*-'****.:juw»t!JNt»wWii*.'    -r  -   .isa*a»%-'-.'*r 


*  ^- .,  .'-*-."■  ^-."' .  ^TZ-"^ 


870 


EAST  ASIA. 


and  for  every  drop  tliat  fell  there  arose  one  of  those  verdant  isles  which  are  now 
dotted  over  these  waters,  and  one  of  the  first  to  appear  was  the  fair  Avadzi,  which 
still  stands  sentinel  at  the  eastern  entrance  of  the  fairy  scene. 

Geographically  the  Japanese  Mediterranean  itmst  be  regarded  as  little  more 
than  a  Himj)le  (lepression  produced  by  erosion.  Even  in  the  deeper  cavities  there  are 
scarcely  more  than  1 'jO  feet  of  water,  while  the  mean  depth  is  less  than  80  feet. 
The  Simono-seki  Strait,  as  the  western  entrance  is  called,  has  hardly  30  feet,  so 
that  large  vessels  unaided  by  steam  cannot  safely  enter  into  this  narrow  marine 
channel,  obstructed  as  it  is  bj'  numerous  reefs  and  dangerous  currents.  Of  the 
other  straits  by  which  it  is  approached,  the  Tomoga-sima,  being  freer  from 
strong  currents,  is  generally  chosen  by  shipping,  while  the  Naruto  Channel 
between  Avadzi  and  Sikok  is  more  dreaded  than  any  other  in  the  Jaijauese  waters. 

At  the  westerr  mi*  ranee  stands  a  picturesque  island,  with  a  lighthouse  built  by 
foreign  engineers  and  supplied  with  dioptric  lights,  with  the  lantern  poised  so  as  to 
resist  the  effects  of  earthquakes  everywhere  so  frequent  in  Japan.  Through  the 
strait  the  course  is  tortuous,  running  first  north  then  eastwards,  when  vessels 
passing  :o  or  fro  seem  completely  landlocked  "As  the  boat  progresses  a  distance 
of  f.i>mc  ten  or  twelve  miles,  a  varying  panorama  of  great  be.iury  discloses  itself  at 
e\c-ry  tnile.  On  either  hand  rise  high  lands,  sometimvjd  wooded  from  base  to 
samiiit,  sometimes  diversified  by  hills  clear  of  timber,  but '  with  verdurii  clad,'  some- 
ii.nes  crested  with  trees,  sometimes  fringed  at  the  foot  with  forests,  or  with  strips 
ui  tirig-'it  green  turf  or  yellow  sands.  Rocky  heights  rise  behird,  with  sparse  tufts 
of  vc'^'etatxon,  or  stunted  shrubs  on  theii  ,-jxdes,  showing  the  effects  of  severe 
weather,  or  riven  clefts  into  which  bountiful  nature  has  crowded  trees,  lending 
majesty  to  the  smiling  foreground. 

"  Bays  and  inlets  of  enticing  pictuvesqueness  appear,  whore  trim  native  craft  of 
various  dimensions  are  seen  at  anchor,  while  clear-looking  villages  lying  low  near 
the  beach,  or  built  up  the  hills  in  terraces,  give  life  to  the  scenery.  Rounding  the 
last  point,  which,  like  several  others,  seems  to  bar  all  further  advance,  the  spectator 
is  induced  to  fancy,  perhaps  not  regretfully,  that  the  huge  steamer  must  remain 
landlocked  within  this  terraqueous  Paradise.  The  fortified  city  of  Simono-seki  then 
looms  in  the  distance  on  the  northern  side  of  the  waters,  the  strait  widening  at 
every  mile.  Slowly  the  picture  unfolds  its  details  and  discovers  to  the  view  a 
walled  town  with  iuany  large  buildings  stretching  aloxig  the  shore  for  several  miles, 
and  for  some  distance  inland.  But  this  port  is  not  open  to  foreign  traffic,  so  the 
steamer  pui  •  aes  its  course  to  the  eastwovd,  passing  several  islets  and  another  strait, 
until  it  emerges  in  a  wide  expaiat  of  waters."  * 

The  Island  ok  Sikok. 

The  island  of  Sikok,  which  skirtfi  the  south  side  of  the  Inland  Sea  for  about 
half  of  its  entire  length,  consists  of  an  irregular  mass  of  schistose  hills  rimning 
mainly  east  and  west.      The  Sikokno  Saburo,  which  is  the  chief  stream,  runs 

•  8.  Mossman,  "  Japim,"  1880,  p.  13,  15. 


THE  ISLAND  OF  SIKOK. 


377 


;h  arc  now 
(Izi,  which 

little  more 
8  there  are 
m  80  feet. 
30  feet,  80 
BW  marine 
3,  Of  the 
freer  from 

0  Channel 
;se  waters, 
se  huilt  by 
jed  so  as  to 
Trough  the 
ion  vessels 

1  a  distance 
les  itself  at 
>m  base  to 
jlad,'  some- 
with  strips 
sparse  tufts 

of   severe 
(es,  lending 

ive  craft  of 
S  low  near 
unding  the 
e  spectator 
lust  remain 
lo-seki  then 
idening  at 
the  view  a 
?eral  miles, 
affic,  so  the 
»ther  strait, 


parallel  with  the  axis  of  these  old  schistose  rocks,  and  the  same  direction  is 
followed  by  the  narrow  western  headland,  which  projects  towards  a  corresponding 
promontory  in  the  island  of  Kiu-siu,  thus  leaving  only  a  very  narrow  passage  for 
the  waters  of  the  Inland  Sea.  Although  of  comparatively  moderate  elevation, 
rising  nowhere  above  4,620  feet,  the  main  ridge  presents  none  the  less  a  serious 


Fig.  175.— Narvto  Stkait. 
Scale  1  :  300,000. 


34: 


15^° 30' 


I54''40' 


E  of  G. 


,6  Miles. 


for  about 
lis  running 
ream,  runs 


obstacle  to  the  communication  between  the  two  slopes  of  th  !  island.  Some  of  the 
passes  are  considerably  over  3,000  feet  high,  and  above  the  mam  ridge  rise  some 
peaks  of  volcanic  origin.  The  hill  sides  are  clothed  with  a  rich  and  varied  vegeta- 
tion, which,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  streams,  often  assumes  an  almost  tropical 
aspect. 


~'W^ 


878 


EAST  ASIA. 


TiiK  Isi,Axi)  OF  Kn-siu. 


Like  those  of  Sikok,  tlio  Kiii-.siu  rocks,  rumiiiiff  north  and  south,  consist  mainly 
of  crystalline  schists,  overlaid  with  trachytes,  which  are  interspersed  with  tufa  and 
lignite.  But  hero  also  occur  some  volcanic  cones,  a  few  of  which  are  either 
constantly  or  intermittently  active.  Such  is  the  Aso-yama  in  the  centre  of  the 
islaiKl,  on  whoso  slopes  are  some  sulphur  and  alum  beds,  besides  ochrous  formations 
coutainiufr  u  white  fatty  substance,  which  has  not  yet  been  analyzed,  and  which  is 
eaten  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  district.  The  eruption  of  1874  changed  the 
surrounding  streams  into  torrents  of  a  milky  colour,  a  phenomenon  apparently  of 
frequent  occurrence,  to  judge,  at  least,  from  the  name  of  the  chief  stream — the 
Sira-kava,  or  "  White  Iliver."     Although  of  moderate  elevation,  the  crater  of 


Fig.   170. — Yama-oata  and  Mount  Kaimu.n. 

Scale  I  :  220,000. 


*:?€?!!*£ 


i«vn»4n 


fi  Mllea. 


Aso-yama  resembles  those  of  the  moon  in  its  vast  proportions,  being  no  less  than 
14  miles  long  by  10  miles  broad  between  its  vertical  walls,  which  are  from  700  to 
1,000  feet  high.  Within  this  extensive  area  dwell  over  10,000  people,  who  seem 
scarcely  con.scious  that  their  villages  stand  on  the  very  mouth  of  a  volcano. 

The  peninsula  of  Simabara,  stretching  east  of  Nagasaki,  consists  of  a  single 
mass  sloping  regularly  down  to  the  sea.  This  is  the  famous  Unzen-ga-tako 
(Unzen-sauj,  or  "  Mountain  of  the  Hot  Springs,"  whose  vast  crater  swallowed  up 
thousands  of  Christians  in  1638,  during  the  revolt  of  the  recently  converted 
Catholics,  at  that  time  very  numerous  in  this  part  of  the  empire.  Although 
quiescent  for  the  last  one  kundred  years,  the  cone  still  emits  sulphurous  vapours, 
which  in  the  time  of  Kiimpfer  were  so  dense  that  birds  on  the  wing  kept  many 


^JL. 


sist  mainly 
h  tufa  and 
nro  either 
itre  of  the 
foriiiutions 
d  which  is 
luiigcd  the 
larcntly  of 
trcam — the 
3  crater  of 


10 


less  than 
Erom  700  to 

who  seem 
xno. 

of  a  single 
zen-ga-tako 
/^allowed  up 

converted 

Although 

us  vapours, 

kept  many 


THE  ISLAND  OF  KIU-SIU. 


870 


niik's  I'rom  the  mountain.  Mud  and  ga.st>H  (>scapcd  from  innunjorahlo  (Issiiri's,  and 
during  the  rains  the  whoU«  ground  huhlilcd  up  liUi-  n  licpiid  mass.  A  former 
cruptitm  of  the  noigliljouring  Miyi-yama,  attended  by  tremendous  flotKlings,  cost 
the  lives  of  OOjOOO  persons. 

South  of  Kiu-siu  a  group  of  volcanoes  has  received  tlio  name  of  Kiri-sima,  or 
"Fog  Island,"  on  account  of  the  sulphurous  vapours  constantly  emitted  by  them. 
Here  all  the  rocks  consist  of  tufas,  trachytes,  pumice,  and  otlier  igni'ous  matter, 
and  the  plateau  supporting  the  twin  i)eaks  of  Kiri-sima  is  an  arid  region,  strewn 

Pig.  177. — Kaoo-hima  AM)  Mi-take  Volcano. 
Scale  1  :  liiMi.uuo. 


0  to  leo  Foul. 


160  to  320  Feet 


820  Feet  and  upwarda. 
.  6  Miles. 


with  ashes  and  reddish  scoriae,  relieved  only  by  a  few  dwarf  pines  and  other  shrubs. 
These  appear  to.  be  the  culminating  points  of  Kiu-siu,  and  they  arc  certainly  more 
elevated  than  Aso-yama  and  Komats-yama  in  the  south-east. 

The  peninsula  enclosing  the  picturesque  bay  of  Kago-sima  on  the  west  is  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  regions  in  Japan.  The  long  tongue  of  land  bending 
round  the  bay  is  dominated  by  the  superb  Mount  Kaimon,  the  Cape  Horner  of 
European  maps,  which  is  almost  unrivalled  for  its  beautiful  form  and  symmetrical 
contour.  North  of  it  formerly  stood  a  still  more  elevated  volcano,  the  pyramidal 
crest   of  which   was  destroyed   during   an   eruption,  aU    memory   of   which  has 


M^ 


'••-.VI 


(ftfj 


I!    ■%<*" 


§ 


ife 


860 


EAST  ASIA. 


pcrislunl.     Tlic  circular  bnsin  (bus  formed  is  now  fiUod  by  the  wat^ r^  if  lake  Mi-iko, 

while u  (similar  lacustrine  formation  oNcrlooks  the  town  and  roudMt:  ;id  oi  V,  'ua-gavu. 

Ka(3;o-sinia  Hay  also  contains  the  remarkable  Mi-tako  volcano,  whose  rui)tured 

cono  tills  the  whole  islet  of  Sakura-sima,     Above  the  cultivated  and  woode<l  ssones 

Fig.  178. — Remkk  oi'  .Japan  and  Peptii!*  of  tiik  m-urounkino  Wateiw. 

Hcnlo  1  :  lft,IK)U,UOO. 


r3 


0  to  880  Feet 


830  to  3.800  8,800  to  0.(iOO  «,eOO  to  9,800         V.OOO  and  opwuds. 

cj       s       m  • 


0  to  1,650 


1,000  to  3,800  3,800  to  9,)IOO       9,900  and  upvaids. 

__^__i»____  800  Miles. 


rise  grejrish  crags  and  crevasses,  which  a  hundred  years  ago  still  discharged  dense 
volimies  of  vapour. 

The  group  of  islands  forming  a  south-western  continuation  of  Japan  also 
consists  of  schistose  rocks  covered  here  and  there  with  matter  thrown  up  from  the 
surrounding  waters.    Amongst  the  cones  conspicuous  is  Ivoga-sima,  the  Stromboli 


CO  Mi-ikc, 
Mia-gavu. 
ruptured 

[led  zonca 


;« 


rf! 


rsrda. 


irged  dense 

Japan  also 
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THE  RIU-KIU  (LU-CHU)  AND  GOTO  ARCHIPELAGOS. 


881 


of  Japan,  whicb  is  nearly  as  high  (2,400  feet)  as  its  Sicilian  rivals,  and  which 
from  its  crater  and  side  fissures,  incessantly  emits  vapours,  white  by  day  and  red  by 
night.  Its  rich  sulphur  beds  arc  one  of  the  Prince  of  Satsraa's  chief  sources 
of  income.  Tancga-sima  and  Yakuno-sima,  the  largest  islands  of  the  group,  are  now 
quiescent ;  but  Naka-sima,  Suva-sima,  Yoko-sima,  Ivo-sima,  and  the  other 
islets  stretching  south-west  parallel  with  the  chief  axis  of  Riu-kiu  are  all  still 
active  volcanoes.  The  chain  of  igneous  rocks  is  continued  towards  the  northern 
extremity  of  Formosa  by  a  line  of  reefs  also  probably  of  igneous  origin. 


The  Riu-kiu  (Lu-chu)  and  Goto  Archipelagos. 

Siunanguto  and  the  small  Liushoten  group  adjacent  to  Kiu-siu,  belong 
geographically  to  the  Riu-kiu  Archipelago,  which  is  better  known  by  its  Fokien 
name  of  Lu-chu,  and  which  the  natives  themselves  call  Du-kiu,*  that  is,  "  Land  of 
the  Precious  Stone,"  or  of  the  "  Transparent  Coral,"  as  the  tenn  may  be  variously 
interpreted.  The  geometrical  curve  described  bj'  all  these  islands  between  Kiu-siu 
and  Formosa,  the  radius  of  which  corresponds  to  that  of  Nip-pon  itself,  probably 
represents  the  remains  of  a  highland  region  by  which  Japan  was  formerly 
connected  with  the  mainland.  Lu-chu  comprises  a  number  of  secondary  groups, 
the  two  most  important  of  which  stretch  about  half-way  from  Kiu-siu  to  Formosa, 
and  form  the  so-called  "  Kingdom  "  of  Lu-chu.  Politically,  this  "  kingdom  "  is  at 
present  a  simple  Japanese  department,  while  the  southern  group  of  the  "  Three 
San  "  (Nan-san  or  Sak-sima)  is  still  a  subject  of  dispute  betwen  China  and  Japan. 
The  Mikado's  government,  however,  seems  now  disposed  to  surrender  these  islands 
to  its  powerful  neighbour. 

Like  Korea,  Lu-chu  was  long  a  vassal  state  of  the  neighlwuring  Empires  of 
China  and  Japan.  *  Towards  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century,  the  Chinese,  after 
various  incursions  into  the  archipelago,  compelled  the  King  to  declare  himself 
tributary  of  the  "  Son  of  Heaven,"  and  accept  the  investiture  from  him.  Within 
fifty  years  of  that  event  the  Japanese  presented  themselves  in  their  turn,  and 
enforced  "  presents,"  which  were  gradually  chnnged  to  a  regular  tribute.  In 
1609  an  expedition,  undertaken  by  the  Prince  of  Satsma,  ended  with  the  formal 
recognition  of  the  suzerainty  of  Japan  over  the  archipelago.  Akin  in  race  and 
speech  to  the  Japanese,  the  islanders  nevertheless  preferred  the  Chinese,  and  even 
boasted  of  their  vassalage  to  Peking.  The  distant  master,  of  whom  they  knew 
little  except  through  his  presents,  seemed  a  more  agreeable  potentate  to  serve 
than  the  Emperor  of  Japan,  represented  on  the  spot  by  their  troublesome 
neighbour  the  Prince  of  Satsma.  But  after  the  revolution  of  1868,  which 
restored  the  Mikado  to  power,  some  Japanese  officials  were  sent  as  direct  adminis- 
trators of  the  islands,  and  the  King  was  called  upon  to  break  all  his  relations 
with  Peking.  In  vain  the  unhappy  monarch  pleaded :  "  For  five  hundred  years 
we  have  enjoyed  the  protection  of  the  Emperor  of  China ;  him  we  regard  as  our 

*  All  those  fomiB  aro  merely  phonetic  Tarintios  of  the  same  word,  the  Japanese  •'  changing  to  /  in 
Chinese,  and  to  d  in  the  local  Lu-chu  dialect.  Compare  the  Latin  and  French  iilnnu  and  orme,  and  the 
Greek  and  T/atin  fnxpv  and  lacrymn. — Euitob. 


882 


EAST  ASIA. 


father,  and  to  Japan  we  turn  as  to  a  mother,  .  .  .  Has  not  Confucius  said  that 
fcaltv  is  hotter  than  lif(>!''  Ask  us  not  to  bo  disloyal,  and  forfeit  our  honour." 
He  was  fain  to  yield,  and  in  1874,  after  the  victorious  expedition  of  the  Japanese 
to  Formosa,  the  kin<j;lin<?  was  dethroned  and  Lu-chu  definitely  proclaimed  a  simple 
hrii,  or  intcf^ral  part  of  Nip-pon. 

The  reports  of  the  learned  Chinese  Supao-kwanj?,  sent  by  the  Emperor  Kang-hi 
to  the  archipelago  in  1719,  were  the  only  important   documents  wo   possessed 

Fig.  179.— Geolooy  of  Japan. 
Scale  1  :  15,000.000. 


Active  V'blcanuea  (from  JapoutJoe  buurces). 


Sedimentary  rocks.     Crystalline  roclcB.  Allnvimn. 

°~*  Hilea. 


Igncoai. 


regarding  these  islands  down  to  the  beginning  of  this  century.  But  since  the 
expeditions  of  Broughton  in  1797,  and  of  Maxwell  and  Basil  Hall  in  181G, 
numerous  navigators  of  all  nations,  such  as  Jurien  de  la  Graviere,  Beechey, 
Belcher,  and  Perrj',  have  visited  the  port  of  Nafa,  in  the  main  island,  and  pub- 
lished the  accounts  of  their  voyages.  Both  Catholic  and  Protestant  missionaries 
have  also  resided  in  Lu-chu,  while  the  Japanese  and  Europeans  of  Yokohama  have 
even  passed  the  winter  season  in  *the  "  Three  San,"  in  order  to  enjoy  a  milder 
climate  than  that  of  Central  Nip-pon.  But  the  result  of  these  visits  has  so  far 
been  to  render  the  local  nomenclature  more  perplexing  tlian  it  was  in  the  time  of 


if-' 


THE  RIU-KIU  (LU-CHU)  AND  GOTO  ARCHIPELAGOS. 


888 


Scale  1  :  240,000. 


Kang-hi.     To  the  Chinese,  Japanese,  and  native  names  of  phices  have  been  added 

those  of  the  various  AV'estern  nations,  so  that  some  of  tlie  ishmds  have  now  no  less 

than  five  distinct  ajipellations.     Amid  all  this  confusion,  the  smaller  islets  and  reefs 

have  in  vain  been  sought  for  by  skipj)ers  navigating  these  waters,  and  a  thorough 

survey  of  the  archipelago  by  the 

Japanese   navy  is  now  urgently  Fig.  180  — T«r  sima. 

needed. 

The  two  chief  groups  run 
north-oast  and  .south-west,  that  is 
to  say,  parallel  with  the  other 
mountain  systems  in  China  and 
Japan.  The  various  islands  of 
these  groups  consist  themselves 
of  little  granite,  schist,  sandstone, 
or  limestone  ridges,  scarcely 
exceeding  1,600  feet  in  height, 
and  sending  down  sparkling 
torrents,  which  are  used  up  to 
the  last  drop  in  the  rice  grounds 
of  the  lowlands.  The  chief 
member  of  the  northern  group 
bears  the  name  of  Oho-sima,  or 
"  Great  Island,"  although  smaller 
in  extent  than  Okinava,  which 
takes  the  title  of  "  Great  Lu-chu," 
in  which  are  concentrated  nearly 
two-thirds  of  the  population  of 
the  whole  hen.  It  seems  to  have 
no  igneous  rocks,  but  the  lime- 
stone crests  of  several  hills  have 
frequently  been  taken  for  lavas, 
owing  to  their  peculiar  vesicidar 
structure. 

Thanks  to  the  high  tempera- 
ture of  the  surrounding  waters, 
all  the  islands  are  encircled  by 
coral  reefs  resembling  those  of  the 
South  Sea  Ijlands,  and  like  them 

with  openings  opposite  the  river  mouths,  the  polypes  being  unable  to  live  in  fresh 
water.  Thus  have  been  formed  on  the  Okinava  coast  the  ports  of  JJafa  and 
Melville,  the  Unting  of  the  natives,  discovered  by  Basil  Hall.  In  several  places  the 
reefs  rise  considerably  above  sea-level,  a  circumstance  doubtless  due  to  upheaval, 
and  off  Nafa  the  water  is  so  deep  that  the  soimding-line  gives  no  warning  to 
shipping  of  the  dangerous  proximity  of  these  rocks. 


saOFeet 


S20  and  upwards, 
i—  S  tlilea. 


884 


EAST  ASIA. 


HiuUlhisin  was  introduced  into  Lu-chii  uhout  1,000  years  ago;  but  the  natives 
sconi  to  trouble  theuisolvos  v»>ry  little  with  rc'li<j;ious  matters.  The  priests  (hodzes) 
are  not  respected  or  esteemed  in  society ;  they  are  not  allowed  to  marry  or  to  eat 
meat;  tew  people  associate  with  them,  and  even  the  children  turn  from  them  in 
ridicule.  Captain  Ihisil  Hall  remarks  on  the  total  absence  of  anything  in  the  least 
degree  resembling  a  religious  ceremony : — "  The  bodzes  kept  the  temple  clean 
swept  and  took  care  of  the  walks  and  hedges,  and  this  appeared  to  be  their  only 
emidoyment. 

"  rolygamy  is  not  allowed  in  Lu-ehu,  and  the  King  is  the  only  person  permitted 
by  law  to  have  concubines.  They  invariably  spoke  with  horror  of  the  Chinese 
practice,  and  were  much  gratified  on  learning  that  the  English  customs  in  this 
respect  wore  similar  to  those  of  Lu-chu.  The  women  are  not  treated  so  well  as  we 
were  led  to  expect  from  the  mildness  of  character  in  the  men.  The  upper  classes 
of  women  are  confined  a  good  deal  to  their  houses,  and  the  lower  orders  perform 
much  of  the  hard  work  of  husbandry.  When  they  are  met  out  of  doors  by  the  men 
they  take  no  notice  of  one  another,  whatever  may  be  the  degree  of  relationship 
subsisting  between  them. 

"  They  appear  to  have  no  money,  and  from  all  we  could  see  or  hear,  they  are 
even  ignorant  of  its  use.  Though  we  were  incessantly  trying  to  make  out  what 
their  medium  of  exdiange  was,  we  could  never  learn  anything  distinct  upon  the 
subject,  nor  could  they  be  made  to  comprehend  our  questions  about  money.  We 
saw  no  arms  of  any  kind,  and  the  natives  always  declared  they  had  none.  Their 
behaviour  on  seeing  a  musket  fired  certainly  implied  an  ignorance  of  fire-arms. 
In  one  place  wo  saw  a  spear  which  looked  like  a  warlike  weapon ;  but  we  had  every 
reason  to  believe  that  it  was  used  for  the  sole  purpose  of  catching  fish.  They  looked 
at  our  swords  and  cutlasses  and  at  the  Malay  creeses  and  spears  with  great  surprise. 
But  the  chiefs  carried  little  case-knives  in  the  folds  of  their  robes,  and  the  lower 
orders  had  a  larger  knife,  but  these  were  always  of  some  immediate  practical  utility, 
and  were  not  worn  for  defence  nor  as  ornaments.  They  denied  having  any  know- 
ledge of  war  either  by  experience  or  by  tradition. 

"  We  never  saw  any  punishment  inflicted  at  Lu-chu.  A  tap  with  u  fan  or  an 
angry  look  was  the  severest  chastisement  ever  resorted  to,  as  far  as  we  could 
discover.  In  giving  orders  the  chiefs  were  mild  though  firm,  and  the  people  always 
obeyed  with  cheerfulness.  There  seemed  to  be  great  respect  and  confidence  on  the 
one  hand,  and  much  consideration  and  kind  feeling  on  the  other.  During  our 
intercourse  with  these  people  there  did  not  occur  one  instance  of  theft.  They  were 
all  permitted  to  come  on  board  indiscriminately ;  to  go  into  the  cabins,  store-rooms, 
and  wherever  they  liked,  unattended.  Yet  there  was  not  a  single  article  taken 
away,  though  many  hundreds  of  people  were  daily  admitted,  and  allowed  to 
examine  whatever  they  pleased, 

"  The  loose  native  robe  was  generally  made  of  cotton  in  a  great  variety  of  colours. 
It  opened  in  front,  but  the  edges  overlapped  and  were  concealed  by  the  folds  so  as 
to  make  it  difficult  to  say  whether  or  not  the  robe  was  continued  all  round.  The 
sleeves  were  about  three  feet  wide,  and  round  the  middla  was  a  belt  about  four  or 


'I 


m 


'  ■  ri--'ir"'  -i-i'ff"rii  i;  ifirmliitfar  tliiiti... 


THE  RIU-KIU  (LU-CnU)  AND  GOTO  ARCHIPELAGOS. 


88S 


Wo 
Their 


five  inches  wide,  always  of  u  difforent  colour  from  the  dress,  and  in  general  richly 
ornamented  with  wrouj^ht  silk  and  gold  flowers.  The  whole  of  the  dress  folds 
easily,  and  has  a  ,  raceful  and  jjicturcsque  ai)pearance. 

"  Their  hair  is  of  jet  black,  and  is  kept  glossy  by  juice  expressed  from  a  loaf.  It 
is  pulled  tight  up  all  rourid  and  formed  at  the  top  into  a  compact  knot,  so  as  to  conceal 
the  crown  of  the  head,  which  is  shaved.  Through  the  knot  are  thrust  two  metal 
pins,  fnmi  four  to  six  inches  in  length.  The  higher  orders  wear  on  state  occasions 
what  they  called  a  '  hatchee-matchee',  a  kind  of  turban  made  by  winding  a  broad 
band  round  a  cylinder  in  such  a  way  that  a  small  segment  of  each  fold  is  shf)wn  at 
every  turn,  in  front  above,  and  behind  below. 

"  Tlie  cattle,  which  are  of  a  small  black  breed,  are  used  exclusively  for  agricul- 
tural purposes.  Hogs,  goats,  and  poultr}',  with  rice  and  a  great  variety  of  vegetables, 
form  the  food  of  the  inhabitants.  Milk  is  never  used.  There  are  no  sheep  nor 
asses,  and  the  horses  are  of  a  small  slight  make,  and  the  natives  are  very  fond  of 
riding.  The  mode  of  dressing  the  ground  is  neat,  and  resembles  the  Chinese, 
particularly  in  manuring  and  irrigating  it.  Besides  the  sugar-cane,  they  grow 
tobacco,  wheat,  rice,  Indian  corn,  millet,  sweet  potatoes  and  many  other  vegetables. 

"  The  bamboo  and  rattan  grow  to  a  considerable  size,  but  the  pine  is  the  most 
conspicuous  tree  on  the  island,  growing  to  a  great  height  and  size.  The  banian- 
tree  of  India  was  seen  at  several  places,  the  finest  one  overhanging  the  small 
temple  at  Napa-kiang."  * 

The  Goto  Islands,  chosen  by  the  Japanese  Government  as  a  place  of  banishment, 
arc  barely  separated  from  Kiu-siu  by  a  narrow  channel  studdetl  with  rocks  and 
reefs.  They  form,  with  Ilirado,  a  section  of  the  orographic  system,  of  which  Pumpelly 
regards  Chusan  and  the  Ningpo  Highlands  aa  a  continuation.  Iki,  lying  to  the 
north-west  of  Kiu-siu,  is  also  a  geographical  dependence  of  this  island.  But 
Tsu-siraa,  standing  in  the  very  centre  of  Korea  Strait,  between  the  Broughton  and 
Krusenstern  Channels,  seems  to  belong  rather  to  the  mainland  than  to  Nip-pon. 
Some  of  its  animal  and  vegetable  species  show  an  affinity  to  those  of  Manchuria. 
It  long  served  as  the  commercial  entrepdt  between  Korea  and  Japan,  and  the 
almost  independent  Prince  of  Tsu-siraa  enjoyed  a  monopoly  of  the  exchanges 
through  Fusan,  before  that  port  was  thrown  open  to  Japanese  shipping.  In  1861 
some  Russian  officers  made  a  settlement  in  the  island,  with  the  ostensible  purpose  of 
building  dockyards  for  the  repair  of  their  vessels,  but  in  consequence  of  a  diplomatic 
conflict  with  England,  they  abandoned  the  station.  It  was  situated  near  Fachu, 
the  capital,  on  a  broad  inlet,  which  at  high  water  divides  Tsu-sima  into  two  parts. 

Japan  and  its  dependent  islands,  occupying  an  essentially  volcanic  area,  are 
subject  to  frequent  earthquakes,  due  probably  to  the  pressure  of  the  vapours  pent 
up  near  the  surface  of  the  ground.  During  the  historic  period  the  most  violent 
shocks  have  occurred  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  large  volcanoes,  and  more  espe- 
cially in  the  plains  of  Tokio,  which  lie  near  Fusi-san,  and  which  are  watered  by 
streams  descending  from  Asama-yama.  As  many  as  100,000  souls  are  said  to 
have  perished  in  1854,  when  the  greater  part  of  Yedo  was  destroyed. 

*  "  Voyage  to  Korea  and  Lu>chu,"  p.  203,  «(  teg. 


I  ! 


a88 


EAST  ASIA 


nYDuofiKAVFiic  System — Chief  Riveus. 

Owiii}?  to  the  imrrowiu'sa  of  the  Uind,  which  is  nowhere  '^00  inih^s  wide,  and  to 
tlie  extremely  niountiiinous  chamcter  of  its  surfaee,  no  mom  is  U'ft  for  the  devehtp- 
nient  of  hirgo  streams.  The  rivers,  wliieli  are  numerous  enouj,'h,  esju'cially  in 
Yeso  and  IIi>n(hi,  in  faet,  resemhU>  mountain  torrents,  with  short  and  rapid  courses, 
and,  in  tlieir  htwer  reaelies,  subject  to  sudden  and  disastrous  inundations.  They  arc 
eonsiMpjently  more  damaj,Mn<;  than  beneticiul  even  for  irrij^ation  purposes.  To 
navi<^ation  they  are  not  merely  useless,  but  a  positive  hindrance,  in  (jonsecjuence 
of  the  large  (piantities  of  sedimentary  matter  which  they  wash  down,  and  by  which 
several  of  the  best  harbours  in  the  archipelago  have  already  been  choked  up. 
Such  has  especially  been  the  fate  of  Osaka  and  Nihi-gata  harbours  on  the  east  and 
west  sides  of  Nip-pon,  which  were  formerly  accessible  to  the  largest  vessels,  but 
which  can  now  be  approadied  only  by  small  craft.  In  Japan  "  a  river-bed  is  a 
Avasto  of  sand,  boulders  and  shingle,  through  the  middle  of  which,  among  sand- 
banks and  shallows,  the  river  proper  takes  its  devious  course.  In  the  freshets  which 
occur  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  every  year,  enormous  volumes  of  water  pour  over 
these  wastes,  carrying  sand  and  detritus  down  to  the  mouths,  which  arc  all  ob- 
structed by  bars.  Of  these  rivers  the  Shinano,  being  the  biggest,  is  the  most  re- 
fractory, and  has  piled  up  a  bar  at  its  entrance  through  which  there  is  only  a 
passage  7  feet  deep,  which  is  perpetually  shallowing."  * 

Subjoined  is  a  table  t  of  all  the  Japanese  rivers,  w  hich  have  a  total  course  of  more 
than  oO  miles  : — 


Name. 

Source. 

Sliinaiio 

E.  Sliiiiano 

Tone 

N.  Kodsiike 

Kitiikamo 

N.  of  liikuchiu 

I  shikari 

N.  of  prov.  1  shikari,  Ycsso 

Tonriu 

Lako  Sua 

Kiso 

S.W.  Shinano 

Sakata 

S.  of  r.scn 

Okimia 

S.W.  of  prov.  Iwaka 

Noshiro 

W.  of  prov.  Kikuchiu 

Akiino 

Lake  Imiwashiro 

SumiJa 

E.  Musashi 

Toshima 

S.E.  of  prov.  Ugo 

Fujii 

Koshiu 

Yodo 

E.  Iga 

Baniu 

Yamanaka  (Knshiu) 

Oi 

N.  Koshiu 

Ootlet. 


Nihi-fjata 

(lulf  of  Tokio  and  Pacific 

Ishinnmaki  and  Murohama,  E.  coast 

(if  liikuzen 
\V.  coast  of  Ishikari 
I'acific 
Pacific 

W.  coast  of  Ufcn 
Wiitari,  E.  coast  of  Iwaki 
Noshiro,  W.  coast  of  Rikuchiu 
Near  Nihi-gata,  W.  coast  of  Echigo 
Gulf  of  ToKio 
Kubota,  W.  coast  of  Ugo 
Pacific 
Osiika  Bay 
Pacific 
Pacific 


T.«nuth  in  milei. 


180 

170 

140 

130 

120 

115 

110 

110 

100 

90 

90 

70 

70 

70 

GO 

55 


Climate  of  Japan. 

Being  washed  by  marine  waters,  and  enveloped  in  an  atmosphere  charged  with 
oceanic  vapours,  Japan  enjoys  a  much  more  equable  climate  than  the  continental 
regions,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Sea  of  Korea.  "While  Peking  has  the 
winters  of  XJpsala  and  the  summers  of  Cairo,  Tokio  suffers  far  less  from  such 
extremes  of  heat  and  cold.     The  oceanic  current,  to  which  the  Japanese  have  given 


130 

120 
115 
110 
110 

100 
90 
91) 
70 
70 
70 
GO 
55 


ed  with 
tinental 
has  the 
jm  such 
ve  given 


f  ! 


11 


a 

c 
11 


CI,IM.\TK  OK  JAl'AN. 


8R7 


tlu*  niinio  of  Kiiro-Mi'vo,  or  "IJIiK'k  Sirciiiii,"  corn'MpoiulM  in  itw  coiirHc  uiul  cliniiitic 
I'lifluciMcs  with  llic  (Jiill'  Stn'iim  of  the  Norlli  Alliilitic.  It  flows  clnsc  hy  llic  cast 
HJdo  of  flic  l:irj,'('  islmids,  and  iis  frpid  waters,  (•i>ininjj;  from  flic  Straits  of  Malaysia 
and  tin*  I'liilipjiincs,  brinji;  with  tlicin  an  afniosplicric  curri-nt  far  niildci'  than  that 
of  the  nci^lihonrin)>;  mainland.  Its  mean  temperature,  some  four  or  five  dej^reos 
lower  than  tliaf  of  the  (julf  Stream,  varioH  from  74'  to  81^  iMihr.,  and  thus  exee«'(lM 
hy  ahout  nine*  dej!;reeH  the  normal  temperature  of  the  marine  waters  under  the  same 
latitudes.  I )urin;if  tlie  south-west  summer  nionsoons,  the  stream  flows  directly  to 
th(>  coasts  of  Kiu-siu  and  Sikok,  and  the  s(mth  side  of  Hondo;  while  in  winter  it  is 
diverted  by  the  polar  winds  towards  the  north-east.  Its  velocity  varies  frofn  about 
'\0  to  4-0  miles  u  day,  and  the  phunmot  has  recorcU'd  depths  of  ;J,()()()  feet  and 
upwards. 

In  the  north  the  Oyu-sivo  polar  cnrront,  emorgin}?  from  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk, 
moots  the  Kuio-sivo,  one  branch  of  whica  ponetrutoH  through  Tsugar  Strait.  Ah 
in  the  Atlantic,  the  two  streams  niOV(»  side  by  side  in  parallel  lines,  but  in  opposite 
directions,  under  a  sky  frequently  charged  with  dense  vaj)ours.  The  ( )ya-sivo,  which 
in  winter  fringes  the  east  coast  of  Yoso  with  drift  ice,  also  brings  large  (pnintities 
of  marine  animals  from  the  nortliern  latitudes,  thus  contributing  abundant  supplies 
of  food  to  the  inhabitants  of  Nip-pon.  The  coasts  of  Yeso,  which  arc  exposed  to 
the  two  streams  of  the  North  Pacific,  correspond  in  this  resijcct  to  the  banks  of 
Newfoundland. 

West  of  the  Japanese  Archipelago,  a  branch  of  the  Kuro-sivo  flowing  round 
the  ishind  of  Tsu-sima  also  contributes  to  raise  the  normal  temperature  in  these 
latitudes.  Its  influence  is  chiefly  felt  on  the  north  side  of  Hondo,  where  its  waters 
have  an  average  temperature  of  about  09"^  Fahr.  But  the  Tsu-sima  stream,  as  it 
has  l)een  named  by  Schrenck,  does  not  flow  constantly  in  the  direction  from  south 
to  north.  Under  the  action  of  the  polar  winds  it  is  deflected  in  winter  towards  the 
south  at  least  on  the  surface,  and  it  then  sweeps  round  between  the  liU-chu  Islands 
eastwards  to  the  Kuro-sivo.  But,  owhig  to  its  small  volume,  its  influence  even  in 
summer  is  of  secondary  importance  in  determining  the  oscillations  of  the  tempera- 
ture. Between  the  two  slopes  of  the  Japanese  Archipelago  the  contrast  in  this 
respect  is  most  striking.  Here  the  isothermals  traced  from  west  to  east  are  far 
from  coinciding  with  the  parallels  of  latitude.  The  mean  temperature  at  equal 
distances  from  the  equator  is  much  higher  on  the  east  than  on  the  west  side,  where 
the  mountains  of  like  elevation  remain  snow-clad  for  a  considerably  longer  period 
of  the  year.  Pending  more  numerous  and  accurate  meteorological  observations, 
it  may  be  stated  in  a  general  way  that  the  isothermals  are  deflected  more  and  more 
towards  the  north  as  we  approach  the  Arctic  zone.  Thus,  while  the  difference 
between  South  Japan  and  the  corresponding  coast  of  China  is  scarcely  more  than 
3°  Fahr.,  it  exceeds  8°  Fahr.  between  Yeso  and  Russian  Manchuria.  Thanks  also 
to  the  moderating  effects  of  the  Pacific  throughout  the  year,  the  periods  of  extreme 
cold  and  heat  are  delayed  till  February  and  August  respectively.  September  is 
normally  a  warmer  month  even  than  July. 

*  "Unbeaten  Tracks,"  i.,  p.  212.  t  A.  H.  Keane's  "Asia,"  p.  612. 


UH8 


MAHT  ASIA. 


Ncitw  itlislaniliii;,'  tlir  mlviiiitiigiH  of  itH  insular  |)OHiti(>ii,  •!  mu  is  iioiu!  the  less 
iillVi'tcd  l»y  tlic  ffc'iHTuI  intiui'iicoH,  which  on  tho  inainhind  ovorywhcro  tend 
to  lower  tin*  t('iiiiM'ratiin>  as  we  protrt'd  eastwards.  Under  the  sauio  ])arallcl 
.lapan  has,  on  the  whok<,  a  eliniate  ei^ht  or  ten  de^'ri^es  eoicU'r  than  that  of  lliuope. 
No  part  of  the  arehipelaj^o  is  free  from  snow  and  ice,  .md  ni  the;  central  districts 
of  lloii(h)  the  ^M'ouiid  lias  occasionally  remained  for  several  days  covered  with  snow 
to  u  depth  of  over  lU  inches,  while  in  Veso  the  j^lass  has  heen  known  to  fall  uh 
nuich  as  twenty-ei^ht  degrei-s  helow  freezing  point.     Ah  olsewherc  iu  the  cviromu 


Fi|f.  IHl.-^  Ikothriimai.n  ok  Japan 

Nnilc  1  ;  lft,"ii(i,()iX). 


1 


t    I 


,  300  Miles. 


east,  the  winter  period  in  Japan  coincides  with  the  prevalence  of  the  northern,  and 
especially  of  the  north-west  polar  winds,  whose  normal  direction  ought  to  be 
north-cast  and  south-west,  but  which  are  deflected  to  tho  south-east  by  the 
influence  of  the  Pacific  basin.  On  tho  west  coast  the  winter  gales  are  so  fierce 
as  almost  to  arrest  the  navigation  during  their  prevalence.  Even  the  steam  service 
between  Nihi-gata  and  Hakodate  is  interrupted,  and  in  several  of  the  coar^  towns 
tho  houses  arc  protected  from  the  fury  of  the  storms  by  screens  constructed 
of  hoardings  Vt'ith  the  interstices  filled  in  with  brushwood  and  moss. 


CLIMATE  OF  JAPAN. 


889 


Tho*o  poliir  winds  am  followed  in  April  or  May  l)y  flio  tepid  south- western 
monsoons,  wliieli,  however,  are  ln'<pu'ntly  interrupted  throii^'hout  tiie  sinnnier  l)y 
intervals  of  ealui.  Towards  the  cn'l  of  HUinnicr,  and  especially  in  Septeinher,  when 
tlio  teniperatnre  of  the  marine  waters  is  liij^hesl,  and  when  the  air  is  ehary:ed  with 
vapours,  tho  loiiHt  utinospheric  disturhanee  may  jifivu  rise  to  a  whirlwind,  at  tiinen 
HuHieiently  violetit  to  he  deserihed  as  a  typhoon.  These  eyclonos  prevail  espeeiully 
in  the  south  and  throuj;hout  the  liU-ehu  Arehipela^'o,  hut  they  never  advaneo 
northwards  heyond  Sendai  Hay  on  the  east  <'oasl  of  llondft,  and  are  mostly  eonlined 
to  the  area  of  the  Kuro-sivo current.  This  <langerous  period  of  aerial  disturlianees 
is  succooded  hy  the  finest  Heas(m  in  tho  year,  u  dear  und  hri^ht  autumn,  genial 
nnd  refroshinff  after  tho  relaxinp;  summer  hoatH.  Owinjjf  to  tho  j^reater  re(j;ularity 
of  the  annual  winds,  the  alteriuition  of  the  seasons  is  far  more  uniform  in  Japan 
than  in  the  temperate  r(>jj;ions  of  West  Europe.  Hence  the  various  expressions 
introduced  into  the  laiif^uaj^e,  to  d(>noto  at  once  tho  sea.son  of  the  year  and  he  state 
of  the  weather,  which  oug:ht  to  nornudly  correspond  with  it.  Formerly  it  was 
fashionable  to  begin  corrcspondonco  with  long  piinises  referring  to  these  regular 
changes  of  tho  weather.  "  Now  that  tho  icohas  molted,  tho  trees  are  budding,  and 
you  flourish  moro  and  more  in  tho  enjoyment  of  perfect  health,  I  address  you  the.se 
lines,  written  with  the  pencil.  .  .  ."  Such  was  the  invariable  opening  of  letters 
written  in  spring. 

Tho  ruinfull  as  well  as  the  temperature  is  regulated  by  the  monsoons.  Except 
in  Yeso  and  on  the  west  side  of  Hondo,  the  winter  sooson  is  nearly  everywhere 
very  dry,  and  the  contrast  between  the  two  slopes  is  easily  explained.  The  north- 
west winds,  always  accompanied  by  fine  weather  along  the  coast  of  Russian 
Manchuria,  become  charged  with  moisture  while  crossing  the  joa,  and  when  thej' 
strike  the  Japanese  uplands  this  moisture  is  precipitated  in  the  form  of  snow.  In 
some  of  the  higher  districts  tho  snow  lies  so  thick  on  the  ground  that  the  people 
are  obliged  to  take  refuge  in  the  upper  storeys  of  their  houses,  and  snow-shoes  then 
become  universal,  as  in  Canada.  But  beyond  the  crests  of  the  hills,  the  atmosphere 
is  free  from  clouds,  and  the  sun  sliines  brightly  throughout  the  winter  months  on 
the  lands  facing  the  Pacific.  On  the  other  hand,  both  slopes  are  exposed  to  heavy 
showers  throughout  the  summer  monsoons.  Tho  downpours  will  at  times  last  for 
days  together,  and  on  one  occasion,  when  it  rained  incessantly  for  thirty  hours  at 
Yokohimia,  all  tho  brooks  rose  from  10  to  16  feet,  while  tho  rivers  were  transformed 
to  lakes.  The  rains  coinciding  with  tho  summer  heats  and  with  the  evaporation 
from  the  rice  grounds,  which  cover  such  a  largo  surface,  the  whole  land  now 
becomes  sodden  with  moisture,  and  while  vegetation  flourishes  with  a  rank  growth, 
men  and  animals  pine  in  the  oppressive  and  dripping  atmosphere.  Tho  rainfall  h 
altogether  scarcely  inferior  to  that  of  the  tropics,  and  is  about  double  that  of  West 
Europe.  Thanks  to  these  do^vnpour8,  the  Sea  of  Japan  is  far  loss  saline  than  tho 
Pacific,  and  consequently  freezes  much  more  rapidly.  In  this  almost  land-locked 
basin  the  tides  are  also  very  low,  rising  on  the  coast  of  Sado  scarcely  moro  than 
22  inches. 

The  climate  of  the  archipelago  agrees  on  the  whole  very  well  with  tho  European 


■•»(*- 


<n 


I 


t: 


890 


EAST  ASIA. 


constitution,  and  is  in  this  respect  so  superior  to  the  adjacent  mainland  that  Japan 
is  now  generally  looked  upon  as  a  sort  of  sniiafon'iiiti  for  the  English  residents  in 
Hong  Kong  and  Shanghai.  The  chief  drawhacks  are  the  excessive  moisture  of  the 
early  summer  months,  wuich  is  somewhat  enervating,  and  the  sudden  chills  of 
autumn  and  winter,  which  are  very  tryijig  to  invalids.  "  To  compare  Japan  as  to 
climate  with  England,  the  former  has  a  hotter  summer,  but  a  clearer  and  drier 
winter  ;  a  heavier  rainfall,  but  fewer  rainy  days ;  a  spring  comparable  to  that  of 
'England,  and  an  autumn  far  surpassing  anything  England  can  show,  at  least  at  the 
same  season  and  for  the  same  length  of  time  ;  in  short  a  climate  which,  if  barely  so 
healthy,  has  the  advantage  of  being  more  thoroughly  enjovable."  * 

Veoktation. 

Owing  to  the  copious  rainfall,  the  relatively  temperate  winters  and  moist 
summer  heats,  the  flora  of  Japan  is  distinguished  by  extraordinary  richness  and 
vigour.  The  largest  trees  may  be  easily  transplanted,  and  nuiny  species,  which 
since  the  tertiarj'  period  have  disappeared  in  China,  continue  to  flourish  in  this 
archipelago.  Thousands  of  plants  from  Malaj'sia,  Indo-China,  the  Himalayas, 
Korea,  Manchuria,  and  even  America,  spreading  over  now  submerged  lands,  or 
whose  germs  were  carried  either  by  birds  or  the  oceanic  currents,  have  found  a 
suitable  homo  in  these  favoured  islands.  Apart  from  those  introduced  during  the 
liistoric  period  from  China  or  Euro^je,  Franchet  and  Savatier  have  enumeratcil 
altogether  2,743  species,  grouped  in  1,035  genera  and  154  orders.  And  although 
the  flora  is  relatively  well  known,  the  future  exploration  of  Yeso,  and  of  some 
more  secluded  districts  in  the  other  islands,  will  doubtless  increase  these  figures. 
Of  the  genera,  no  less  than  44  soem  to  be  peculiar  to  the  Empire  of  the  "  Rising 
Sun." 

In  the  Kuriles  the  birch,  jjoplar,  and  willow  grow  in  all  the  sheltered  valleys ; 
while  Kunashir  has  its  oak  groves,  although  the  trees  seldom  exceed  20  feet  in 
height,  except  in  the  glens.  For  fuel  and  building  purposes,  the  natives  of  this 
group  rely  mainly  on  drift  wood.  The  mulberry  and  tea  plant  are  cultivated  in 
Hondo  as  far  as  Tsugar  Strait,  and  oven  Akita  is  one  of  the  chief  centres  of 
sericulture.  Throughout  the  southern  regions,  as  far  north  as  Tokio,  the  vegeta- 
tion acquires  its  dominant  aspect  from  the  intermixture  of  Malaysian  and  Indian 
species  with  those  of  the  temperate  zone.  Yet  the  sugar-cane  is  limited  by  the 
southern  shores  of  Hondo,  while  the  larger  varieties  of  the  bamboo,  over  60  feet 
high,  are  not  found  in  the  wild  state.  The  palm  is  not  yet  fully  acclimatised,  nor 
does  the  fruit  of  the  banana  come  to  maturity.  In  Japan  there  are  scarcely  any 
grassy  lands,  nor  even  meadows  properly  so  called.  Wherever  tillage  has  not 
given  a  uniform  aspect  to  the  vegetation,  the  land  is  shaded  either  by  large  trees  or 
by  shrubs  and  woody  plants  intersjiersed  with  herbage  and  creepers,  hundreds  of 
different  species  often  presenting  themselves  within  the  field  of  vision.  No  more 
lovely  flowering  garden  can  be  seen  than  these  natural  gardens  of  the  Japanese  laud- 

,?  "The. Land  of  the  Morning;' 5.  23. 


•A«<M^nCiMMIH|W 


■»»*'■ 'm^mmi  .»«it' 


lat  Japan 
sidcnts  in 
ire  of  the 

chills  of 
ipan  as  to 
and  drier 
to  that  of 
a«t  at  the 

barely  so 


VEGETATION.  891 

scape.  Yet  amid  these  countless  flowers,  conspicuous  amongst  which  is  the  snow-white 


ind  moist 
tiness  and 
ies,  which 
ish  in  this 
[imalayas, 
lands,  or 
B  found  a 
uring  the 
numerated 
.  although 
I  of  some 
se  figures. 
Rising 

d  valleys ; 
20  feet  in 
es  of  this 
tivated  in 
centres  of 
he  vogeta- 
nd  Indian 
ed  by  the 
er  60  feet 
atised,  nor 
ircely  any 
;e  has  not 
ffc  trees  or 
mdreds  of 
No  more 
inese  land- 


s 

H 

■< 

K 

U 

H 


60 


camelia,  we  nowhere  meet  either  the  pinks  and  raniniculi  of  Europe,  or  even  the 
papilionaceous  varieties,  or  the  coiAmOn  '^vreet  smelling  plants  of  the  West.    On  the 


rrf 


: 


rti;M<««;j»l»;-»''.-rian«W«^ 


J 


892 


EAST  ASIA. 


whole,  the  flowers  are  more  brilliant,  but  loss  odoriferous  than  in  our  temperate 
zone.  On  the  other  hand,  the  forests  present  a  greater  diversity  of  species  than 
in  any  other  country,  the  tropics  themselves  not  excepted.  During  a  short  stroll, 
and  without  leaving  the  beaten  track,  the  botanist  will  meet  with  a  hundred 
different  varieties,  for  Japan,  even  more  than  China,  is  especially  distinguished  for 
the  large  proportion  of  its  arborescent  species.  Nowhere  else  within  an  equal 
range  are  there  met  so  many  different  kinds  of  conifers  and  caducous  trees,  and 
the  bright  red  or  scarlet  autunmal  tints  of  the  Japanese  woodlands  are  even 
more  beautii'ul  than  those  of  North  America.  Unfortunately,  in  many  upland 
regions,  the  forests  have  been  destroyed,  and  replaced  by  thickets  of  shrubs  and 

creepers. 

The  finest  forests  clothe  the  hillsides  between  1,500  and  3,000  feet  above  sea 
level.  But  the  splendid  cryptomeriae,  the  glory  of  the  land,  are  no  longer  found 
in  the  wild  state  north  of  Tokio.  The  avenues  of  these  trees  in  the  Tosan-do  dis- 
trict and  in  Yeso  have  been  planted  by  the  hand  of  man.  The  Hinoki  cypress 
{chn»i(ec!/pr(ns),  used  in  the  building  of  shrines  and  for  other  religious  purposes, 
being  a  hardier  plant,  is  still  found  at  an  elevation  of  5,500  feet  in  the  Tosan-do 
Highlands.  Leafy  trees  scarcely  rise  higher  than  5,000  feet,  but  the  spruce  and 
larch  are  met  at  a  height  of  6,500  feet,  while  rampant  conifers  creep  up  to  8,000 
feet  and  upwards. 

Except  the  potato  and  tobacco,  of  Americfin  origin,  all  the  cultivated  plants 
come  from  the  East,  whence  Japan  received  its  improved  agricultural  methods  as 
well  as  its  other  arts.  Rice,  the  mulberry,  the  cotton  and  tea  plants,  as  well  as 
most  of  the  fruit-trees  of  the  temperate  zone,  have  been  acclimatised.  But  the 
damp  climate  tends  to  swell  the  fruits,  to  the  detriment  of  their  flavour,  so  that 
the  products  of  the  Japanese  orchards  are,  on  the  whole,  far  inferior  to  those  of 
Europe  and  the  United  States. 

"  Very  misleading  statements  have  been  made  as  to  both  the  extent  and  the 
lucrativeness  of  agriculture  in  Japan.  For  instance,  it  used  to  be  said  that  the 
mountains  of  Japan  were  cultivated  to  their  summits.  How  wide  this  statement  is 
from  the  truth  will  appear  from  the  fact  that,  of  the  28,000,000  cho  (one  cho= 
2-4507  acres)  of  land  in  Japan  less  than  4J  millions  are  cultivated.  Of  the  re- 
mainder far  the  greater  part  is  covered  with  forests.  It  is  true  that  the  plains  are 
cultivated  with  extraordinary  care,  and  that  among  the  lower  hills  every  spot  to 
which  water  can  be  brought  is  terraced  for  rice-culture.  But  there  are  great 
mountain  tracts  which  have  scarcely  been  brought  under  the  sway  of  man,  and  of 
these  as  well  as  of  the  drier  slopes  above  and  around  the  paddy-fields,  much  is  capable 
of  cultivation. 

"  Then  the  luxuriant  verdure  of  the  country — the  most  luxuriant  outside  the 
tropics — is  apt  to  give  a  mistaken  notion  as  to  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  We  see 
everywhere  a  magnificent  flora.  The  plains  are  adorned  in  summer  with  every 
variety  of  green,  from  that  of  the  young  rice  to  that  of  the  veteran  pine.  The 
valleys  luxuriate  in  an  overwhelming  mass  of  foliage,  and  the  mountain- slopes  are 
for  thousands  of  feet  clad  with  an  unbroken  mantle  of  trees.   Nevertheless  it  is  true 


_|jlik.. 


JAPANESE  EAUNA. 


898 


and 


every 

The 

ppes  arc 

is  true 


that  the  soil  of  Japan  is  not  naturally  fertile.  It  is  mostly  either  volcanic  or  derived 
from  igneous  rocks,  in  some  places,  as  in  the  great  productive  plain  of  Musashi,  it 
is  directly  drawn  from  volcanic  tufa  and  ash.  The  extraordinary  profusion  of 
plants  growing  in  a  state  of  nature  is  duo  to  the  climate  more  than  to  the  soil. 
Besides  it  should  be  noticed  that  these  consist  very  largely  of  coniferous  trees  and 
other  evergreens,  plants  which  least  of  all  tend  to  draw  from  the  soil's  resources. 
Then  the  productiveness  of  the  cultivated  land  is  largely  duo  to  careful  manuring. 
This  and  the  climate  together  make  it  possible  for  the  Japanese  farmer  to  gather 
two  crops  oif  one  field  in  the  same  year.  '  A  new  field,'  says  a  Japanese  proverb, '  gives 
but  a  small  crop ' — a  saying  which  strikingly  shows  that  the  Japanese  themselves 
have  little  faith  in  the  natural  fertility  of  the  soil.  The  Japanese  farmer  treats  his  soil 
as  a  vehicle  in  which  to  grow  crops,  and  does  not  appear  to  regard  it  as  a  bank  from 
which  to  draw  continual  supplies  of  crops.  Thus  he  manures  every  crop,  and  he 
applies  the  manure  to  the  crop,  not  to  the  land. 

"  Nowhere  is  there  more  neat  and  painstaking  tillage  than  in  Japan.  All  the 
sewage  of  the  towns  and  villages  is  utilised  as  manure.  Of  the  4^  million  cho 
under  cultivation  2|  inillion  consist  of  paddy-fields,  which  yield  on  an  average  about 
30  bushels  of  clean  rice  per  acre,  and  the  total  produce  of  rice  per  annum  is  about 
170,000,000  bushels,  that  of  wheat,  35,000,000  bushels,  ind  of  barley  55,000,000 
bushels."  * 

Japanese  Fauna. 

The  land  being  almost  everywhere  brought  under  cultivation  up  to  the  very 
mountain  gorges,  Japan  has  preserved  but  a  very  small  number  of  the  wild  animals 
by  which  it  was  formerly  peopled.  The  beasts  of  prey  are  represented  by  two 
species  of  the  bear,  one  of  which,  peculiar  to  Yeso,  resembles  the  Califomian 
variety,  and  the  extinct  cave  bear  [tiraus  spelcem).  The  Japanese  bear,  properly  so 
called,  which  is  still  met  frequently  enough  in  the  upland  districts  of  Hondo,  is 
much  smaller,  and  distinguished  from  all  its  congeners  by  its  hanging  lips.  The 
wolf,  which  differs  only  in  its  smaller  size  from  the  European  species,  is  now  rare, 
while  the  so  called  wild  dog,  resembling  the  Australian  dingo,  has  disappeared 
from  the  southern  regions,  where  it  formerly  existed.  The  fox,  which,  like  most 
other  animals,  is  smaller  than  the  continental  variety,  is  both  numerous  and 
extremely  daring,  penetrating  even  into  the  towns,  and  visiting  the  little  rural 
shrines  where  food  is  deposited  in  honour  of  Inari,  god  of  the  rice  grounds.  In 
the  popular  fancy  it  has  become  the  companion  of  this  deity,  who  is  always  repre- 
sented accompanied  by  two  foxes,  carved  in  wood  or  stone.  A  local  superstition 
credits  this  animal  with  the  power  of  assuming  the  form  of  a  young  woman,  in 
which  disguise  it  is  apt  to  beguile  benighted  wayfarers.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
badger  is  endowed  with  the  faculty  of  transforming  itself  to  articles  of  furniture 
or  kitchen  utensils,  for  the  purpose  of  playing  practical  jokes  on  the  industrious 
housewife.     Similar  magical  virtues  are  also  attributed  to  the  cat. 

A  kind  of  monkey,  the  saru  {tnacactm  apecioaua),  with  a  rudimentary  tail  and  a 

•  "  The  Land  of  the  Morning,"  p.  9. 
68 


.^ff 


894 


EAST  ASIA. 


!■  .- 


* 


red  face,  difforin<^  Imt  slightly  from  the  Barbary  variety,  is  found  in  Hondo  as  far 
north  as  the  Tsugar  Strait,  the  extronio  northern  limit  of  the  quadrumana  in  East 
Asia.  A  species  of  wild  boar,  an  antelope,  a  deer,  several  kinds  of  rodents,  nine 
varieties  of  the  bat,  and  various  cetacea,  complete  the  series  of  local  mammals,  of 
which,  apart  from  the  marine  aninuds,  Wallace  enumerates  altogether  thirty 
species,  all  except  five  peculiarly  Japanese.  The  genera,  however,  differ  in  no 
respects  from  those  of  the  mainland,  while  the  salient  features  of  this  fauna,  resem- 
bling those  of  Manchuria  and  China,  recall  the  time  when  the  archipelago  was 

connected  with  the  mainland. 
Fig.  183.— Badoke:  Fac-bimile  of  a  Japanesk  Derkjn.      Some  traces  are  also  found  of 

relationship  between  the 
animals  of  Nip-pon  and  North 
America,  which  are  also  attri- 
buted to  an  isthmus  of  dry 
land  formerly  uniting  the  two 
northern  continents.  Never- 
theless, the  differences  now 
§tf\^  existing  between  the  allied 
^  species  show  that  all  land 
communication  has  been  inter- 
rupted for  long  geological 
periods. 

The  Japanese  avifauna, 
better  known  than  the  mam- 
malia, is  less  varied  than  might 
be  expected  from  the  prox- 
imity to  China.  "While  the 
latter  region  possesses  over 
four  hundred,  Nip-pon  has  no 
more  than  two  hundred  and 
fifty  species,  nearly  all  resem- 
bling those  of  the  mainland. 
In  summer  many  birds  migrate 
northwards  across  Sakhalin  or 
the  Kuriles,  and  according  to 
Seebohm  there  are  only  eleven 
species  undoubtedly  distinct  from  those  of  other  regions.  But  amongst  those 
common  to  the  archipelago  and  other  parts  of  the  Old  World,  it  is  remarkable 
that  several  are  separated  from  each  other  by  thousands  of  miles.  Thus  a  kind 
of  pigeon  unknown  in  China  is  peculiar  to  the  Himalayas,  Java,  and  Japan, 
while  a  Japanese  jay  is  met  elsewhere  only  in  Europe,  a  distance  of  6,000 
miles.  These  species  evidently  at  one  time  occupied  all  the  intervening  spaces, 
where,  owing  to  changes  in  the  surroundings  they  have  gradually  become  extinct, 
and  are  thus  now  coutined  to  narrow  areas  at  either  extremity  of  their  former 


r4<^*>««Ca«MMlMMMMlHHB!Hk«4Mli 


"tmimiimmms^ 


JAPANESE  FAUNA. 


895 


lo  as  far 

in  East 
its,  nine 
inials,  of 
r   thirty 
}T  in  no 
1,  rcsem- 
lugo  was 
lainland. 
found  of 
in       the 
id  North 
Iso  uttri- 
j  of  dry 

the  two 
Never- 
ices  now 
tie  allied 
all  land 
ecu  inter- 
geological 

avifauna, 
the  mam- 
lan  might 
the  prox- 
VTiile  the 
sses    over 
ton  has  no 
idred  and 
all  resem- 
mainland. 
ds  migrate 
>akhalin  or 
cording  to 
>nly  eleven 
iigst  those 
remarkable 
hus  a  kind 
lid  Japan, 
3  of   t),000 
ing  spaces, 
me  extinct, 
oir  former 


domain.  Altogether  the  Japanese  ornithological  world  presents  much  analogy 
to  that  of  temperate  Europe,  each  species  being  represented  in  both  regions  by 
corresponding  forms.  Nevertheless  the  ototo-gisu,  the  king  of  Japanese  songsters, 
fetching  as  much  as  £80  in  the  market,  is  not  a  nightingale,  as  in  Europe,  but  a 
member  of  the  cuckoo  family. 

"  The  crow  forms  a  salient  feature  of  the  landscape,  especially  in  Yeso.  Here 
there  are  millions  of  them,  and  in  many  places  they  break  the  stillness  of  the  silent 
land  with  a  baliel  of  noisy  discords.  They  are  everywhere,  and  have  a  degree  of 
most  unpardonable  impertinence,  mingled  with  a  cunning  and  sagacity  which  almost 
put  them  on  a  level  with  man  in  some  circumstances.  Five  of  them  were  so  impu- 
dent as  to  alight  on  two  of  my  horses,  and  so  be  ferried  across  the  Yurupugawa. 
In  the  inn-garden  at  Mori  I  saw  a  dog  eating  a  piece  of  carrion  in  the  presence  of 
several  of  these  covetous  birds.  They  evidently  said  a  great  deal  to  each  other 
on  the  subject,  and  now  and  then  one  or  two  of  them  tried  to  pull  the  meat  away 

Fig.  184. — Fac-8Imilb  of  a  Jai'Anesb  Biku  Druion-. 


from  him,  which  he  resented."  *  The  Japanese  crow  is  considerably  larger  than 
the  European  species,  being  about  the  size  of  our  ravens,  and  fidly  a  match  in 
strength  and  courage  for  small  dogs. 

Legend  fills  the  popular  fancy  with  monstrous  dragons,  with  whom  the  heroes 
of  the  olden  times  had  to  do  battle.  These  reptiles  have  now  degenerated  to 
harmless  snakes,  the  only  venomous  animals  iu  the  archipelago  being  a  trigono- 
cephalous  species,  from  which  a  healing  drug  is  extracted,  and  a  little  crustacean  of 
the  order  of  the  cloportae.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  local  reptiles  is  a  gigantic 
salamander,  the  sanzio-uvo  (^Sicbotdia  tnajcima),  that  lives  on  fish  and  frogs,  but  is 
now  becoming  rare  even  in  Japan.  Beetles,  butterflies,  and  other  insects  are 
extremely  numerous,  as  is  also  the  marine  fauna,  although  several  species  of  fur- 
bearing  cetacea  have  already  been  extenninated.  The  beaver  has  also  disappeared 
from  several  of  the  Eurile  Islands,  where  it  was  formerly  very  common. 

•  «  Unbeaten  Tracka,"  ii.,  p.  129. 


Ilji 


ff'r- 


!!i! 


890 


EAST  ASIA. 


Cotnparod  with  European  peoples,  the  Japanese  possess  a  very  small  number 
of  (linnostie  animals.  The.  horse,  imported  from  Korea,  is  of  a  small,  shaiiolcss 
breed,  vi'ry  vieious,  but  vifj;orous,  and  2)()SHes.sed  of  {^reat  staying  powers.  Tlic 
Satsma  breed,  mentioned  in  the  fourteenth  century  by  Matouanlin,  is  nearly 
extinct,  and  most  of  tlie  horses  now  employed  in  the  Yokohama  circus  arc  brought 
from  ^longolia.  Holding  very  small  farms,  the  peasantry  have  no  great  need  of 
live  stock,  henco  oxen  are  rare,  and  in  some  districts  ab.solutely  unknown.  From 
the  eighth  century  of  the  vulgar  era  till  recently  the  use  of  meat  was  forbidden, 
and  all  knackers  and  tanners  were  regarded  as  infamous,  and  under  the  name  of 
Etas  classed  with  actors  and  mendicants,  as  ///  tiin,  or  "  no  men."  But  under  the 
influence  of  European  ideas,  the  townsfolk  have  recently  taken  to  an  animal  diet, 
and  the  breeding  of  cattle  for  the  market  has  already  made  considerable  progress. 
But  owing  to  the  damp  climate,  goat  and  sheep  farming  has  not  proved  successful. 
The  ass  also  suffers  from  the  prolonged  ruins,  while  the  European  pig  thrives 
well. 

Imiahitaxts — The  Aixos. 

Except  in  the  outer  islands  of  Yeso,  the  Kuriles,  and  Lu-chu,  the  present 
population  of  Nip-pon  is  one  of  the  most  homogeneous  on  the  globe.  From  Kago- 
sima  to  iVvomori  Bay,  across  ten  degrees  of  latitude,  the  natives  have  everywhere 
the  same  speech  and  customs,  with  the  full  consciousness  of  their  common  nation- 
ality. But  although  now  thoroughly  fused  in  one  peojjle,  they  do  not  seem  to 
belong  to  one  stock  originally,  and  are  only  indirectly  connected  with  the  aborigines 
of  the  archipelago. 

The  oldest  traditions  and  records  all  sjieak  of  the  ancient  savages,  the  "  Eastern 
Barl)arians,"  Yebsis,  Yebis,  Yemisi,  Mo-sin,  or  Mao-jii  ("Hairy  Men"),  who 
formerly  occupied  the  northern  portion  of  Hondo,  and  who  were  the  ancestors  of 
the  present  Ainos.  There  is  certainly  no  direct  evidence  to  show  that  the  Japanese 
arc  the  civilised  kinsmen  of  these  northern  barbarians,  and  the  only  probable 
relationship  between  them  is  such  as  may  be  due  to  crossings  continued  from  ago 
to  age  on  the  border  lands.  Although  no  Yebis  may  now  be  found  in  the  north  of 
Hondo,  it  is,  nevertheless,  certain  that  all  were  not  exterminated  by  the  conquering 
Japanese  in  the  fifteenth  centurj'.  Under  the  name  of  Adzma  Yebis,  they  have 
become  intermingled  with  the  civilised  intruders,  and  their  physical  features  may 
still  be  traced  in  the  present  mixed  popidation  of  the  country,  just  as  the  stone 
weapons  and  other  implements  used  by  them  are  occasionally  found  in  the  ground. 
The  women  have  here,  as  elsewhere,  best  preserved  the  aboriginal  type,  and  the 
inhabitants,  especiallj'  of  the  secluded  Oga-sima  Pc^ainsula,  still  show  a  marked 
resemblance  to  the  Knrile  islanders.  Ainos  blood  has  even  been  traced  as  far  south 
as  the  plains  of  Tokio,  although  the  pure  type  is  at  present  confined  to  Yeso,  the 
Southern  Kuriles,  and  the  south  of  Sakhalin.  According  to  the  census  of  1873, 
there  were  only  12,281  Ainos  at  that  time  in  Yeso,  and  the  whole  race  numbers  at 
present  probably  less  than  20,000  souls.  The  few  Kurilo  families  occupying  the 
northern  i.slands  of  that  archiiielago  are  not  to  be  distinguished  from  those  of  the 


■K  'wrj  ^'  ■'••nrwiir'Wf'^IBffWWh^'^  ^i 


number 
hapcless 
•s.  The 
;  neurly 
brought 
need  of 
.  From 
rbiddcn, 
name  oi 
luler  the 
nul  diet, 
progn^ss. 
iccessfid. 
J  thrives 


'imn 


;  present 
m  Kugo- 
erywhere 
n  nation- 
seem  to 
borigiues 

"  Eastern 
i"),  who 
jestors  of 

Japanese 

probable 
from  ago 
3  north  of 
)nquering 
:hey  have 
ures  may 

the  stone 
e  ground. 
),  and  the 
a  marked 
I  far  south 

Yeso,  the 
1  of  1873, 
ambers  at 
pying  the 
jse  of  the 


?'^f«g**P'^— ^'-;^--jji-?,— ^  --y*^-**,.,..—,^.  ■,:,-_ 


wm 


l^!^:r^M 


:r.|!,;'iv;; 


■T-'"."'''  - — ^ 


INHABITANTS— THE  AINOS. 


807 


m 


i 


u 

D 
f 

8 

Q 
S5 

■< 

«1 
Ed 

O 

2 

< 


P 


iioin-hbouriiijif  Kaincliiitkii  IVniiiHulii,  and  some  Alcutiuns  arc  also  found  in  tho 
isluw'a  of  Sinuisir  and  Urup. 

Acfdnliiif?  ti»  (jiolovnin,  tho  word  "  Alnos,"  like  the  nanios  of  so  many  primitive 
pooi)li>s,  simply  nu'uns  "Men."  Tliinkiii<,'  tlicmsclvos  tho  trntro  of  tlio  uiiivorso, 
thoy  snuif  of  old,  "  Gods  of  tho  soa,  oju-n  your  di\  ino  oyos.  \Vhorov(>r  vour  ovos 
fall  tlioro  oohoos  tho  Aino  Njjooch."  Jtut  a  Japanoso  otymohtfjy  (piolod  liy  Satow 
explains  tho  word  "Aino"  to  moan  "Dog"  (Inu),  and  an  old  tradition  rofors  tho 
origin  of  the  race  to  a  dog  and  a  Japanoso  prinooss  banished  northwards.  Tho 
Aleutians  have  a  similar  tradition,  and  seem  to  bo  very  proud  of  their  eanine 
desoent,  pretending  that  for  a  long  time  they  had  paws  and  tails  like  those  of  a 
dog,  but  wore  deprived  of  them  on  acoount  of  their  crimes. 

Most  writers  ufhliate  tho  Ainos  to  tho  other  Mongf»loid  pooj)los  surrounding 
them,  and  their  snudl  size,  clear  complexion,  black  hair  and  eyes,  are  taken  as 
proofs  of  their  affinity  to  tho  Japanese.  ]{ut  others  group  the  Ainos  with  the 
Kamchadalos,  Koriaks,  AleutianS;  and  some  other  northern  pco2)les  in  a  separate 
division  of  mankind,  while  they  arc  by  others  regarded  as  a  branch  of  tlie  Eskimo 
or  of  tho  Polynesians,  or  even  of  the  Western  "  Caucasic  "  stock. 

Certainly  tlie  ordinary  Aino  type  dilfors  greatly  froju  the  Japanese.  Tho  com- 
plexion is  lighter,  the  forehead  broader  and  higher,  the  cranial  capacity'  vastly 
superior,  the  nose  more  prominent,  the  eyes  larger,  more  open  and  perfectly 
straight,  like  those  of  Europeans.  But  they  are  distinguished  from  all  their 
neighbours  chiefly  by  the  great  abundance  of  their  hair,  from  which  circumstance 
thoy  were  commoidy  alluded  to  by  Siebold,  Krusonstern,  Golovnin,  and  other  older 
writers,  as  the  "hairy  Kurilos,"  from  the  name  of  the  islands  occupied  by  several 
of  their  tribes.  The  Japanese  annals  also  describe  them  as  a  species  of  wild  beast, 
with  manes  and  beards  4  feet  long.  "The  first  Aino,"  says  the  legend,  "was 
suckled  by  a  she-bear,  whence  he  and  all  his  descendants  became  covered  with 
hair.  Proud  of  his  long  board,  which  distinguishes  him  from  the  other  races  whom 
he  meets,  the  Aino  regards  it  as  some  sacred  appendage,  which  nothing  will  induce 
him  to  shave.  In  this  respect,  as  well  as  in  his  features  and  expression,  he  bears  a 
singular  resemblance  to  the  Russian  peasant,  with  whom  he  might  easily  be  con- 
founded. Most  travellers  describe  the  women  as  repulsive,  and  apparently  belong- 
ing almost  to  a  different  race  from  the  men.  But  notwithstanding  their  small 
eyes  and  thick  lips.  Miss  Bird,  who  visited  them  in  their  mountain  homes,  tells  us 
that  she  met  many  women  of  very  comely  appearance  even  amongst  tho  old  people. 
The  children,  of  whom  their  parents  are  extremely  fond,  are  models  of  grace  and 
beauty. 

The  average  Aino  is  about  the  middle  height,  broad-shouldered,  full-chested, 
very  strongly  built,  with  short  muscular  arms  and  legs,  and  disproportionately 
large  hands  and  feet.  The  bodies  of  most  adults  are  covered  with  short,  bristly 
hair ;  and  travellers  have  compared  that  on  the  backs  of  the  children  to  the  tine  soft 
fur  of  a  cat.  The  foreheads  are  generally  high,  broad  and  prominent,  at  first  sight 
giving  the  impression  of  an  unusual  capacity  for  intellectual  d(n  elopment.  The 
nose,  although  short,  is  straight  and  the  cheek-bone  low,  while  the  full  eyebrows 


a 


U'tiliP 


III 


IW- 


^^^W^ii 


ao8 


EAST  ASIA. 


I 


form  H  Ntrni'f»ht  lino  nearly  across  the  face.  Tlu^  eyes  arc  somewhat  deep-set  and 
of  a  rich  liquid  l)r()\vn  colour,  with  u  siMjj;uhirly  soft  expression,  corresponding?  to 
the  fjenfle  and  l;indly  character  of  the  people.  The  skin  is  described  as  almost 
white,  or  else  of  u  delicate  olive  brown  tint,  thin  and  lip:ht  enough  to  show  the 
chunfjfcs  of  cohmr  in  the  cheeks. 

What  little  is  known  of  the  Aino  huifjuapfe  is  sufficient  to  show  that  it  has  no 
sort  of  affinity  to  that  of  the  Japanese,  which  greatly  surpasses  it  in  softness.  Hut 
although  many  words  end  in  sibilants,  it  is  modulated  with  an  almost  musical 
accent,  and  spoken  with  such  slight  dialectic  dilferences,  that  the  interpreters  from 
the  Kurilc  Islands  have  no  difficulty  in  understanding  the  people  of  South  Yeso. 
There  is  no  literature,  and  hitherto  none  of  the  Ainos  have  learned  to  read  or  write, 
except  a  few  youths  sent  to  the  schools  at  Tokio.  liut  they  have  an  excellent 
memory,  and  arc  quick  at  sums.  By  means  of  little  notche<l  sticks  and  knotted 
strings,  like  the  I'eruvian  qnippon,  they  keep  uU  their  accounts  on  the  decimal 
system,  and  readily  detect  any  attempts  of  the  dealers  to  cheat  them.  Their 
wooden  utensils,  with  carved  designs,  also  attest  their  artistic  skill  and  good  taste, 
while  the  musical  faculty  is  highly  developed.  Their  melancholy  airs  are  sung  with 
a  shrill  voice,  and  their  string  instrumeuta  are  ingeniously  constructed  of  the 
tendons  of  the  whales  stranded  on  the  coast. 

The  Ainos  lead  a  wretched  existence  exclusively  engaged  in  hunting  and  fishing. 
Thev  follow  the  bear,  deer  and  fox,  and  capture  all  the  large  cetacea  except  the 
whale,  to  whom  they  thus  show  their  gratitude  for  driving  the  shoals  of  herrings 
up  the  creeks  in  spring.  When  a  bear's  cub  is  found  in  the  lair,  it  is  brought 
home  and  given  to  a  nurse,  who  suckles  and  rears  it  with  her  own  children.  For 
six  months  the  animal  is  treated  as  a  member  of  the  family,  but  in  autumn  a  great 
feast  is  held,  winding  up  with  a  banquet,  at  which  the  bear  is  devoured.  "  We 
kill  you,  oh,  bear,"  they  cry  while  sacrificing  it,  "  but  you  will  soon  return  to  us 
in  an  Aino."  The  head  stuck  on  a  stake  in  front  of  the  hut  henceforth  protects 
the  household  of  its  former  host.  The  heads  of  deer  are  also  wrapped  in  loaves 
and  placed  on  poles,  generally  in  the  forest  where  they  have  boon  struck  down. 
Such  are  the  chief  religious  ceremonies  of  the  Ainos,  who,  in  this  respect,  belong 
to  the  same  group  as  the  East  Siberian  tribes,  amongst  whom  travellers  have 
observed  analogous  rites.  Like  the  Golds  of  Manchuria,  the  Ainos  are  very  fond 
of  the  company  of  animals.  In  nearly  all  the  villages  bears  and  eagles  are  kept  in 
largo  cages,  and  become  objects  of  family  worship.  Sun,  moon,  and  stars,  are  idso 
worshipped ;  Iwsides  "  the  sea  which  feeds,  the  forest  which  protects "  them, 
all  the  forces  of  nature,  and  the  Kamiii,  or  heavenly  and  earthly  spirits,  which  are 
found  both  in  the  old  Japanese  cosmogony  and  in  that  of  the  East  Siberian  races. 
They  also  invoke  the  Japanese  hero  Yositsuue,  who  vanquished  their  forefathers, 
because  the  legend  praises  his  clemency  to  the  conquered.  Strangers,  to  whom 
they  show  hospitality,  are  also  honoured  by  the  title  of  Kamui,  and,  like  the  Japa- 
nese Siutoists,  they  profess  a  profound  devotion  for  the  shades  of  their  ancestors. 
The  house  of  the  departed  is  levelled,  and  the  materials  burnt  or  dried,  after  which 
a  new  dwelling  is  erected  to  him,  resembling  the  one  he  occupied  on  earth.     The 


^■!t«T-,'j  a",- ■■■tt;«tii!g3Bgst^rt'S' 


INHABITANTS— TUK  AINOS. 


890 


pikes  untl  other  ohjccfH  stuck  round  tlioso  mortuary  slirinoH  arc  carefully  prcHcrvod, 
and  lln'  oUVrs  of  stran^jers  to  jturcliasf  llic  skulls  of  the  dead  arc  rejected  with 
horror.  There  is  no  nacerdotal  caste,  all  ollicialin^  in  eoiunion,  with  few  rites 
beyond  daneinj;,  and  copious  lihations  nf  Wr/,  (M*  rice  hrandy. 

In  the  coniniunity,  the  chief,  f^enerally  the  nu'inlxT  <d'  the  trihe  who  posHcsscs 
most  arms  und  bears'  heads,  has  no  rijyhts  or  autliority  except  as  arbitrator  when 
disputes  arise.  If  public  opinion  charges  liini  with  the  least  partiality,  he  is  nt 
once  deposed,  and  succeeded  by  the  nuin  whom  his  decision  may  have  wronged. 
Polyf^aniy  is  permitted,  and  murriapes  are  common,  if  not  between  brother  and 
sister,  certainly  between  near  relations.  Altliouph  tlie  women  work  more  than 
the  men,  they  are  not  considered  in  any  way  their  inferiors.  The  wife,  who  keeps 
an  orderly  household,  enjoys  an  ecjual  sluire  with  her  husband  in  the  management 
of  the  common  interests,  and  nothing  is  done  without  her  advice  beinj?  f»iven.  Her 
rank  and  rights  are  clearly  delineated  in  the  tattcx)  nuirks  traced  by  lu<r  moth(>r. 
These  marks  uro  begun  at  the  age  of  fiv«',  and  continued  till  she  is  marriageable, 
when  her  toilet  is  complete.  Jiy  means  of  soot  rubbed  into  the  incisions  a  sort  of 
moustache  is  described  on  the  upper  lip,  while  the  hands  and  fore-arms  are 
embellished  with  an  intricate  aral)es(pie  piece  of  embroidery.  All  the  patterns  are 
strictly  determined  by  traditional  usage,  but  the  practice  of  tattooing  has  recently 
been  forbi(hlen  by  the  Japanese  Government. 

Still  independent  of,  and  even  feared  by,  the  Japanese  dowti  U>  the  middle  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  the  Ainos  continued  to  occupy  the  northern  part  of  Hondo, 
where  the  town  of  Akita  served  as  the  common  mart  for  the  two  races.  But  they 
have  long  disappeared  from  the  large  island,  and  are  now  seldom  seen  on  the  south 
coast  of  Yeso.  Honest,  good-natured,  active,  individually  courageous,  although 
inspired  with  a  superstitious  dread  of  the  government,  they  have  neither  the  moral 
force  nor  the  material  resources  needed  to  hold  their  own  against  their  powerful 
neighbours.  The  use  of  fire-arms,  with  which  they  pursued  the  prey,  has  been 
forbidden,  and  the  Japanese  fishermen  come  to  fish  at  their  very  doors.  With  no 
companions  except  their  dogs,  they  arc  unable  to  turn  their  attention  to  stock- 
breeding,  and  the  little  agriculture  which  they  have  learnt  is  limited  to  planting  a 
few  vegetables  round  their  houses.  They  wear  coarse,  but  almost  indestructible, 
garments,  made  by  their  women  from  the  bark  of  trees,  and  in  winter  lined  with  skina 
and  furs.  Without  being  actually  ill-used,  they  are  always  cheated  by  the 
Japanese ;  and,  notwithstanding  the  protection  afforded  by  the  authorities,  they  are 
demoralised  by  want,  alcohol,  and  all  its  attendant  evils.  Many  have  married 
Japanese  women,  and  all  are  more  or  less  familiar  with  the  language  of  their 
rulers,  so  that  they  must  inevitably  soon  die  out  or  become  absorbed  in  the  superior 
race.  Like  so  many  other  obscure  and  half-savage  races,  they  are  threatened  with 
extinction  by  civilisation  itself.  As  if  conscious  of  their  approaching  doom,  they 
have  become  indifferent  to  life,  and,  although  gay  and  cheerful,  they  will  commit 
suicide  at  the  least  check  or  trouble.  But  infanticide  is  not  practised  except  in  the 
case  of  twins,  when  one  is  dispatched  to  save  it  from  a  life  of  hardship. 


*   ll 


iljiJEi. 


»r^».;. 


400 


KAST  ASIA. 


Till.    AllOKUilNKS   (»l     JaI'AN. 

The  doiiiiiiimt  jMopIc  in  .liipaii  arc  evidently  u  inixi'd  nice,  in  which  the  Aino 
i«h>iiicnt  iH  but  nUkIiII)'  n-prcHciitcd.  Accurdiii)^  to  the  prcposHCHMioii  nf  «)l)s..rviTM, 
tht>y  hiivo  Imji'Ii  ulliliiili-d  to  vuriouH  HtockH;  but  althou^^h  Whitney  and  >r<)rt.iii 
regard  them  as  nicnibiTM  nf  the*  Caunisic  laniily,  most  anlhiopolo^iMts  class  tli.iii 
witli  the  Mont,'t.l  nu-es  <»!'  SilK-ria  and  Kast  Asia.  The  Chinese  records  rei'errinj,'  to 
the  land  ol'  Wu,  that  is,  of  Japun,  hol'oro  tho  inhabitants  were  accpiainted  with  tho 

Fig.    186.— I'lllMlTlVB    rol'lLATIONB   UV   No'-ION,    Al  IllRUlNO  TO   THK  JxrANtllK   AnNAM. 

Hcilf  I ;  jri.uuo.iM). 


Kinaau  or  Ynioa. 


Yamato. 


YemiBl  or  Yeb«i»    Itinerary  of  Knmnu  Yamato 
Aiuo.  Iviirc  biko. 


800  MilCB. 


art  of  writing,  mention  certain  facts  attesting  the  preponderating  influence  of 
Chinese  civilisation  even  at  that  romoto  epoch.  Migrations  must  have  taken  place 
from  the  Yang-tze  basin  to  the  adjacent  archipchigo,  and  according  to  one  legend 
the  ancestors  of  the  Japanese  race  were  three  hundred  young  men  and  women  sent 
across  the  seas  by  the  Emperor  Tsin-Shi-hwangti  in  search  of  the  "  flower  of  immor- 
tality." Many  have  suspected  the  presence  of  Malay  elements  amongst  the  inha- 
bitants of  Nip-pon,  while  the  curly  hair  and  dark  complexion  common  in  the  south 
have  been  refeired  by  Siebold  to  a  mixture  with  "  Alfuros,"  Melanesians,  and  Caroline 
Islanders.    Vessels  may  certainly  have  often  drifted  northwards  with  the  equatorial 


miii»m^y\f'»-M.i  <.',"..-"'>.■ -W'^'il^MUiaH  !"  '-'-,. -Vj  ^  H'.. 


THK  i'im:si;nt  jai'an'khk  hack. 


4U1 


ciirrciif  mid  tlic  Kum-Nivo,  niul  it  is  |>(issili|c  tlml  .liipim  tuny  liiivc  in  this  way  Imtii 
|)ciij»U'<l  Irniii  till'  I'acitic  ur  KumI  Indian  AnliipflajfocM.  At  llic  Hanu-  time  no 
liiHloric  doruini'iit  mnitionH  nny  voyujijcH  of  thin  Hurt  lM'fitn>  tlu<  iinival  of  thu 
KiinipraiiM.  Tlic  annaU  sju-ak  (^luly of  the  rclalionH  of  tlic  .lapancNc  willi  llic  nii^fli- 
iMiuiinj;  i.xlandcTH  und  with  the  |iropU'H  of  the  mainland,  wlu'iico  tlir  coniniuni- 
cutions  wtTf  in  uny  oumi«  n»on<  msily  i'Bl,il)li-hod.  I'assinji;  from  Hondo  and  Kiu- 
sin  to  Iki,  and  thrncc  l>v  THU-siniu  and  the  Kon-an  Anliiju'lajjo  to  Korea  il.sflf, 
matiniTH  l\avo  tlu'  land  alw,  vs  in  si;r|ii.  wliili',  acrordinjj;  to  tlio  direction  of  tlio 
tradi'  windN,  cvi'n  li^ht  craft  ar«'  coiiHtantly  eariicd  from  ono  oouNt  to  the  ollior. 
Thns  it  waM  that  tho  KnniMo  or  Vnsu  orcnpicd  Nimnltanoously  tho  nouth-cuNt  corni-r 
of  Korea  und  tho  country  of  tho  Yoniodz  or  Nono  Knini  in  tho  west  of  Japtui. 
They  were  not  "pacified,"  that  is,  sulKlued,  till  tho  him  ond  century  of  the  vid^'ar 
era.  The  Yamato,  or  Japanese  properly  so  called,  Hoem  to  have  originally  dwelt  on 
the  Houthern  slKtres  oi  the  archipelapi  facing  the  I'aciHc.  Hut  before  any  mention 
occurH  either  of  Ainos,  Yusu,  or  Yamato,  the  islands  were  already  peopled.  On 
tho  plain  of  Ye<lo  and  in  stneral  t)ther  parts  of  Nij)-pon  refuse  heaps  have  been 
found  roHend)ling  tho  Danish  KJufdrnnioddinycr,  ond  containing,  besides  slielU 
dill'erent  from  the  living  sjjccies,  earthenware  and  huuum  bones  mingled  with  those 
of  monkeys,  deer,  wild  boars,  wolves,  and  dogs.  Tho  ruco  associated  with  these 
remains  would  seem  to  huvo  been  unthro2)ophagi. 


The  Puesknt  Japanese  Race. 

Ethnologists  have  attempted  to  describe  tho  churucteristic  Japanoso  type.  But 
although  at  first  sight  few  differences  are  detected,  foreigners  residing  in  tho 
country  soon  begin  to  distinguish  two  distinct  typos,  which  correspond  partly  to  two 
social  classes,  and  which  tho  native  artists  have  at  all  times  reproduced  and  even 
exaggerated.  These  types  aro  those  of  tho  peasants  and  the  aristocracy.  Tho 
features  of  tho  peasant  approach  nearest  to  those  of  the  East  Asiatic  peoples.  lie 
has  the  san^o  broad,  flat  face,  crushed  nose,  low  brow,  prominent  cheek  bones,  half 
open  mouth,  small  black  und  oblique  eyes.  He  is  best  represented  in  tho  northern 
division  of  Hondo,  in  the  low-lying  plain  of  tho  Tone-gava  and  on  the  highlands 
stretching  west  of  Kioto.  The  nobles  are  distinguished  by  their  lighter  complexion, 
more  pliant  and  less  vigorous  body,  more  elongated  head,  elevated  brow  and  oval 
face.  The  cheek  bones  are  but  slightly  prominent,  the  nose  aquiline,  mouth  small, 
eyes  very  small  and  apparently  oblique.  Artists  have  accepted  this  aristocratic 
type  us  the  ideal  of  beauty,  transferring  it  to  their  gods  and  heroes,  and  exaggerat- 
ing it  in  their  portraits  of  women.  Being  found  chiefly  in  the  Kioto  district  and 
on  the  slope  facing  the  Pacific,  it  has  boon  argued  that  these  features  belonged  to  a 
conquering  "Polynesian"  clement  from  the  eastern  islands.  But  all  shades  of 
transition  aro  now  found  between  the  two  extremes,  and  owing  to  crossings  and 
shif tings  of  fortune  many  of  the  nobles  might  be  taken  for  plebeians,  while  tho  oval 
face  and  aquiline  nose  of  the  aristocracy  arc  often  found  amongst  the  lower  classes. 
On  the  whole,  the  Japanese  face,  with  its  olive  complexion,  lozenge  shape  and 


f^ 


i 


1  I 


w 


!l 


i 


ill: 


41 


402 


EAST  ASIA. 


18B.— Japanese  Woman. 


receding  brow,  is  far  from  answering  to  the  Western  ideal  of  beauty,  and  to  most 
foreigners  seems  decidedly  plain.  But  this  plainness  in  the  case  of  the  women  is 
often  counterbalanced  by  u  graceful  carriage,  charming  expression,  and  tender 
glance.  Those  of  Kioto  and  the  southern  regions  bear  the  palm  for  beauty  in  the 
estimation  both  of  natives  and  foreigneis.  Amongst  the  Samurai  aristocracy 
many  beardless  youths  betray  a  surprising  resemblance  to  young  women. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  Lu-chu  Archipelago  form  a  transition  between  the 
"  Polynesian "  type  of  Japan  and  the  almost  Malay  features  of  the  Formosans. 
The  eyes  are  nearly  straight,  the  complexion  of  a  somewhat  olive  tint,  the  beard 
fuller  than  that  either  of  the  Japanese  or  Chinese,  and  the  hair  usually  gathered  in 
chignon  fashion  on  the  top  of  the  head.      But   these   islanders  are  especially 

distinguished  by  their  gentle 
expression  and  graceful  manners. 
Maxwell,  Basil  Hall,  and  the  other 
early  European  visitors,  speak  with 
enthusiasm  of  this  race,  which 
seems  to  lack  no  virtue  except  the 
strength  of  character  and  dignity 
inspired  by  the  enjoyment  of  liberiy. 
In  Lu-chu  family  names  are  borne 
only  by  the  two  privileged  classes 
of  the  aristocracy  and  nobles  of  the 
second  rank.  The  plebeians  wear 
a  different  dress,  and  are  forbidden 
the  use  of  silver  hair-pins  and 
umbrellas. 

To  whatever  class  they  may 
belong,  all  the  Japanese  are  of  low 
stature,  averaging  from  5  feet  to  5 
feet  2  inches  in  the  men,  and  under 
five  feet  in  the  women.  The  lower 
orders  are  mostly  robust,  broad  shouldered,  very  straight,  and  endowed  with  a 
remarkable  power  of  endurance.  The  Japanese  coolie  will  carry  a  heavy  load 
at  a  rapid  pace  for  hours  together,  without  stopping  even  when  ascending 
steep  mountain  passes.  Attendants  on  foot  keep  up  with  their  master's  horse 
crossing  the  country  at  full  gallop,  and  the  acrobats  are  unsurpassed  in  strength 
and  activity  by  those  of  the  West.  A  tendency  to  obesity  is  found  only  amongst 
the  wrestlers,  amongst  whom  the  Mongolian  type  seems,  by  a  sort  of  atavism, 
to  be  preserved  to  a  surprising  degree.  The  artisans  and  peasantry  are  generally 
well  proportioned,  except  that  they  are  often  somewhat  knock-kneed,  a  defect 
due  to  the  way  children  are  carried  on  their  mothers'  backs.  They  also  become  prema- 
turely aged,  both  sexes  being  usually  covered  with  wrinkles  about  their  thirtieth 
year,  and  retaining  of  youth  little  beyond  their  white  teeth  and  fiery  glance. 

The  prevailing  malady  is  anemia,  which  sooner  or  later  affects  four-fifths  of  the 


^^Aff.m«'.V*L1W-atffte^-^vS^Sgg^' 


■■:3!r-,ik:s« 


THE  PRESENT  JAPANESE  RACE. 


408 


to  most 
■omen  is 
I  tender 
ty  in  the 
istocracy 

reen  the 
rmosans. 
iio  beard 
thered  in 
ispecially 
gentle 
manners, 
he  other 
>eak  with 
(,    which 
tcept  the 
.  dignity 
>f  liberiy. 
ire  borne 
•d  classes 
es  of  the 
ans  wear 
forbidden 
pins   and 

iiey  may 
re  of  low 
feet  to  5 
ind  under 
The  lower 
with  a 
javy  load 
ascending 
r's  horse 

strength 
r  amongst 

atavism, 
generally 

a  defect 
ac  prema- 
'  thirtieth 
ice. 
ths  of  the 


whole  population,  and  which  is  attributed  to  the  almost  exclusive  use  of  rice  and 
vegetables,  possessing  little  albumen  and  fat.  Small-pox  is  also  very  prevalent  and 
much  dreaded,  although  the  Chinese  methods  of  inoculation  have  long  been  known. 
Even  since  the  introduction  of  vaccination  by  Siebold  at  the  beginning  of  the 
present  century,  this  scourge  still  continues  to  leave  its  mark  on  the  features  of 
about  two-thirds  of  the  people.  Notwithstanding  their  extreme  cleanliness,  the 
natives  are  affected  by  the  taint  of  leprosy  in  every  part  of  the  archipelago,  and 
especially  in  the  Tokio  district.  Diseases  of  the  chest  and  lungs  are  almost  as  fatal 
as  in  Europe ;  but  scarlatina,  erysipelas,  puerperal  fever,  and  many  other  Western 
maladies  are  absolutely  unknown  in  the  archipelago. 

Few  crossings  have  taken  place  between  the  natives  and  the  Chinese  settled  in 
the  seaports,  although  the  number  of  children  sprung  from  alliances  between 
Europeans  and  Japanese  women  is 

already  relatively  considerable.   The  Fig.  187.— Japankse  Giul. 

type  of  the  mother  invariably  pre- 
vails, and  according  to  Wemich,  the 
children  of  English  or  German 
paternity  seldom  survive,  while  the 
issue  of  unions  between  Frenchmen 
and  native  women  thrives  well,  and 
are  even  more  vigorous  and  sprightly 
than  their  pure-blood  Eastern  play- 
mates. The  descendants  of  Portu- 
guese Christians  and  the  women  of 
the  southern  islands  call  themselves 
Europeans,  still  bear  the  names  of 
their  Lusitanian  forefathers,  and 
generally  make  it  a  point  of  honour 
to  speak  English.  But  nearly  all 
take  Japanese  wives,  and  the  race 
has  thus  become  assimilated  to  the 
indigenous    type,   except   that  the 

hair  remains  slightly  undulating,  the  forehead  higher,  the  face  less  prognathous, 
and  the  eyes  less  oblique  than  amongst  the  surrounding  populations. 

It  is  no  longer  obligatory  to  wear  the  national  dress,  and  in  their  eagerness  to 
imitate  foreign  ways,  the  lettered  and  trading  classes  have  adopted  the  European 
costume,  which,  although  very  unbecoming,  has  the  advantage  of  helping  to  get 
rid  of  the  old  class  distinctions.  Formerly  the  style  and  colours  of  the  clothes 
worn  by  both  sexes  in  every  social  position  were  strictly  regulated  by  law  or 
custom.  The  usual  material  was  cotton,  silk  being  reserved  for  the  rich,  or  for 
grand  occasions.  The  Kimono,  or  robe  of  the  women,  differs  only  in  its  greater 
length  and  brilliancy  from  that  of  the  men.  In  both  the  wide  sleeves  serve  as 
pockets,  and  are  usually  filled  with  rolls  of  paper  used  as  handkerchiefs  or  table- 
napkins.     Hence  also  "  sleeve  editions  "  answering  to  our  small  "  {jocket  editions  " 


404 


EAST  ASIA. 


of  Imoks.  The  costuino  is  coiiiplotcd  by  u  skirt  in  the  upper  classes,  or  drawers 
ainoiif^st  the  jwor,  while  several  robes  are  worn  one  over  the  other  in  cold  weather. 
Duriiiy;  the  rainy  season  tlie  artisans  and  peasantry  cover  their  clothes  with  struw 

I'ij^.  188     Japanbhe  MusiciA.NH  and  Dealeh. 


or  oil-paper  cloaks.  All  except  the  coolies  and  couriers  wear  the  so-called  /iata, 
high  wooden  clogs,  which  require  great  care  in  walking,  and  are  even  the  cause  of 
nervous  all'tctions.     The  EuroiR'au  boot  is  ill-suif«d  for  the  muddy  «treets,  and 


Sir 


THE  PRESENT  JAPANESE  RACE. 


405 


indoors  thoy  wnlk  bare-footed  on  the  fine  mattinj?  of  tlie  floors.  The  hond-dress, 
ospocially  of  the  fair  sex,  is  quite  a  work  of  art  and  mucli  imtiont  labour,  cotisisf  in;; 
of  a  vast  chi{j;non  of  real  and  artificial  hair,  cunningly  devised,  and  over  which 
many    hours     arc     usually    siKMit. 


Fig.  189,~JArANrsE  Tattooino. 


lieing  imablc  to  afford  all  this  tune 
every  day,  women  engaged  in  work 
have  their  hair  dressed  once  or  twice 
a  week  only,  and  in  order  not  to 
disturb  the  elaborate  superstructure, 
they  are  obliged  to  sleep  with  the 
nc>ck  resting  on  a  wooden  pillow,  so 
as  to  keep  the  head  free  from  contact 
with  the  bed-clothee.  A  white  cos- 
metic on  the  face  and  neck,  crimson 
on  the  cheeks,  the  eyebrows  black- 
ened, the  lips  covered  with  gold 
leaf,  and  the  teeth  with  a  brown 
pigment,  and  the  toilet  of  the  high- 
born lady  of  the  olden  times  may  be 
pronounced  completed. 

Tattooing  has  been  almost  entirely 
abandoned  by  the  women  of  all 
classes,  and  its  use,  even  by  the 
men,  has  now  been  forbidden  by  the 
Government.  We  learn  from  Matou- 
alin  that  the  nobles  were  formerly 
more  richly  decorated  than  the 
plebeians.  But  in  recent  times  the 
most  elaborate  art  has  been  lavished 
on  the  couriers  and  others,  obliged, 
by  their  occupation,  to  appear  almost 
naked  in  public.  The  designs, 
mostly  in  red,  white,  and  blue,  are 
diversely  interlaced  without  any 
symmetrical  arrangement,  but  al- 
ways with  great  taste,  so  that  a 
graceful  projM)rtion  is  observed  be- 
tween the  birds,  dragons,  flowers, 
and  other  more  conspicuous  objects. 
Thus  a  tree  will  be  represented  with 

its  roots  twined  round  the  right  foot,  the  stem  growing  up  the  left  leg,  and  covering 
the  back  or  breast  with  its  outspread  leafy  branches,  on  which  arc  perched  birds 
of  various  kinds. 

Made  up  as  they  are  of  so  many  heterogeneous  elements,  it  is  extremely  diflicult 


"■"'""l-j'r  T-'-l 


406 


EAST  ASIA. 


to  form  a  just  estiinute  of  the  Japanese  people,  and  the  difficulty  is  increased  by 
thoir  eonsciousncsa  that  they  are  just  now,  so  to  aay,  on  their  trial.  They  are  con- 
sequently apt  to  assume  false  airs ;  and  as  they  have  endeavoured  to  assimilate 
thonisolves  outwardly  to  Europeans,  by  adopting  a  foreign  garb,  they,  in  the  same 
way,  affect  the  manners  and  tone  of  a  nation  long  accustomed  to  Western  culture. 
Except,  perhaps,  certain  triI)os  of  the  New  World,  no  people  have  developed  to 
a  higher  degree  the  faculty  of  concealing  their  inward  sentiments  and  jjreacrving 
their  ecpianimity  under  the  most  trying  circumstances.  Extremely  reai>rved  and 
sensitive'  to  the  opinion  of  others,  they  speak  only  after  having  well  weighed  their 
words,  and  maintain  a  sort  of  self-restraint  in  the  presence  of  Europeans.  Many 
officials  have  even  taken  to  blue  or  coloured  spectacles,  in  order  the  better  to  conceal 
their  inmost  thoughts ;  and  even  among  themselves  their  outward  indications  of 

Fig.  190.- Japanbsb  Wumen. 


anger,  contempt,  affection,  or  other  strong  passions,  are  singularly  moderate,  com- 
pared with  the  vehemence  of  many  Western  peoples.  They  suffer  impassively 
without  wringing  their  hands  in  despair,  or  appealing  to  the  Deity  with  outstretched 
arms  and  upturned  eyes.  They  have  learnt  from  Europeans  the  custom  of  shaking 
hands,  but  it  never  approaches  the  hearty  grasp  of  an  Englishman.  Mothers  even 
rarely  embrace  their  children ;  and  this  general  reserve  extends  even  to  the 
demented  classes,  so  that  a  "  dangerous  lunatic  "  is  almost  an  unheard  of  phenomenon 
in  Nip-pon. 

The  very  effort  to  make  a  good  appearance  in  the  eyes  of  strangers  speaks 
highly  in  favour  of  this  interesting  people.  They  are  essentially  kind-hearted, 
and  nothing  is  rarer  than  instances  of  men  rendered  arrogant  by  their  social  position, 
and  treating  those  beneath  them  with  harshness.     Those  in  the  enjojTuent  of 


ruiiif 


■'j8i^ML',J.:li!i.Wffyj,WW.ft!;,-'iW'»JW*^«WfljSfgBa^ 


THE  PRESENT  JAPANESE  RACE. 


407 


./ 


power  and  privilege  seek  rather  to  avoid  envy  by  their  courtesy  and  consideration 
for  others  less  favoured  by  fortune.  No  one,  whatever  his  rank,  assumes  that 
haughty  air  which  so  many  functionaries,  great  and  sniall,  elsewhere  regard  as 
their  most  higlily  prized  prerogative.  From  the  custom  of  bowing  gracefully  to 
each  other,  the  Japanese  have  gradually  acquired  a  natural  attitude  of  deference, 
while  the  expression  of  the  features  generally  reflects  their  kindly  disposition. 
Even  under  extreme  suffering  patients  preserve  a  mild  glance  and  endearing  tone. 
This  innate  amiability,  conspicuous  especially  in  the  fair  sex,  is  usually  accompanied 
by  the  domestic  virtues  of  temperance,  order,  thrift,  and  common  sense.  The 
young  women  united  by  temporary  alliances  with  Europeans,  as  is  the  custom  of 
the  country,  seldom  fail  to  ingratiate  themselves  with  them  by  their  careful  fore- 
thought, assiduous  attention,  and  orderly  management  of  the  household.  Strangers 
are  surprised  at  the  cheerfulness  and  calm  resignation  of  the  hard-working 
labouring  classes,  who  adapt  themselves  to  everything,  and  submit  uncomplainingly 
to  the  greatest  hanlships  and  privations.  Yet  this  resignation  cannot  be  attributed 
to  the  want  of  a  higher  ideal.  The  eagerness  with  which  the  European  arts  and 
sciences  have  been  welcomed  shows  how  keen  is  the  desire  of  progress  amongst  all 
classes. 

The  Japanese  are  now  committed  to  the  new  social  evolution  by  a  sense  of 
honour,  which  has  ever  been  one  of  their  main  springs  of  action.  The  practice  of 
hai'akiri,  or  sappuku,  maintained  for  centuries  amongst  the  nobles,  attests  the 
strength  of  will  with  which  they  are  capable  of  asserting  their  personal  dignity. 
Although  not  of  native  growth — for  frequent  mention  is  made  of  it  in  the  Chinese 
annals — this  custom  has  nowhere  else  become  a  national  institution.  Whether  com- 
manded by  the  government  in  order  to  spare  the  nobleman  a  dishonourable  death, 
or  voluntarily  performed  in  order  to  be  indirectly  avenged  on  an  opponent  by  com- 
pelling him  to  give  life  for  life,  the  act  was  always  executed  with  scrupulous  nicety. 
No  instance  has  been  recorded  of  one  of  these  determined  suicides  ever  uttering  an 
unworthy  complaint  in  the  presence  of  his  friends  assembled  to  witness  his  self- 
immolation.  Many  cases,  on  the  contrary,  are  mentioned  of  heroes  resolute  enough 
to  compose  verses  or  write  their  last  wishes  in  their  own  blood  after  disembowelling 
themselves.  Yet  these  men  did  not  throw  away  their  life  rashly,  and  except  where 
honour,  rightly  or  wrongly  imderstood,  was  at  stake,  voluntary  deaths  have  always 
been  rare  in  Japan.  J3ut  wherever  the  test  of  courage  is  demanded  in  either  sex, 
the  Japanese  are  excelled  by  no  other  people.  The  history  of  the  forty-seven  ronin, 
so  determined  in  exacting  vengeance  for  the  murder  of  their  master,  so  heroic  in 
their  self-sacrifice,  is  the  most  widely  known  in  the  country,  and  the  graves  of  these 
daring  men  are  still  piously  tended  by  the  citizens  of  the  imperial  capital.  The 
recent  wars  and  revolutions  also  show  that  the  people  have  not  degenerated  from 
the  prowess  of  their  forefathers,  and  we  may  rest  assured  that  should  Russia  or  any 
other  Western  power  become  engaged  in  hostilities  with  them,  it  will  meet  with  a 
formidable  adversary.  Hitherto  the  European  powers  have  obtained  easy  triumphs 
over  most  Eastern  nations,  thanks  to  the  superiority  of  their  armaments  and  dis- 
cipline.    But  the  Japanese  people  are  not  one  of  those  which  will  henceforth 


* 


i 


408 


EAST  ASIA. 


I 


ill 


allow  thomsclvca  to  bo  conquered  without  a  struf^gle,  nor  will  civilisation  have 
to  (loploH!  the  disfrraceful  subjuj,'atiou  of  40,000,000  human  beinj^s  who 
arc  rapidly  idacinj^  theinsLlvcs  on  a  level  with  the  most  advanced  states  of 
Christendom. 

While  reco<?nisin}5  the  superiority  of  European  science  and  industry,  the  Jap- 
anese are  none  the  less,  in  certain  respects  even  more,  civilised  than  their  foreign 
instructors.  In  all  that  re<;ards  fruf^ality,  self-respect,  the  sentiment  of  honour, 
mutual  kindness  and  consideration,  the  mass  of  the  people  certaiidy  stand  on  a 
hi<,'her  level  thiin  most  AVestern  peoples.  The  humblest  Japanese  peasant  has  an 
eye  open  to  the  wild  grandeur  and  softer  charms  of  the  landscajje,  and  takes  care 
to  build  his  hut  by  the  sparkling  stream,  in  the  shade  of  a  leafy  thicket,  or  on  an 
emiiu'nce  conununding  a  fair  prospect  of  the  surrounding  scenery.  His  lowly 
dwelling  is  even  usually  adorned  with  flowering  plants  tastefully  disposed.  The 
country  is  not  allowed  to  be  disflgnred  by  wayside  inns  erected  on  incongruous 
sites,  and  during  the  tine  weather  groups  rather  of  tourists  than  pilgrims  are  every- 
where met  visiting  the  districts  famous  for  their  romantic  beauty. 

The  chief  defect  of  the  people,  one  which  they  most  frequently  complain  of  in 
their  own  writings,  is  a  lack  of  perseverance.  Yet  even  this  charge  cannot  well 
be  brought  against  the  mass  of  the  laborious  and  industrious  classes,  but  apjdics 
rather  to  the  youth  of  the  higher  circles,  who  have  perhaps  been  somewhat  pre- 
maturely "  civilised  "  in  the  European  sense.  These  half-educated  representatives 
of  "  Young  Japan  "  have  often  shown  a  distaste  for  solid  study,  and  pass  easily 
from  one  undertaking  to  another.  Hence  the  "  prophets  of  evil  "  have  foretold  a 
sudden  and  terrible  reaction  at  no  distant  date.  But  it  is  scarcely  conceivable  that 
a  whole  nation  can  thus  retrace  its  steps  and  deliberately  revert  to  the  old  order  of 
things,  especially  when  the  progress  already  made  is  based  on  a  solid  scientific 
foundation. 


Language  and  Letters. 

Like  the  arts,  social  institutions,  and  general  culture  of  the  people,  the  national 
speech  has  been  largely  affected  by  foreign  elements.  The  Yamato,  or  original 
language  of  the  country,  which  has  no  relation  to  the  Chinese,  is  an  agglutinating 
polysyllabic  tongue,  affiliated  by  most  writers  to  the  Ural-Altaic  family.  Yet 
nothin"  but  the  vasuest  resemblance  has  been  detected  between  their  structure, 
syntax,  or  vocabulary.  Japanese  is  distinguished  by  great  harmony,  comparable 
in  this  respect  to  Italian,  by  full  syllables  and  euphonic  laws.  The  adjective  always 
precedes  its  noun,  and  the  object  its  verb,  and  there  are  neither  articles,  cases, 
moods,  nor  tenses,  all  the  formal  relations  being  indicated  by  particles  or  suffixes. 
The  Yamato  is  spoken  in  its  purity  only  in  court  circles,  and  by  Ihe  caste  oi  nuw.i 
courtesans,  who  were  probably  formerly  priestesses  of  the  Sinto  religion.  Else- 
where the  current  speech  is  the  Sinico-Japanese,  in  which,  however,  the  Chinese 
words  have  quite  a  different  pronunciiation  from  the  Mandarin  dialect.  There  is 
no  instance  in  Europe  of  a  similar  intermixture  of  two  languages.     In  English  the 


,^K■^M>'-ws»u'Mm^\^r7-h^^;^}mll^l^■^.i^.■ 


f 


It 


\ 


1 


'iTt3wc*5r^5sr??n*?'-3Kr9C7«'Tvr;Trsrr 


T.*>S«SK»lli;E^3^' 


•m-A 


LANGUA()E  AND  LETTERS. 


409 


■  '. 

M 

\\        u 

If     1 

!(■''  1     u 

111' '  ■ 

Q 

!!i= 

% 

•i' 

^ 

'  li  1 

flu 

^ 

Is  ll 

t- 

1 '    i ' 

u 

1'  i 

8 

wi' 

1 

IMl ' 

i       -t 

llll 

►» 

iWi'i 

i 

; 

0\ 


Toutonic  und  Lutiii  ok'inont.s  havo  been  thoroujjhly  fu"«od,  whorouM  in  Siuico-.rapu- 
noHo  tlic  Yaiimti)  uiul  Chinese  lie,  wj  to  Hay,  in  juxtaiiositiim.  The  liU-ehu  diaU'ct 
is  rejifarded  as  u  distiiiet  hins^ua}?e,  although  nearly  related  to  Japanese  and  written 
with  the  same  syllabaries.  It  also  eoiitains  many  Cliinese  words  introdiieed  l)y  the 
lettered  classes.  A  portion  ol'  the  JJible  has  been  translated  in.  'lis  dialect  by 
the  missionary  Hettelheim. 

In  Japanese  there  arc  two  syntemH  of  transcription,  of  which  the  oldest  are  the 
Chinese  ideographs  introduced  with  the  germs  of  the  national  culture.  Hut  these 
signs  are  so  numerous  that  it  reijuires  u  whole  life  to  master  them  uU.  In  the 
elementary  schools  as  many  as  U,(t(M)  are  taught,  but  no  one  can  claim  to  1m>  edu- 
cate<l  if  he  does  not  know  at  least  iS.OOO  or  lO.OOO,  which,  after  all,  is  scarcely  a 
third  or  a  fourth  of  the  complete  dictionary.  Hence,  from  the  earliest  times  efforts 
have  been  made  to  simplify  the  art  of  reading.  Kven  before  the  introduction  of 
the  Chinese  ideogruplis  the  people  wore  acquainted  with  the  Korean  syllabary 
without  adopting  it.  Hut  later  on  they  invented  various  original  phonetic  systems 
commoidy  spoken  of  as  iSV;/s/,  or  "  divine  writings."  At  present  there  are  no  less 
than  seven  different  syllabaries,  of  which  six  are  of  local  invention.  The  ktifa  kana, 
or  "  aide  writing,"  so  called  l)ocause  added  to  the  Chinese  signs  to  determine  their 
exact  value,  is  in  most  use  amongst  the  lettered  classes.  For  correspondence, 
ballads,  plays,  ami  popular  literature  the  hira  kana,  or  "  united  writing,"  is  chiefly 
employed.  Hut  neither  of  these  adecpiatcly  replaces  the  Chinese  signs  for  abstract 
ideas  and  scientific  subjects.  The  Sinico-Japancse  words  relating  to  mental  ecm- 
ceptions,  being  monosyllabic,  have  dozens  of  homon}Tn8  difKcult  to  be  distinguishwl 
one  from  the  other  without  special  signs.  Thus  the  curious  mixture  of  an  agglu- 
tinating and  a  mono.syllabic  form  of  speech  known  as  Sinico-Japanesc  is  unable  to 
dispense  with  the  two  corresjionding  systems  of  writing — the  Chinese  ideographs 
and  the  "  lateral "  syllabary.  The  people  fully  understand  how  defective  is  the 
instrument  used  by  them  to  express  their  thoughts.  Nevertheless,  the  quest  i(m  has 
not  yet  been  raised  of  rendering  English  obligatory  in  the  schools  for  the  purpose 
of  gradually  substituting  a  more  convenient  language  for  that  at  i)resent  current  in 
the  archipelago.  ]Most  technical  and  abstract  tenns  are,  however,  now  taken  from  the 
European  languages,  and  more  especially  from  English,  instead  of  from  Chinese, 
as  heretofore.  The  Latin  alphabet  is  also  taught,  and  various  attempts  have  been 
made  to  render  its  use  more  general. 

The  language  itself  is  by  no  means  deficient  in  terseness  or  power  of 
expression.  Its  ^^reatest  defect  is  probably  the  absence  of  a  relative  pronoun, 
which  occasionally  produces  involved  and  somewhat  awkward  constructions.  There 
is  also  a  great  dearth  of  abstract  terms,  and  of  words  expressing  the  more  subtle 
distinctions  of  European  philosophy.  Nevertheless  it  is  the  opinion  of  '^'aptain 
Hrinkley,  who  has  devoted  much  attention  to  the  subject,  that  if  only  thi'  serious 
defect  of  its  complex  writing  system  could  be  removed,  the  Japanese  language 
might,  with  a  little  cultivation,  soon  be  rendered  a  fitting  instriunent  for  the 
expression  of  Western  science  and  literature. 

Since  the  eighth  century  there  has  been  a  considerable  literary  development, 

59 


w 


'ill 


f 


ill 


|[; 


«fe-.- 


~nH 


rr 


~T" 


l>i 


410 


EAST  ASIA. 


I'i 


! 


wliicli  if  not  "  luminous"  may  ut  k'ust  Ik*  (IcscrilM'cl  im  "  voluminouH."  I'tu'try,  the 
(li-umii,  luNtory,  uml  the  nuturul  scicncoN  have  Ikh'H  cultivated,  and  the  iiili'lh'ctuul 
(ivolutinii  III'  .Fii|nin  mity  hv  sii'ul  to  have  run  in  parallel  lines  with  that  ol  the  West. 
In  llie  monasteries  the  (lid  manuscripts  were  copied,  chronicles  compiled,  lheolo>,'icul 
and  metaphysical  tri'atises  composed,  wliile  the  "  Courts  ol'  Lovi*  "  were  held  durinj^ 
the  tweli'th  and  tliirleenth  centuries  in  the  castles  of  the  feudal  lords,  when;  the 
lctt«'rcd  warriors  and  strollin^if  minstrels  wrote  their  romances  of  chivalry,  and  re- 
cited tlu'ir  lyri(!al  sonj^s  just  as  in  Kurope.  The  perio«l  of  literary  Jtenaissance 
coincides  with  the  seventeenth  century,  after  which  comes  the  a^e  of  the  encyclo- 
piedists.  At  jm'sent  journalism  and  political  writings  are  sw«'llinf;  the  hulk  of  the 
national  literature,  which  has  lieen  more  or  less  alfeeted  l»y  Kuropean  influences  since 
the  middle  of  the  eijjhtecnth  century,  when  wicret  societies  were  formed  for  the  truns- 
lution  of  Dutch  works. 

Tiir.  AiiT  OK  I'liiNTixo  IX  Japan. 

From  Mr.  Satow's  recent  investififations,  it  apiieurs  thut  to  u  religious  lady 
belongs  the  honour  of  having  introduced  the  use  of  printing  in  Japan.  In  the 
year  764  of  the  new  era  the  impress  Siiiyau-toku,  in  fuliilment  of  u  solemn  vow, 
ordered  a  million  small  wooden  shrines  to  Ihs  distributed  among  the  Buddhist 
pagodas  and  monasteries  throughout  the  archii)elago,  and  directed  that  eaeh  of 
these  shrines  should  contain  a  dharani  or  extract  from  the  liuddhist  sacred  writ- 
ings. The  Sanskrit  or  Pali  text  of  the  dharani  was  to  be  printed  in  Chinese 
characters,  on  slips  of  paper  about  IH  inches  long  by  '2  inches  wide,  so  as  to  be 
easily  rolled  up  and  (leposit(<d  in  the  interior  of  the  shrines.  A  large  number  of 
these  slips  are  still  preserved  in  the  monastery  of  Hofu-riu-zhi  in  Yamato,  and  fac- 
similes of  some  of  them  are  often  found  reprmluced  in  Japane.  e  antiquarian  works. 
Opinions  are  divided  as  to  whether  the  plates  from  which  these  impressions  were 
taken  consisted  of  metal  or  wood,  although  they  are  now  generally  supposed  to 
have  been  of  the  former  material.  The  absence  of  all  previous  progressive  steps 
leading  up  to  this  metluHl  of  printing  from  the  block  or  plate,  shows  that  it  v.'as 
not  a  native  invention,  but  introduced  in  the  eighth  century  from  China,  whence 
most  of  the  literature,  religion,  and  philosophy  of  Japan  had  been  previously 
borrowed.  It  is  also  noteworthy,  that  for  a  long  time  the  art  remained 
dormant,  for  an  interval  of  no  less  than  four  centuries  intervened  between  this 
first  attempt  and  the  appearance  of  the  first  })rinted  book,  which  bears  the  date 
of  1172. 

Nevertheless,  the  religious  direction  originally  given  to  printing  by  the  Empress 
Shiyau-toku  left  its  impression  on  the  productions  of  the  press  for  a  considerable 
])eriod.  Copies  of  the  Chinese  Buddhist  works  alone  were  for  a  long  time  regarded 
as  worthy  of  being  reproduced,  and  l)etween  the  years  1278  and  1288  the  whole 
Buddhist  Canon  was  printed  and  widely  circulated,  while  nothing  was  done  for 
current  literature,  or  even  for  the  other  religious  of  the  Empire.  Confucianism 
received  no  attention  from  the  type-cutters  till  the  year  1304,  when  a  copy  of  the 
"  Confucian  Analects  "  was  first  published.     This  reprint,  which  is  still  in  existence, 


e 


.V-  •:--  .'^?«'.--.r«i'v=.«gss««'/:«07«Si^s!»;g3er(^^  . 


ry, the 

llrctual 
.  Wrst. 

llll<ri('ul 

loro  the 
iiiul  re- 
iiiHHunce 
>iicyth)- 
V  (.f  the 
•I's  wiufe 
10  truiia- 


)U8  lady 
In  the 
inn  vow, 
HiKldhist 
;  eush  of 
red  writ- 
i  Chincise 
ns  to  be 
umber  of 
,  and  fac- 
in  works, 
ions  were 
)jw)8ed  to 
sive  steps 
lat  it  was 
tt,  where© 
jreviously 
remained 
ween  this 
i  the  date 

e  Empress 
nsidcrable 
}  regarded 
the  whole 
done  for 
ifuciunism 
py  of  the 
existence, 


HKLIOION— HINT*  )ISM. 


411 


n 


iH  liijjlily  valued  on  account  of  the  many  variations  which  it  cc  itiiih!*,  and      liich 
often  throw  much  li>,'ht  on  the  rcccivc«l  text. 

Apart  from  the  Huddliist  b<K>ks  not  nmrc  than  forty  or  fifty  \so?ks  are  known 
to  have  been  printed  in  .lapan  down  to  tlu-  bc^finniu),'  of  the  sevcntecnlli  cenlurv. 
A  j^rcat  stimidus  was,  liowever,  tlu-n  ^•iven  to  the  art  chicHy  tiirough  the  iiitUiciicc 
of  the  Koreans,  After  his  first  victorious  canipaiji;n  in  Korea,  Ilich-yoslii  had 
broujfht  back  a  lar>?e  number  of  Inioks  current  in  lliat  country,  and  the  literary 
activity  rcj)rescnted  by  flu'se  works,  compared  witl>  the  sta^jnaiit  state  of  letters  in 
Japan,  wounded  the  national  pride  of  the  coiKjuerors,  an<l  sliiuulated  them  to  a 
healtliy  rivalry.  An  examination  of  the  capt<r«'d  books  soon  revealed  the  fact  that 
the  Koreans  i)osHessed  tlie  art  of  priutiufj;  with  movabh>  typ«'s,  which  lliey  liad  no 
doubt  derive<l  fro?n  the  Chinese,  and  wliich  they  seem  to  have  practised  as  early  as 
the  iM'f^inninj?  of  tlie  fifteenth  century,  if  not  earlier.  The  .Iapan(>se,  always  apt 
imitators,  siHm  adopted  this  metlKxI,  and  the  first  hook  printed  in  .lapan  with  nu>v- 
able  copjH^r  types  Ix-ars  tlie  date  I ■")!)(».  From  that  time  onwards  the  jiress,  in 
various  parts  of  th«'  Kmpire,  has  l)een  busily  en^'ajjed  in  reprcKlucing  every  important 
book  in  Chinese  literature.  The  native  literature  also  soon  bejfan  to  avail  itself  of 
the  same  easy  means  of  circulation.  Hut  recent  indications  seem  to  make  it  pro- 
bable that  the  time  is  approachinn;  when  Japanese  translaticms  of  Kuropean,  and 
esjK'cially  Knglish,  works  will  be  mainly  substituted  for  llic  ])ublications  both  of  the 
native  and  the  Chinese  writings.  Mr.  Fukusawaof  Tokio  has  greatly  distinguished 
himself  in  this  direction.  One  of  his  classes  lately  translated  the  whole  of  Adam 
Smith's  "  Wealth  of  Nations"  into  Japanese,  and  several  other  important  FiUropeaa 
works,  especially  those  treating  of  philosophy,  natural  science  and  politics,  owe  their 
appearance  to  this  learned  teacher  and  his  pupils. 

Religion — Sixtoism. 

The  religious  thought  of  Japan,  as  of  so  many  other  countries,  is  just  now  in 
an  evident  state  of  transition.  Most  of  the  educated  classes  and  even  the  lower 
orders  in  the  towns  entertain  or  affect  a  profound  indifference  for  the  various 
religions  of  local  or  foreign  origin.  Yet  some  of  the  outward  observances  are  still 
generally  retainefl,  mainly  through  the  influence  of  the  women. 

As  in  China,  three  cults  co-exist  side  by  side,  and  the  sumo  individual  may  even 
conform  to  all  three.  Of  these  the  oldest  is  the  national  religion  known  as  Sintoism, 
or  the  "Way  of  the  Genii,"  which  represents  the  conservative  and  reactionary 
element,  which  from  the  first  protested  against  the  intrusion  of  the  Chinese  language 
and  culture.  The  Koziki,  or  "  History  of  the  Things  of  Antiquity,"  which  cm- 
bodies  the  Sinto  teachings,  is  the  oldest  and  most  renuirkable  work  in  Japanese 
literature.  The  Confucian  system  is  little  more  than  a  moral  code.  But  Buddhism 
is  at  once  a  metaphysical  and  religious  system,  which  consoles  its  votaries  for  the 
miseries  of  the  present  life,  and  holds  out  prospects  of  happiness  or  repose  in  the 
after  state.  Thus  according  to  the  times,  places,  and  other  circumstances,  these 
elements  may  beconio  diversely  intermingled  without  being  antagonistic,  although 


412  KA»T  ASIA. 

„„,l..r  ..xcrplmnul  n>n.Uti..nH  uimI  pditi.-al  mictioiiK  rrliKiouH  warn  Imvo  ocraHionally 

brokt'ii  out.  I    1      •   •     11 

Liko  tlu<  rhincHO,  Komin,  and  Sn.rriai.  alM.ri^in.'s.  \hv  Jupunoso  luul  onK'niaUy 
no  other  .liviiiitirs  rx.vpt  th.>  fnirrs  ..I'  Naturi..  with  wl.ich  tl.ry  usH<,ciatiMl  the  houIh 
of  thr  (Inul  an.l  th..  n^rU  n.illion  a.rial  and  trmslrial  K«"nu.  Mow  Hvo  »t  pcaco 
with  thrsr  counth^sH  hosts  without  nidh-ss  n.njurinKH  an<l  olTfrinKs?  An.l  how  was 
tho  head  of  tho  lan.ily  to  thwart  the  n.aliKnant,  and  pn>pitiato  thol)t.ncficontHp.nts, 

Fig     191.-NIKK0    AND   TIIR    IJi'PKK   ToNR-OAVA. 

8oiUo  1  :  iXW.mo. 


I50°20' 


E  of  G 


I59MO- 


_  6  Miles. 


without  addressing  them  as  mortals,  and  honouring  them  with  feasts  and  banquets  P 
Such  is  the  oUl  ancestral  cult,  associated  with  that  of  the  Kami,  or  genu,  and  ot 
natural  phenomena,  which  still  prevails  under  the  Chinese  name  of  Smto.  Ihe 
rites  of  this  extremely  simple  worship,  which  asks  of  its  followers  nothmg  but 
purity  of  soul  and  thought,  are  usually  performed  in  the  midst  of  the  grandest 
natural  surroundings,  where  have  been  raised  the  miya  or  pasiro,  shrines  consecrated 
to  the  genii,  and  containing  the  crystal  mirror,  symbol  at  once  of  purity  and  of 
supernatural  foreknowledge.     In  the  ceremonial  the  heads  of  famiUes  have  been 


;^^'"-  -:j5rK>;'S^!i3jJ?''St?!S5'.i5:s'i»5 


UI;M(H<»N— SINTOISM. 


418 


loiuiUy 

j;iimlly 
10  houIh 
t  peace 

(»\V  WllM 

Hpii-itH, 


^ 


561 
45 


J 


janquets  P 
nii,  and  of 
nto.  The 
(thing  but 
grandest 
onsecrated 
ity  and  of 
have  been 


n'liliicitl  hy  a  cumIc  ((f  lu'n'ditary  prioMt^,  who  invoke  tin-  jjcnii  on  Iwluilf  of  tho 
imiltitiidt',  wild  Itiiiijf  iho  «>IV('riiijf>*,  iiml  ii'  tlicir  liniiour  nlcliratc  tlir  nuttsuri,  (»r 
paiitoiiiiiiu-K  and  tlicatrical  rcpiTMnitatioiis. 

Ily  on«i  of  thow  coincidciicoH  ho  frcMiucnt  in  histoiy.  tint  rcvohitioii  of  1M()7, 
whifh  introducwl  tho  now  oulturo  from  tho  Wost,  was  aooonipaniod  by  a  roaotion  in 
tho  roli^iou.N  wmld,  whon>by  tlio  ohi  Sintoist  niiinuHni  again  booauio  tho  ofhoial 
roligion  of  the  Krnjiiro.  Hnl  tho  fniu  nil  ooronionios,  which  formerly  plnyod  such  a 
hirgo  part  in  thin  NystcMn,  arc  gradually  losing  their  original  hieratic  character. 
Thoro  wuM  a  tii  e  when  human  Hacritiees  were  associated  with  tho  burial  of  the 
groat — woim  II,  ^lavoM,  and  horses  following  their  masters  to  tho  griivo.  Kvon  ho 
rocontly  uh  l(i44,  it  was  found  nocossary  to  forbid  tho  rotainors  of  tho  daimioH  to 
immolate  themselves  on  tho  body  of  their  feudal  lords.  As  in  C'hinu,  thoHo  victims 
wore  replaced  by  clay  images  deposited  in  tho  graves  or  funeral  urns.  Hut  the 
most  romantic  natural  sites  aro  Htill  cho.sen  as  the  last  resting  plac  's  of  (ho 
dead.  Tho  superb  mauHolcuniH  of  Yoyas  and  one  of  his  successois  have  heen 
erected  in  tho  loveliest  valley  in  Japan,  surrounded  by  tho  glorious  woodlands  of 
Nikko. 

liut  tho  most  sacred  shrines  of  the  Sinto  worship  arc  tho  two  lomples  of  the  Sun- 
Goddess  nnd  the  Goddess  of  Food,  which  are  situated  near  Furnichi,  in  the  province 
of  Ise,  about  90  miles  south-east  of  Kioto.  They  hiive  for  the  Japanese  the  same 
importance  as  Mecca  and  Medina  have  for  Mohammedans,  and  are  yearly  visited 
by  thousands  of  pilgrims  from  cvorypart  of  tho  Fmpiro.  In  tho  capital  no  artisan 
considers  it  possible  to  gain  a  livelihood,  unless  he  has  invoked  the  protection  of 
these  goddesses  by  performing  the  pilgrimage  at  least  once;  and  tho  ]  asantry  are 
even  more  constant  votaries  at  their  shrines.  Formerly  it  was  a  common  thing  for 
the  little  shop-boys  of  Ycdo  to  abscond  for  a  while  from  their  employers,  and 
wander  along  the  public  highway  as  far  as  Ise,  subsisting  on  the  alms  which  they 
begged  from  travellers  ;  and  having  obtained  the  bundle  of  charms,  consisting  of 
the  wood  of  which  the  temples  are  built,  they  returned  rejoicing  to  their  homos. 
The  Ise  pilgrims  are  all  distinguished  by  large  bundles  of  these  charms  wrapped  in 
oiled  paper,  and  carried  suspended  by  a  string  from  their  necks.  I'opular  stories 
are  even  current  of  dogs  having  performed  the  pilgrimage  by  themselves.  These 
places  derive  their  sanctity  neither  from  antiquity  nor  from  their  magnificence, 
being  in  fact  remarkably  plain  and  even  primitive  in  their  architecture,  but  from 
tho  sacred  metal  mirrors  forged  in  heaven  for  the  Sun-Goddess.  In  every  native 
house  there  is  a  small  Sinto  shrine  containing  paper  tickets,  inscribed  with  the 
names  of  various  deities,  one  of  whom  is  invariably  the  chief  Goddess  of  Ise,  and 
the  paper  box  marked  with  this  deity's  name  is  supposed  to  contain  some  pieces  of 
the  wand  used  at  the  Ise  festivals.  At  one  of  these  festivals  called  oni-osiii/e,  or 
"  keeping  down  the  demon,"  two  fishermen  used  formerly  to  be  brought  in  a  cage 
to  the  temple,  with  flaming  torches  on  tlieir  heads,  and  it  was  their  part,  as  demons, 
to  enter  the  shrine  and  carry  off  tho  imago,  while  others  of  tho  confraternity  repelled 
them  with  naked  swords.  Wounds  were  frequently  inflicted,  and  it  was  in  fact 
considered  that  the  shedding  ot  blood  on  thefie  occasions  was  neeessary  to  insure 


4i»v 


m'i'-kJm, 


iSI^'^jr^^r 


■^^WMi 


414 


EAST  ASIA. 


PiiT.  192.— BunnmsT  Tbmpi.b  at  Nikko. 


iJt'/^f'I'H^^^v^'JTr. '■-■_:_:  -tj^l-'-g^^ 


the  prosperity  of  the  fishing  craft.     A  quieter  festival,  held  in  March,  has  recently 
been  substituted  for  this  sanguinar}  rite. 


■■'•.s^m^-x^J:!7S's^^.^m&~i'-"'^^'i^^^ 


:,:::fSm!m^^r^0^:^y^ 


BUDDHISM  AND  CHRISTIANITY. 


416 


Buddhism  and  Ciiristiaxity. 

The  ethics  of  Eosi  (Confucius),  introduced  in  the  sixth  century  with  uU  the 
accompanying  Chinese  ceremonial,  exercised,  as  in  China  itself,  a  preponderating 
influence  on  the  political  and  social  institutions  of  the  country,  but  it  in  no  sense 
offers  the  character  of  a  religion  properly  so  called.  The  Se'ulo,  or  "  Halls  of 
Holiness,"  are  rather  assembly  rooms  for  the  learned  than  true  temples,  and  the 
great  Seido  of  Suruga-dai  at  Tokio  has  already  been  converted  into  a  library  for 
European,  Chinese,  and  Japanese  works.  Buddhism,  however,  has  preserved  its 
sway  over  a  large  section  of  the  community,  notwithstanding  the  suppression  of 
some  monasteries,  the  conversion  of  bells  into  copper  coinage,  and  the  forcible  trans- 
formation of  numerous  temples  into  Sinto  sanctuaries.  Introduced  apparently  about 
the  middle  of  the  sixth  century,  the  worship  of  Shaka  (Buddha)  had  the  advantage 
of  being  identified  in  the  minds  of  its  adherents  with  Western  civilisation,  for  with 
it  came  the  writings,  arts,  and  sciences  of  India.  It  also  attracted  the  people  by  its 
pompous  ceremonial,  by  the  uogmas  of  transmigration  and  final  redemption,  and  by 
the  infinite  variety  of  its  gods  and  saints,  amongst  whom  it  eagerly  hastened  to 
make  room  for  the  shades  of  the  great  national  heroes.  Since  its  establishment 
Japanese  Buddhism,  almost  entirely  cut  off  from  all  communication  with  the 
Buddhist  world  on  the  mainland,  has  become  divided  into  numerous  sects,  some 
claiming  to  have  preserved  the  old  faith  in  its  purity,  while  others  have  become 
modified  by  the  sanction  of  new  revelations.  But  all  had  long  lost  the  knowledge 
of  the  language  in  which  the  sacred  books  had  been  written,  and  it  is  only  quite 
recently  that,  at  the  repeated  suggestion  of  Max  Miiller,  bodze8  educated  in  the 
"West  have  at  last  discovered  in  the  temples  of  Nip-pon  some  precious  Sanskrit 
writings  hitherto  supposed  to  have  perished.  The  type  of  some  Hindu  idols  has 
also  been  preserved  from  the  time  of  the  early  missionaries,  neither  sculptors  nor 
workers  in  metal  venturing  to  modify  the  traditional  forms. 

Of  the  sects  by  far  the  most  popular  is  that  which,  under  her  thirty-three 
different  images,  worships  Eannon,  the  Kwanjrin  of  the  Chinese,  "Goddess  of 
Mercy  with  her  thousand  helping  hands."  According  to  the  census  of  1875,  the 
seven  principal  Buddhist  sects  possess  between  them  no  less  than  88,000  temples, 
while  the  Sintoists  have  over  120,000,  many,  however,  of  which  are  used  in 
common  by  both  religions,  a  simple  bamboo  screen  separating  the  two  altars.  The 
"  prayer  mills,"  so  imiversal  in  Tibet,  are  rarely  found  in  the  Japanese  temples, 
although  the  devout  are  incessantly  muttering  the  name  of  Buddha.  They  also 
write  their  prayers  on  scraps  of  paper,  which  they  roll  up  in  little  pellets,  to  pelt 
the  idols,  and  thus  obtain  their  petitions  through  the  efficacy  of  the  divine  contact. 
The  inside  of  the  statues  is  sometimes  crammed  with  these  papers,  or  else  boxes 
are  set  going  on  which  are  inscribed  the  words  "  ten  thousand  prayers."  The 
brooks  and  streams  are  also  by  some  simple  contrivances  transformed  to  "  flowing 
invocations." 

The  Shin-shiu,  or  "  New  Sect,"  founded  by  Shinran-shonin  in  the  thirteenth 
century,  probably  ranks  next  in  importance  and  influence.     It  differs  in  many 


41G 


EAST  ASIA. 


respects  from  all  the  others,  rejcctinf^  ull  Buddhas  and  deities  except  Amida  Buddha, 
to  whom  alone  prayers  and  invocations  arc  to  be  addressed.  Hence  the  charge 
brought  against  it  of  being  a  pure  Theism,  although  Amida  Buddha  is  not 
regarded  as  a  creator,  nor  as  having  existwl  in  his  present  state  from  all  eternity. 
He  is  neither  the  preserver  of  all  things,  nor  onmipotent,  nor  the  regulator  of  events 
in  this  world,  nor  a  punisher  of  sin  in  the  next.  In  fact,  he  has  no  true 
personality  at  all,  so  that  his  votaries  seem  to  be  rather  Atheists  than  Deists, 
differing  but  little  from  the  materialistic  agnostics  of  Europe.  Nevertheless  their 
immense  infl.ienco  in  every  part  of  the  Empire  has  recently  been  strikingly 
illustrated  in  connection  with  the  rest«)ration  of  one  of  the  great  temples  in  Kioto. 
Towards  the  fund  raised  for  this  purpose  the  province  of  Owari  alone  contributed 
no  less  than  500,000  yen,  or  about  £100,000.  Offerings  of  all  sorts  in  coin  and 
kind  also  poured  in  from  Kaga,  Mino,  Yechizen  and  other  provinces  famous  for 
their  devotion  to  liuddhism.  Women  and  young  girls  are  even  said  to  have  cut 
off  their  hair  and  twisted  it  into  cords  to  drag  cedar  trunks  to  the  capital,  where 
these  trees  were  hewn  into  pillars  for  the  new  temple.  Buddhist  priests  also 
went  about  the  country  selling  shares  in  a  new  railway  company  which  has  been 
projected  to  connect  the  remote  provinces  with  Kioto. 

From  all  this  it  is  evident  that,  contrary  to  the  general  opinion,  a  great  deal  of 
superstition  and  religious  zeal  still  remain.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  many 
indications  to  show  that  the  Japanese  are  not  on  the  whole  a  very  religious  people, 
and  that  "  at  the  present  day  religion  is  in  lower  repute  than  probably  it  has  ever 
been  in  the  country's  history.  Religious  indifference  is  one  of  the  prominent 
features  of  new  Japan.  Shortly  after  my  arrival  I  was  at  a  picnic  held  within 
temple-grounds  near  Tokio.  The  main  hall  of  the  temple  was  put  at  our  disposal, 
and  there  our  collation  was  spread,  right  in  front  of  the  altar.  One  Buddhist 
priest  let  his  temple  to  one  of  my  colleagues,  by  whom  the  altar  was  used  as  a 
sideboard.  Another,  finding  the  chanting  of  prayers  not  sufficiently  remunerative, 
took  some  time  ago  to  selling  beer  and  taking  photographs  at  the  great  image  of 
Daibuts,  near  Kama-kura.  Decaying  shrines  and  broken  gods  are  to  be  seen  every- 
where. Not  only  is  there  indifference,  but  there  is  a  rapidly  growing  scepticism. 
Among  the  better  educated  classes  this  is  widespread.  The  bare  mention  of 
Buddhism  is  enough  to  provoke  a  laugh  from  the  student  who  has  imbibed  foreign 
science  and  philosophy.  But  the  masses  also  are  becoming  affected  by  it.  During 
a  discourse  on  Infinite  Vision,  which  a  priest  recently  delivered  at  a  temple  in 
Shina-gava,  one  of  the  congregation  stood  up  and  spoke  thus  sceptically  ;  "  Truly, 
the  more  we  reflect  on  these  subjects,  the  more  are  we  plunged  into  the  vortex  of 
perplexed  thought.  All  that  the  priesthood  affirms  on  the  subject  of  heaven  and 
hell  is  a  mere  fabrication,  an  assertion  of  which  any  plain  man  can  easily  perceive 
the  truth.  If  you  explain  the  visible,  which  the  eye  can  see  and  the  understanding 
grasp,  well  and  good.     But  as  to  the  invisible,  who  can  believe  ?  "  * 

Christianity,  which  formerly  claimed  so  many  adherents  in  the  southern 
provinces,  is  now  reduced  to  very  narrow  limits.     Soon  after  the  arrival  of  Francis 

•  "  The  Land  of  the  Morning,"  p.  616. 


Buddha, 
B  charge 
a  is  not 
eternity, 
of  events 

no  true 
a  Deists, 
less  their 
trikingly 
in  Kioto, 
ntributed 
coin  and 
imous  for 

have  cut 
;al,  where 
iests  also 

has  been 

at  deal  of 
are  many 
us  people, 
t  has  ever 
prominent 
jld  within 
r  disposal, 
Buddhist 
used  as  a 
unerative, 
:  image  of 
sen  every- 
icepticism. 
lention  of 
ed  foreign 
.     During 
temple  in 
■ :  "  Truly, 
3  vortex  of 
leaven  and 
[y  perceive 
erstanding 

3   southern 
of  Francis 


BUDDHISM  AND  CHRISTIANITY. 


417 


Xavier,  in  lo49,  the  worship  of  Yono  (Jesus),  at  first  regarded  as  a  Buddhist  sect, 
made  rapid  progress.  The  J  uits  founded  a  seminary  at  Funai,  and  within  thirty 
years  of  the  first  conversions,  the  Christian  communities,  grouped  round  two 
hundred  churches,  numbered  over  150,000  members.  A  native  prince,  zealous  for 
the  new  faith,  boasted  of  having  burnt  on  his  lands  ;J,000  monasteries,  and 
dispatched  an  envoy  to  convey  his  homages  to  the  "  Great,  Universal,  and  Most 
Holy  Father  of  the  whole  World,  the  Lord  Pope."  But  an  unguarded  reply  of  a 
Spanish  pilot  wrecked  on  the  coast  of  Nip-pon  caused  the  dictator,  Taiko-sama,  to 
reflect.  To  the  question,  "  How  has  your  sovereign  been  able  to  acquire  so  many 
lands  P  "  the  Spaniard  had  answered,  "  By  arms  and  religion.  Our  priests  prepare 
the  way  by  converting  the  people  to  Christianity ;    then  the  task  of  subjecting 

Fig.  193.— Nagasaki  and  Unzen-san. 
Scale  1  :  800,000. 


EofG 


i&o-so 


liO'QO' 


OtoSSfeat. 


32  to  ISO  Feet. 


ICO  to  S2U  Feet. 
—^  IS  ItUes. 


320  Feet  and  opwaids. 


them  to  our  authority  is  a  trifling  matter."  Thereupon  Taiko-sama  issued  a  decree, 
in  1687,  banishing  the  Jesuits,  and  although  his  threats  were  not  carried  out  at  the 
time,  ten  years  afterwards  some  Franciscan  friars,  who  had  given  themselves  out  as 
ambassadors,  and  who  had  been  denounced  by  their  rivals,  were  condemned  to  be 
crucified.  Nevertheless,  the  new  religion  continued  to  be  tolerated  till  the  year 
1614,  when  some  repressive  measures  were  taken,  and  its  practice  finally  interdicted 
after  the  return  of  an  envoy  sent  to  Europe  to  collect  information  on  the  religions 
of  the  West.  Condemned  to  renounce  their  faith,  the  Catholics  of  Kiu-siu  revolted, 
in  1638,  but  they  were  defeated  and  mercilessly  put  to  the  sword.  Thousands 
were  on  this  occasion  thrown  into  the  sea  and  down  the  crater  of  Unzen  near 
Nagasaki.  In  1640  four  Portuguese  ambassadors  from  Macao  were  put  to  death 
with  most  of  their  suite,  and  thirteen  sailors  sent  back  with  the  warning,  "  While 


418 


EAST  ASIA. 


the  sun  warms  the  earth,  let  no  Christian  dare  to  set  foot  in  Nip-pon !  Let  all 
know  I  If  the  King  of  Spain  in  person,  or  the  God  of  the  Christians,  the  great 
Shaka  himself,  violate  this  decree,  their  heads  shall  fall !  " 

Nevertheless,  a  number  of  Catholics  continued  to  practise  their  religion  in  some 
remote  villages,  and  at  the  revolution  of  1867  about  4,000  of  them  were  exiled  to 
the  Goto  Archipelago  and  other  islands,  for  having  refused  to  take  part  in  the 
religious  ceremonies  in  honour  of  the  Mikado.  Christianity  is  at  present  allowed 
to  be  openly  preached  in  the  treaty  ports,  and  the  government  has  even  sanctioned 
the  conversion  of  Buddhist  temples  into  Protestant  or  Catholic  chapels.  The 
English  and  American  missionaries,  numbering  over  one  hundred  altogether,  are 
the  most  zealous  evangelisers,  although  the  results  of  ten  years'  efforts  are  very 
slight.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Buddhist  priests,  mostly  of  the  Manto  sect,  which 
rejects  celibacy  and  mortification  of  the  flesh,  have  gone  to  Europe  in  search  of 
arguments  to  be  afterwards  used  against  the  Christian  missionaries.  Most  of  the 
numerous  recent  sects,  such  as  the  "  Poor  Brethren,"  the  "  United,"  the  "  Dis- 
contented," the  "  Sea-weeds,"  have  only  indirectly  felt  European  influences,  and 
occupy  themselves  more  with  social  reforms  than  with  religious  changes.  The 
adventurers  landing  in  their  ports  are  not  calculated  to  inspire  the  natives  with 
much  respect  for  the  religion  of  the  foreigners,  for,  as  they  say,  "  the  tree  should 
be  known  by  its  fruits." 

The  prevailing  moral  tone  of  foreign  residents  in  Japan  is  admittedly  low,  even 
though  it  might  be  unjust  to  speak  of  it  as  absolutely  immoral.  Nor  is  this 
low  tone  the  only  obstacle  to  the  progress  of  Christianity.  "  There  are  many 
respectable  men  altogether  indifferent  on  religious  matters,  and  many  professing 
Christians,  who,  with  an  inconsistency  almost  incredible,  take  every  opportunity  of 
giving  vent  to  the  unreasonable  animus  which  they  feel  towards  their  fellow- 
countrymen  who  have  come  to  preach  the  Gospel  to  the  Japanese.  The  sneers  and 
invectives,  however,  of  such  critics  are  invaiiably  in  exact  proportion  to  their 
ignorance  of  the  actual  work  which  missionaries  are  doing. 

"  The  missionaries  of  the  various  Protestant  denominations  work  together  amic- 
ably, and  the  Japanese  have  no  sectarian  warfare  to  perplex  them  in  their 
consideration  of  the  new  religion.  The  three  Protestant  Churches  represented,  viz. 
the  American  Presbyterian,  the  American  Dutch  Reformed,  and  the  Scottish  United 
Presbyterian,  have  united  in  the  one  Presbytery,  and  together  maintain  the  Union 
Theological  School,  an  Institution  which,  in  1880,  had  seventeen  students  preparing 
for  the  Christian  Ministry."* 

Topography  of  the  Kuriles  and  Yeso. 

The  cold,  foggy  climate  of  the  Kuriles  and  the  northern  division  of  Yesc  have 
prevented  the  development  of  agriculture  in  those  bleak  regions.  In  1875  there 
were  only  453  settled  residents  in  the  Kuriles,  besides  those  of  the  temporary 
fishing  and  hunting  stations  on  the  islands  of  Kunashir  and  Iturup.     The  more 

•  W.  G.  Dixon,  op.  cit.,  p.  670. 


Let  all 
the  great 

I  ill  some 
exiled  to 
irt  in  the 
allowed 
motioned 
Is.  The 
Dther,  are 
i  are  very 
ct,  which 
search  of 
3st  of  the 
he  "Dis- 
jnces,  and 
;eB.  The 
tives  with 
•ee  should 

low,  even 
OT  is  this 
are  many 
professing 
)rtunity  of 
^ir  fellow- 
sneers  and 
n  to  their 

sther  amic- 
1  in  their 
sented,  viz. 
tish  United 
the  Union 
I  preparing 


:  Yesc  have 
1875  there 
temporary 
The  more 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF  THE  KURILES  AND  YESO. 


410 


northern  islands  of  the  group  have  in  recent  years  been  ulinost  dosertod,  the  whole 
population  having  been  reduced  in  1874  to  seventy-two  souls,  couHiicd  to  the  three 
islands  of  Sumshu,  Unekatan,  and  Sinskatan.  Even  the  interior  of  Ycso  is  mostly  unin- 
habited, while  the  so-called  towns  of  Soi/a,  on  La  Perouse  Strait,  Sihetz,  and  Xrnioro, 
facing  Kunashir,  are  mere  fishing  hamlets.  The  population  is  conocntratod  chiefly 
in  the  towns  of  the  south-west,  where  the  temperature  is  milder,  and  whore  supplies 
of  all  sorts  are  more  abundant  than  in  the  north. 

Sapporo  {^Satsporo^  capital  of  the  island,  lies  in  an  open  alluvial  plain  watered 
by  the  Isikari  and  its  affluents.     It  is  a  recent  town,  built  on  the  American  model, 

Fig.  191.— Hakodatk  Bav. 
SoMe   1  :  UO.OOO. 


EoFG 


I4Q'40' 


I40'45' 


0  to  64  Feet. 


64  to  198  Feet. 


va  Feet  and  upwank. 
I  2  Milei. 


and  boasts  even  of  its  "  Capitol."  Here  is  a  School  of  Agriculture,  established  by 
some  professors  from  the  United  States,  and  the  lands  in  the  neighbourhood  have 
been  distributed  amongst  about  1,000  military  colonists.  A  more  important  place 
is  the  fishing  town  of  Isikari,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  where  as  many  as  1,200,000 
salmon  were  taken  in  1860.  Otaru  (Otarunai),  lying  on  the  coast,  west  of  Isikari, 
and  connected  by  rail  with  the  capital,  also  exports  large  quantities  of  fish  even  as 
far  as  China.  Here  about  fifteen  million  pounds  of  salmon  are  yearly  cured,  and  vast 
quantities  of  herrings  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  manures.     On  a  creek  farther 


420 


EAST  ASLV. 


to  the  south-west  lies  the  port  of  Icanai,  whore  tfco  chief  export  is  coal   from  the 
noifjfhbourinjjf  pits. 

On  the  more  tliickly  peophnl  south  coast  are  the  towns  of  Sani,  also  a  centre  of 
the  coal  industry  ;  Ytihitfs,  a  much  frequented  tishinj?  station,  and  Morornn,  on  the 
deep  bay  of  Yedomo,  where  the  bar  lias  'Z()  feet  at  low  water.  Here  truvellers 
embark  to  cross  Volcano  Hay  and  visit  the  city  of  Hakodafr,  which  stands  on  one 
of  the  safest  and  most  spacious  harliours  in  the  world.  Thrown  open  to  foreign 
trade  in   1H54,  this  port,  which  in  clear  weather  commands  a  view  of  the  Hondo 


! 
It  ! 


Fig.  195.— Hakodatk. 
Scale  1 :  40,UU0. 


140*45 


I40'45' 


EofG. 


0  to  18  Feet. 


16  to  82  Feet.  82  Feet  and  upward*. 

__^.^___  1,100  Yards. 


i? 


mountains,  has  made  rapid  progress  since  the  middle  of  the  century.  The  popida- 
tion  has  increased  five- fold  during  that  period,  and  about  one  hundred  Europeans  have 
settled  in  the  town,  Avhich  has  become  the  chief  station  of  the  whalers  frequenting 
the  Sea  of  Okhotsk.  A  Japanese  squadron  visits  the  roadstead  every  year,  but  the 
foreign  shipping  is  inconsiderable,  the  native  steamers  having  almost  monopolised 
the  export  bu.sines8.  One  of  the  staples  of  this  trade  is  the  kampii,  or  "  sea 
cabbage,"  an  wiible  seaweed  20  to  40  feet  long,  which  is  dried  on  the  strand  and 
forwarded  to  Hondo  and  South  China.  Some  tine  country-hoiLses  have  sprung  up 
here  and  there  on  the  slope  of  the  hill,  1.1  oO  feet  high,  which  commands  the 
approach  to  the  roadstead  and  to  the  peninsula  of  Hakodate. 


■"^ivssHmm-'Si-  •mg^r. 


im.'^-^"'v^/^^^^-^^'*^-9'^^i^-e':i^y'~'^^s^!^iS'fSm'wm^^ 


:r7wmmm' 


From  the 

centre  of 
I,  on  the 
ruvollcrs 
<  on  one 
)  foreign 
B  Hondo 


II' 

46 


he  popnla- 
peans  have 
requenting 
sar,  but  the 
lonopoliscd 
II,  or  "  sea 
strand  and 
sprung  up 
imands  the 


TOPOORAl'IiY  OF  Nir-i'ON. 


421 


Tczasi,  on  the  west  coast  of  Yeso,  is  also  a  large  town ;  but  Malnnifii,  or  Fiihu-yama, 
the  southernmost  town  in  the  island  at  the  western  entrance  of  Tsugar  Strait,  has 
lost  much  of  the  importance  it  possessed  in  the  old  feudal  times,  when  it  was  the 
residence  of  a  native  prince.  The  anchorage  is  bad,  especially  during  the  soutliorn 
winds,  and  it  has  been  deprived  of  the  commercial  advantages  now  transferred  by 
the  treaties  to  Hakodate. 

TornOHAPHV    OF    NiP-PON. 

Lying  beyond  the  rice  zone,  the  northern  extremity  of  Hondo  is  but  thinly 
peopled,   no   numerous   conmi  unities   occurring   till  we   reach   the   valley  cf   the 

Fig   196. — Niiii-OATA  ANIJ  Sauo  Iklanu. 
Scale  1  ;  1,400.000. 


I58'20- 


E  Of  G 


iso-eo' 


'A 


0  to  32  Feet.       32  to  100  Feet.    100  to  320  Feet.    .320to6IOFeot.  640Feetnii(liipwird.t. 
^_____^^.^  1&  Miles. 

Kitakami  River.  Avomori  [Aomori),  on  the  south  side  of  the  large  inlet  opening 
towards  Tsu^^ar  Strait,  derives  some  importance  from  the  movement  of  passengers 
who  embark  here  for  Hakodate.  A  larger  place  is  Hirosaki,  formerly  capital  of  a 
vast  principality.  But  no  other  large  town  is  met  till  we  reach  Kuhata  or  Akita, 
70  miles  farther  south,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Mimono-gava,  and  Morioka,  on  the 
upper  course  of  the  Kitakami.  The  produce  of  the  rich  copper  mines  in  this  basin 
is  forwarded  on  flat-bottomed  boats  to  Isiiiomaki,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  in  the 
island-studded  bay  of  Sendai.  The  populous  city  of  SciKlai,  which  gives  its  name 
to  this  inlet,  lies  9  miles  from  the  coast,  in  the  midst  of  extensive  rice  grounds. 

Sendai,  which  does  a  large  trade  in  foreign  wares,  is  noted  for  its  production  of 
fancy  articles  made  from  a  kind  of  fossil  wood  collected  in  the  district.     Amongst 


r^i 


422 


EAST  ASIA. 


i 


the  curiosities  of  the  pluce  are  the  presents  j»iven  hy  the  Pope  to  tlie  Mission  which 
was  sent  to  Home  in  the  year  KJio  by  I'rince  Date  Masamune.  Senthii  was 
formerly  the  castle  town  of  the  feudal  prince  Date  Mutsu  no  Kami,  wiiose  stronjf- 
hold  was  i)artlv  ruined  durinvc  the  revolutionary  war  of  1<S().S.  It  is  now  used  as  a 
military  barrack,  and  is  approached  by  a  handsome  bridge  of  modern  sli-ucture. 

South  of  Sendai  follow  the  towns  of  NihonmalH,  Fiiku-sinin,  and  others  in  the 
valley  of  the  Abukma,  where  we  enter  the  rejifion  of  sericulture,  liut  nn  the  west 
slope  in  the  windin*?  valley  of  the  Moj^ami-j^ava  are  found  the  largest  towns,  such 
as  Yonezavd,  Ymna-gata,  Tmnnjnohi  (the  ancient  Sioimi),  Snka/n.      Here  is  also 

Fig.  197.— Kanezava  axu  the  White  Mointain. 

Scale  1  :  900,000. 


18  .UUl-h 


Vakamais,  capital  of  a  ken,  west  of  Lake  Inavasiro  and  the  Higasi-yama  hot  springs. 
The  neighbouring  forests  contain  many  trees  yielding  the  varnish  used  in  the 
preparation  of  lacquer,  and  not  far  off  is  one  of  the  chief  porcelain  works  in  Japan. 
The  torrent  or  Kam  watering  this  district  forma  a  junction  with  the  Sinano,  or 
river  of  the  '<  Thousand  Bears,"  in  the  plains  of  NiJn-yata  [Niigntti),  where  the 
routes  converging  from  both  valleys  join  the  main  northern  highway  of  Hokrokudo. 
Nihi-gata  derives  great  importance  from  its  position  at  the  junction  of  so  many  roads, 
on  the  banks  of  a  river  navigable  for  some  distance  by  steamers.  Intersected  by 
canals  and  encircled  by  avenues,  the  city  is  one  of  the  cleanest  in  Japan.  But 
although  thrown  open  to  foreign  traffic,  its  export  trade  is  inconsiderable,  owing 


>'^-v^'^:?;vr:r^-'  .^^^mip^immmt- 


■~nisfli'5S!'" 


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ied  in  the 
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ible,  owing 


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^wmiam^imm^^^mMmmmm^mMmi4imim- 


TYPK8  AND  CO8T0ME»  OF  CITIZENS  OK  TOKIO. 


-■:7^rr;y7'^riS^^Mm'ki^:ti^c--XM«»^^ 


fk^'-''*^- 


^m^BSs^^^^^MM^mw^^gm.. 


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TOKIO    AND    ITS 


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OKIO    AND    ITS    BAY. 


^    ^  "  ■  ■ 


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'""■t  ■■f^m^sm'^mkmd: 


TOPOGRAPHY  OP  NIP-PON. 


428 


to  the  bar  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  and  to  the  prevalence  of  fierce  gales  in  winter. 
Hence  the  rice,  silks,  teas,  lacquer,  ginseng,  indigo,  and  other  products  of  the  rich 
Nihi-gatu  plains  have  to  be  mostly  forwarded  by  bad  mountain  roads  across  Hondo 
to  Tokio.  Tcradomari,  lying  30  miles  farther  to  the  south-west,  had  threatened  to 
supersede  Nihi-gata  altogether  by  depriving  it  of  the  Sinano-gava,  which  might  be 
diverted  by  canalisation  directly  to  the  coast  at  Tcradomari.  But  the  vast  cutting, 
300  feet  deep  at  one  point,  undertaken  for  this  purpose,  has  never  been  completed, 
and  Nihi-gata,  such  as  it  is,  still  continues  to  bo  the  best  seaport  on  the  coast.  It 
is  partly  sheltered  by  the  neighbouring  island  of  Sado,  and  several  native  and 
foreign  engineers  have  been  invited  by  the  Government  to  report  on  the  best  means 
of  improving  its  approaches.  Murakami,  Kanicazaki,  Imamatsi,  and  the  other  towns 
on  this  seaboard  all  suffer  from  the  same  want  of  convenient  harbours  or  sheltered 
roadsteads.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Aigava,  capital  of  Sado,  are  some  old  gold 
and  silver  mines,  which  have  been  worked  for  ages.  The  profit  from  these  mines 
under  their  present  management  was  estimated  in  1881  at  about  £17,000.  But 
for  many  years  previously  the  value  of  the  precious  metals  obtained  appears  to 
have  been  more  than  absorbed  by  the  working  expenses.  Limestone  is  the  pre- 
vailing formation  in  the  island  of  Sado,  which  is  very  hilly,  consisting  of  two 
groups  of  mountains  separated  by  an  intervening  cultivated  plain. 

On  the  large  bay,  protected  westwards  by  the  long  promontory  of  Noto,  are 
situated  the  trading  towns  of  Uvots,  Sin-minato,  To-yama,  Takaoka,  while  towards 
the  south-west  lies  the  manufacturing  city  of  Kanezava  (^laikava-ken),  famous  for 
its  chased  bronzes,  painted  porcelains,  and  textile  fabrics.  In  the  same  district  are 
several  other  industrial  centres,  such  as  Komats  and  Mikava,  both  on  the  coast. 
Farther  south  are  the  sea-ports  of  Takamats  and  Sakayi,  whence  are  forwarded  the 
products  of  the  surrounding  towns  of  Ohono,  Maruoka,  and  Ftikuyi,  lying  at  the  foot 
of  the  lofty  Siro-yamo,  or  "  White  Mountain." 

South  of  the  rich  Sendai  plains  there  are  no  large  towns  on  the  rocky  east  coast 
till  we  come  to  the  decayed  city  of  Mito,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Naka-gava.  But 
the  population  becomes  more  dense  in  the  fertile  plain  watered  by  the  Tone-gava 
and  its  tributaries  to  the  north-west.  Here  Takasaki  and  Mayebasi  are  noted  centres 
of  the  silk  industry,  and  at  Tomioka  the  Government  has  established  a  model  silk 
spinning  factory,  which  has  become  the  most  important  in  the  Empire.  Near  the 
mouth  of  the  Tone-gava  is  the  large  town  of  Diosi  (Chosi),  with  its  port  of  Fnabasi 
at  the  northern  extremity  of  Tokio  Bay.  Diosi,  which  consists  of  a  group  of  villages 
extending  over  a  space  of  about  two  miles,  is  chiefly  occupied  in  the  fishing  trade. 
Large  quantities  of  the  itcaahi,  a  kind  of  pilchard,  but  of  smaller  size,  are  captured 
all  along  the  coast  and  brought  to  Diosi,  where  they  are  boiled  down  in  huge 
cauldrons.  The  oil  thus  obtained  is  used  for  lighting  purposes,  and  the  residue, 
after  being  dried  in  the  sun,  is  sent  inland  for  manure.  The  smells  arising  from 
this  process  render  Diosi  and  the  neighbouring  villages  almost  uninhabitable  by 
strangers. 

Tokio  {Tokiyo,  Toke'i),  the  present  capital  and  largest  city  in  Japan,  is  the  old 
Yedo  (  Yeddo),  or  "  Gate  of  the  Bay."    Its  new  name,  synonymous  with  the  Chinese 


424 


EAST  ASIA. 


Tongkin{»,  means  "  Eastern  Capital,"  and  dates  only  from  the  year  1869,  when  it 
became  the  residence  of  the  Mikado.  Nothing  existed  in  this  region  except  fishing 
and  rural  villages  until  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century,  when  Toku-gava  Yeyas, 
founder  of  the  last  Shogun  dynasty,  built  his  stronghold  here.  Under  one  of  his 
successors  all  the  daimios  were  ordered  to  reside  in  Yedo  for  half  the  year,  and  to 
leave  their  families  and  most  of  their  household  in  the  place,  as  hostages  for  their 
good  behaviour.  A  multitude  of  nobles,  soldiers,  employes,  and  retainers  of  all  sorts 
thus  came  to  be  grouped  round  the  hill  on  which  stood  the  palace  of  the  Shogun. 
Trade  followed  in  their  wake,  and  at  the  height  of  its  prosperity,  about  the  middle 
of  the  present  century,  Yedo  certainly  contained  over  a  million  inhabitants.  In- 
cluding the  800,000  armed  retainers  and  attendants  of  the  daimios,  some  authorities 
have  estimated  their  numbers  as  high  as  2,000,000  and  even  2,500,000.  But  the 
civil  wars,  the  departure  of  many  nobles  with  their  households,  and  the  commercial 
ruin  caused  by  the  fires  and  massacres,  reduced  a  large  part  of  Tokio  to  a  wilderness. 
But  with  the  return  of  peace  it  has  gradually  recovered,  and  is  now  perhaps  nearly 
as  populous  as  under  the  Shogun  regime.  Its  commercial  and  industrial  pre- 
eminence is  at  the  same  time  insured  by  its  position  as  capital  of  the  Empire. 

Covering  about  as  much  space  as  Paris  within  the  fortifications,  Tokio  occupies 
the  north-west  extremity  of  the  bay  at  the  mouth  of  the  Sumidu-gava,  which  is 
here  connected  with  the  Tone-gava  by  the  Yedo-gava  branch  of  that  river.  It  is  en- 
circled south,  west,  and  north,  by  low  wooded  hills,  while  a  central  eminence,  sur- 
rounded by  grey  walls  and  a  moat  3  J  miles  in  circuit,  is  crowned  by  the  On-siro,  or 
"  Noble  Castle,"  formerly  residence  of  the  Shoguns,  now  of  the  Mikado.  The  old 
dwellings  of  the  daimios  have  been  mostly  converted  into  government  offices  and 
schools,  and  beyond  this  middle  zone,  also  enclosed  by  walls  and  canals,  stretches  the 
city  properly  so  called.  The  busiest  commercial  quarter  lies  eastwards,  between  the 
Siro  and  the  mouth  of  the  "  Kava,"  where  stands  the  "  Bridge  of  the  Rising  Sun  " 
{^Nip-pon  Basi),  regarded  us  the  central  point  of  all  the  impei'ial  highways.  Here 
the  Ginza  boulevard  has  already  begun  to  assume  the  aspect  of  a  European  city. 
Within  a  small  space,  handsome  brick  houses  stretch  in  a  continuous  line,  broken 
elsewhere  by  gardens,  tea  and  mulberry  plantations,  and  clusters  of  cryptomeria). 
But  most  of  the  250,000  houses  are  still  constructed  in  the  old  native  style. 
During  the  day  these  little  houses,  with  their  black  tiled  roofs  and  white  ledges, 
are  open  to  the  street,  showing  the  kamidana,  or  sacred  images  and  ancestral  tablets, 
disposed  on  their  stands  of  honour.  In  a  country  like  Japan,  where  earthquakes 
are  so  frequent,  these  frail  bamboo  and  cardboard  structures  are  much  safer  thon 
stone  buildings,  but  are  also  far  more  liable  to  the  risk  of  fire.  They  are  supposed 
to  have  an  r.verage  existence  of  about  six  years,  and  "  fire,"  says  a  local  proverb, 
"  is  the  blossom  of  Yedo."  At  the  first  signal  of  alarm  the  more  costly  objects  are 
carried  off  to  the  nearest  fire-proof  warehouses  erected  against  such  contingencies. 
Some  10,000  houses  were  consumed  by  a  conflagration  in  1879.  But  a  far  more 
terrible  fire  broke  out  in  the  year  1657,  when  as  many  as  107,000  persons  are  said 
to  have  perished  in  the  flames.  Over  500  palaces  of  the  daimios,  770  residences 
of  other  nobles  and  officials,  350  temples,  and  1,200  streets  of  common  houses  were 


TOrOORArHY  OF  NIP-rON. 


425 


destroyed  on  this  occasion.  In  UUtH  tlicro  was  another  groat  fire,  which  consumed 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  city.  Tokio  has  also  sulfered  {greatly  from  earthtjuakes, 
epidemics,  typhoons,  and  fioodings.  The  eartluiuakc  of  ITO'-i  is  said  to  have 
destroyed  over  37,000  souls,  and  no  less  thiin  !!)(), 000,  chiefly  of  the  poorer  classes, 
were  swept  away  by  the  fearful  epidemic  of  1773.     (Jn  the  11th  of  November,  1HD5, 

Fig.  108. — Monster  Hell  in  the  Sijia  Quauteu,  Tojuo. 


the  last  great  earthquake  took  place,  and  on  this  occasion  over  14,000  dwelling- 
houses,  besides  16,000  fire-proof  "  Godowns,"  were  levelled  to  the  ground.  The 
loss  of  life  was  estimated  at  over  100,000,  but  there  is  no  trustworthy  authority  for 
these  numbers,  nor,  in  fact,  for  any  of  the  statistics  of  lives  lost  during  similar 
disasters  in  former  times. 

Tokio  may  be  described  as  an  aggregate  of  about  one  hundred  small  towns  and 


426 


EAST  ASIA. 


villupfos,  which,  hy  oxpaiuliiijr  in  every  direction,  have  gradually  become  united  in 
one  city,  while  leaving  here  and  there  several  open  spaces  occupied  by  gardens, 
groves,  and  tields.  There  are  no  remarkable  architectural  monuments,  although  a 
really  imposing  eilect  is  produced  by  the  cyclopean  blocks  of  the  castle  walls, 
relieved  at  intervals  ])y  kiosk-like  towiM's,  and  at  some  points  rising  fully  a  hundred 
feet  above  the  bi'oad  and  deep  outer  ditches.  The  ifdaihi,  or  i)alaces  of  the  ancient 
daimios,  arc  low  buildings  walled  round  and  adorned  with  ear\ed  wooden  porches. 
]iut  the  most  curious  and  ornate  structures  are  the  Huddhist  temples,  of  which 
there  are  upwards  of  a  thousand  scattered  over  the  city,  and  especially  in  the 
Asakusa  quarter,  where  is  the  temjde  of  the  Golden  Dragon  dedicated  to  the 
Goddess  Kwannon.  This  is  at  once  the  most  frequented  and  the  most  venerable 
for  its  historic  memories,  occupying  as  it  does  the  islet  where  the  first  monuments 
of  Yodo  rose  above  the  surrounding  swamps  and  waters.  The  neighbouring  hills, 
such  as  Siba  in  the  south,  and  Uyeno  in  the  north,  tower  above  the  vast  sea  of 
liouses  and  sacred  edifices,  and  arc  themselves  crowned  with  temples  and  tombs 
not^ible  for  their  rich  woocl  carvings,  elegant  decorations,  noble  torii,  or  jjorchcs,  and 
enormous  bells.  Of  the  two  museums  recently  erected  on  these  hills,  one  contains 
a  natural  history  collection,  the  other  Japanese  artistic  works,  besides  an  ethno- 
graphic exhibit  i(m  of  the  greatest  value  for  the  study  of  the  aborigines  of  Yeso 
and  the  Kurilo  Islands.  The  surrounding  parks,  planted  towards  the  end  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  are  amongst  the  finest  in  Japan,  which  is  so  rich  in  plantations 
of  magnificent  timber.  The  cemeteries,  one  of  which  near  Siba  contains  the  tombs 
and  effigies  of  the  forty-seven  ronin,  are  also  laid  out  as  public  grounds,  shaded 
with  trees,  and  made  bright  and  cheerful  with  flowering  shrubs.  Tokio  has  now 
also  its  lM)tanic  garden,  besides  numerous  nurseries  anC  horticultural  establishments, 
but  no  public  squares  or  free  open  spaces  for  popular  gatherings.  The  people 
having  been  formerly  excluded  from  political  life,  the  Japanese  cities  contained  no 
such  meeting-places,  the  forum  being  useless  in  the  absence  of  free  citizens.  But 
the  re(!ent  changes  will  necessarily  require  a  corresponding  modification  in  the 
plan  of  the  towns. 

The  above-mentioned  renin  are  the  subject  of  a  famous  story  highly  character- 
istic of  the  chivalrous  period  of  Japanese  histroy.  Early  in  the  year  1701  a 
young  noble  named  Asnno  Takumi  no  Kami  having  been  appointed  to  entertain 
the  Mikado's  envoy  to  the  Shogun,  happened  to  give  offence  to  Kira  Kodzuko  no 
Suke,  an  old  gentleman  learned  in  court  ceremonies,  who  was  his  instructor  in  the 
proper  etiquette  to  be  observed  on  this  occasion.  For  some  time  he  endured  the 
taunts  of  K(xlzuke  no  Suke,  but  was  at  last  so  provoked  that  he  could  no  longer 
control  his  indignation,  and  attempted  to  kill  his  insulter  with  a  dagger.  This 
occurred  in  the  palace  of  the  Shogun,  where  to  draw  a  sword  in  anger  was  a  capital 
offence.  Hence,  although  defeated  in  his  attempt  by  the  bystanders,  Takumi  no 
Kami  received  orders  to  (lisj)atch  himself  according  to  the  usual  hamkiri  fashion. 
His  castle  of  Ako  was  also  confiscated,  and  his  retainers  were  turned  adrift  into  the 
world,  thus  becoming  ronin,  or  "  masterless  men."  Amongst  them  was  O-ishi 
Kui-a  no  Suke,  one  of  Takumi's  chief  counsellors,  who  formed  u  league  with  others 


L 


TOPOORAPnY  OE  NIP-PON. 


427 


litcd  in 
ardons, 
louf^h  a 

0  Willis, 

iiiiulrcd 
ancient 
porches. 

1  which 
i  in  the 
I  to  the 
cnerablc 
nunients 
ng  hills, 
st  sea  of 
id  tombs 
^hes,  and 

contains 
n  cthno- 
,  of  Yeso 
id  of  the 
antations 
;he  tombs 
s,  shaded 
has  now 
ishmcnts, 
le  people 
tained  no 
ins.     But 
)n  in  the 

character- 
iT  1701  a 
entertain 
adzuke  no 
tor  in  the 
idured  the 
no  longer 
^er.     This 
18  a  capital 
'akumi  no 
ri  fashion. 
Lft  into  the 
was  O-ishi 
vith  others 


to  avenge  the  death  of  their  chief.  After  a  short  time  their  number  haviiif^  been 
reduced  to  forty-seven,  all  of  whom  could  be  lli(»rou<i:lily  diiM^iulcd  upon,  llir  execu- 
tion of  their  design  was  tixed  for  January  JJOtli,  170.J,  when  they  attacked  KiKiziiko 
no  Suke's  residence,  dragged  him  from  his  hiding-place,  and  cut  oil'  liis  licad.  wliieh 
they  triumphantly  deposited  on  Takumi's  grave  in  the  cemetery  ut  Tokio.  Thi 
Kubi-arai-i-do,  or  "  Well  where  the  head  was  washed,"  still  exists  near  the  path 
leading  to  the  tombs  of  the  ronin  themselves. 

Although  few  European  traders  have  settled  in  Tokio,  it  is  nevertheless  a  very 
lively  place,  all  the  main  streets  being  animated  by  over  •Jo.ttOO  jiiirihid  {hmma), 
vehicles  drawn  by  hand  moving  about  incessantly  between  the  centrid  parts  and  the 

Fil?.     109. JlNIlIKSM,    JaI>ANR8F.    IlAXn-r-AHT. 


shore.  The  numerous  canals  intersecting  the  lower  town  in  everj-  direction  are  also 
usually  crowded  with  craft  loading  and  unloading  at  all  the  quays  and  wharves. 
The  Sumida-gava,  which  is  crossed  by  five  bridges  connecting  Tokio  with  the  great 
suburb  of  Hondjrt,  is  sometimes  completely  covered  by  barges  and  junks  of  every 
form,  besides  gondolas  and  pleasure-boats  impelled  by  wind  or  tide.  Hut  the  bay,* 
in  which  forts  have  been  erected  on  artificial  islands,  is  t<jo  shallow  for  large  vessels 
in  the  vicinity  of  Tokio.  Hence  the  real  port  lies  farther  south,  at  Siiia-f/ara,  while 
all  the  ocean  steamers  stop  at  Yokohama,  whore  the  new  railway  stations  are  as 
crowded  as  those  of  any  European  city.  Here  is  also  the  Tski-dzi,  or  l*]uroj)ean 
"  Concession,"  occupied  by  several  foreign  merchants.      The  railway,  which,  like 


sfes^s&i:^»g«a*s*^-'^-«f  ■laaeiS*^*'!-  -.sg^^m^ 


428 


EAST  ASIA. 


1 1 


t ! 


Yokoliaiuu  itself,  has  been  partly  constructod  on  roclaiiiird  land,  runs  from  this  place 
round  the  bay  to  Tokio,  a  distance  altogotlior  of  IH  miles. 

Tokio  is  the  chief  industrial  centre  of  Japan,  althoufi^li  its  wares  aro  on  the  whole 
inferior  in  quality  to  those  of  Kioto,  the  old  imperial  capital.  It  manufactures  silks 
and  other  woven  floods,  porcelains,  lac(juer-wure,  enamels,  machinery,  and  is  the 
main  source  of  supply  for  all  towns  l^'ing  east  of  J^ake  ]5iva.  Tokio  is  also  the 
great  literary  centre  of  the  Empire.  In  1879  its  University  had  40  native  and  12 
foreign  professors,  with  100  scholars,  besides  over  20  young  students  supported  by 
its  funds  in  Kurope  and  America.  The  handsome  College  of  Engineers,  erected  by  a 
French  architect,  is  almost  unrivalled  for  the  richness  of  its  collections  and  the 
facilities  of  every  sort  offered  to  students.  Hesides  14^,000  volumes  and  other 
treasures,  the  chief  library  contains  the  oldest  known  Sanskrit  manuscript,  dating 
from  the  year  GOf)  of  the  new  era,  and  another  library  has  already  accumulated 
20,000  volumes  in  European  languages.  Amongst  the  chief  learned  institutions  is 
a  Geographical  Society,  whicli  publishes  a  journal  of  its  proceedings. 

Before  it  became  the  terminus  of  the  steam  navigation  with  Europe,  Yokohama 
was  a  mere  fishing  hamlet  on  the  south  side  of  Yedo  Hay.  Choice  had  at  first  been 
made  of  K>iHi'-(/fifft,  lying  6  miles  to  the  north,  where  the  great  Tokaido  highway 
ti'rns  inland  from  the  coast.  But  the  neighbourhood  of  this  highway,  where  the 
daimios  and  their  suites  were  constantly  passing,  seemed  dangerous  for  the  security 
of  the  foreign  settlement,  while  its  shallow  roadstead  prevented  the  approach  of 
large  vessels.  At  Yokohama,  on  the  contrary,  the  water  is  so  deep  that  the 
largest  vessels  are  able  to  ship  and  discharge  the  cargoes  close  in  shore.  The  new 
city  already  covers  u  considerable  area,  much  of  which  was  formerly  occupied  by 
rice  grounds  and  gardens,  forming  part  of  the  flat  land  which  extends  along  the 
shores  of  the  bay,  and  which  is  backed  by  a  semicircle  of  low  wooded  heights.  A 
largo  export  trade  has  been  developed  in  teas,  silks,  rice,  camphor,  lacquer- ware, 
and  other  local  produce,  exchanged  chiefly  for  European  manufactured  goods. 
Yokoska  Bay,  lying  south  of  Yokohama,  has  become  a  Japanese  naval  station  and 
arsenal.  A  largo  military  encampment  has  also  been  formed  near  the  fortified  city 
of  Sfikura,  between  the  Tone-gava  and  Sumida-gava  Deltas,  towards  the  neck  of  the 
peninsula  of  Ava-kidzusa.  The  barracks  occupy  the  site  of  an  ancient  castle, 
former  residence  of  the  princely  Hotta  family,  famous  in  the  annals  of  the  Toku- 
gava  Shoguns.  Close  by  is  the  old  execution  ground,  where  Sogoro  with  his  wife 
and  three  sons  suffered  death  in  the  year  1645. 

Some  14  miles  south-west  of  Yokohama,  near  the  east  side  of  Sagami  Bay,  arc 
situated  the  ruins  of  K<tmn-kura,ci\in{al  of  the  Empire  from  the  twelfth  to  the  fifteenth 
century.  According  to  the  local  tradition,  it  occupies  the  site  of  an  old  lake,  but 
was  destroyed  during  a  civil  war  in  ISJJU.  Kama-kura  never  recovered  from  this 
blow,  but  its  former  splendour  is  still  attested  by  the  remains  of  over  one  hundred 
temples,  many  palaces  and  tombs,  one  of  which  is  dedicated  to  the  memory  of 
8,300  leg(Midary  heroes,  all  of  whom  innnolated  themselves  together.  Near  Kama- 
kura  stands  the  famous  Daibuts,  or  "  Great  Buddha,"  a  colossal  bronze  statue  40 
feet  high,  remarkable  for  its  culm  and  majestic  expression,  and  containing  in  the 


J  I 


%v 


'^aiM>^* 


"V  "^frm^^^i^:,^m;p^mx;~^m^!m^^^m^mmmm^^ 


lis  place 

lOAvllolo 

res  silks 
I  is  tho 
also  tho 
3  and  12 
ortcd  by 
!tcd  by  a 
and  the 
id  other 
t,  dating; 
imuktcd 
lutions  is 

^oholiama 
first  been 
highway 
I'hore  the 
)  security 
)roach  of 
that  the 
The  new 
nipied  by 
along  the 
ghts.     A 
uer-ware, 
ed  goods, 
ation  and 
tified  city 
3ck  of  tho 
nt  castle, 
;he  Toku- 
1  his  wife 

i  Bay,  are 
0  fifteenth 
lake,  but 
from  this 
e  hundred 
nemory  of 
ear  Kama- 
statue  40 
ling  in  the 


^~■■^<;v;v^^;iSv^■'^■'"jTll^KI^S^^^"-;M? 


■^;«v^>  *i. 


TOPOaUAl'IIY  OF  NIl'-rON. 


429 


'f/j. 


Y^ 


I 


Ji'i/r' 


o 

H 


> 
o 

O 


inlorior  a  Hiniill  Huddliist  l«'iiii)l(\  The  Iiair  (»f  tlio  iina>,'(<  is  stippoHod  to  bo  troalod 
in  Hucli  a  wav  as  to  rcprcsciil  fli(>  Hiiailn  tradilidiially  said  fi*  liav»<  crawled  up  to 
])ii)tt'ct  Ills  hare  licad  imin  the  rays  of  \\u\  sun.  Nciir  Kaina-kura  is  the  ln>ly  island 
of  Vnio-sima,  which  is  also  on(>  <  ."  the  most  in'<iuciitcd  ithiccs  of  i)il>rriniay:t'  in 
Ja^)an.     It  id  connected  at  low  water  l»y  a  tongue  of  sand  with  the  niainhiud, 


^^g.  200.— 8iM(ii)A  Hay. 

Scale  1  :  4.'^,nO0. 


138154, 


i5a-!ja' 


0  to  64  Feet. 


04  to  IW  i'txL 


128  Feet  and  upwards. 
^  3,2(10  Yards. 


whence  a  muf^nificent  prospect  is  commanded  of  the  bay,  with  its  wood(>d  .shores  and 
the  snowy  crest  of  Fuzi-san  in  the  distance. 

The  ports  of  Odovam  and  Nuinmtz,  on  the  Tokai-do  highway  oast  and  west  of  the 
peninsula  of  Idzu,  have  a  considerable  coasting  trade  as  the  outlets  for  tho  jJi'oduce 
of  the  fertile  district  of  Fuzi-san.  Sittioda,  at  the  extremity  of  the  peninsula,  was 
nearly  destroyed  by  the  terrific  s''bmarine  earthquake  of  1854,  and  since  then  most 
of  its  trade  has  been  transferred  to  Yokohama.     Ko/ii,  now  Yamannsi-keu,  lying  in 


.<?£«»5i«' 


"•?«i?^!^f.;^ia^>*^«(*wi«i»(W*^^  ■  '•  ■■''■•'■—•  - 


480 


EAST  ASIA. 


W< 


14 


a  rich  |)liiiu  north  of  Fiizi,  is  one  of  tlic  f,'r<'at  cciitros  of  tl»o  silk  iiuhistry,  und 
possosscs  a  spiuiiiii;;  fiictoi y  iiiiidtllcil  on  tliosc  of  Kniiicc.  Mcyoiid  it  follow  tlio 
towns  of  Sii/zKokft,  Jf(ii)i(iinu(z,  and  'foi/ofxisi  (  Ymiiln^,  all  lyin^  nnir  tho  h\wvv.  of 
Toliofoini-nada  15ay.  Haniamatz  was  formerly  the  castle-town  of  a  powerful  feudal 
chief.  in  the  neiiriiliourh'iod  are  two  famous  Siiito  temples,  noted  for  their 
nia;.'nitiei>n1  internal  ind  external  decorations.  lUil  since  the  downfall  of  the 
Toku-j,'ava  family,  l>y  whom  they  were  endowed,  their  revenues  have  been  secularised, 
and  these  splendid  l)uildin<?s  allowed  to  ;;(  to  ruin.  Another  temple  in  the  samo 
district  coiilains  a  muih  reveicd  ima/e,  the  feiiude  Huddlia,  Kwan-non,  which  is 
tradilionallv  said  to  have  Imh-u  washed  up  from  the  sen  in  the  year  H()(i  .\.n.  Hut 
Hince  thedisestahlishnient  of  lUi(hlhism,  this  temple  also  has  lost  much  of  il.^  I'ormer 
sjdendour. 

j.\(i(/(ii/n,  now  Ailsi-kni,  founded  i)y  ()(a  Nol)una<j;a,  laid  out  with  tlie  rej^ularity 
of  11  chesshoard,  and  situated  in  a  rich,  well-watered  plain  on  the  hay  of  ( )vari,  is  tho 
fourth  city  in  Japan  lor  population,  and  is  specially  dislin<^uished  hy  the  iiulustry  and 
enter|)rise  of  its  inhahitaiits.  They  are  enj>;a;,M'd  in  the  nuinufacturo  of  woollen 
and  silken  ;;oods,  enanuds  and  jiorcelain,  and  a  school  of  medicine  has  recently  been 
founded  here.  Kiifiiiii(^h'>ir(in(iy,uul  Ahwdt,  the  latter  much  frequented  on  account 
of  its  famous  Sinto  sanctuary,  serve  as  sea-ports  for  the  capital  of  the  ken,  as  well  as 
foi"  Yoitdtji,  Knudiiifitii,  (lifii  (^liii(iiilzini),  Olioijdlii,  and  tho  other  cities  of  the  plain. 
The  maritinu'  town  of  Tnu  [Aiio-Ihh'),  on  the  west  side  of  the  sanu-  hay  of  Ovari,  is 
also  much  frecpionted  by  junks,  and  its  blue  ( )vari  porcelain,  so  named  from  the 
province  whence  i<  is  exported,  is  in  most  {general  use  throughout  the  Empire. 
Farther  on  is  the  important  city  of  Y(inia<fii,  in  the  peninsula  encircling  the  south 
side  of  <>\ari  Hay  in  the  province  of  Ise.  Near  it  are  the  most  renowned  tem]»l(>s 
of  Sintoisni,  th«'  Ge-ku  and  Nai-ku,  yearly  vi.sited  by  multitudes  of  pilgrims. 
Traditionally  :},0()0  years  old,  these  temples  date  at  any  rate  from  tiie  Iwginning  of 
the  vulgar  era,  although  the  present  edifices  are  no  nioro  than  exact  reproductions 
of  the  original  buihlings. 

They  are  pulled  down  every  twenty  years,  roeonstrncted  with  tim])er  of  the 
same  species,  and  thatched  with  straw.  Nothing  is  ever  changed  in  the  arrange- 
ment or  character  of  the  fittings  ;  none  of  the  Huddhistic  innovations  so  prevalent 
in  othei'  temples  have  yet  desecrated  these  revered  moiunnentsof  the  Sinto  worshij). 
Scarcely  a  Japanese  house  but  has  amongst  its  sacred  relies  a  scrap  of  jjaper  b(>aring 
inscriptions  as  mementos  of  the  temples  of  Ts{>,  and  some  objects  in  consecrated 
wood  from  the  same  locality. 

The  eastern  entrance  of  the  Inland  Sea  could  not  fail  to  become  the  site  of  a 
hvrge  centre  of  populat  ion.  Vulia-iiaiiui,  lying  at  the  mouth  of  the  Yosino-gava,  north 
of  the  strait  to  which  the  Dutch  have  given  the  name  of  Lin.schoten,  is  accordingly 
an  important  trading  place,  and  is  moreover  famous  for  the  beauty  of  the  surround- 
ing scenery,  the  fertility  of  its  plains,  and  the  abundance  of  its  fruits.  Tn  the  samo 
valley  lies  tho  monastic  city  of  Koijd-mii,  containing  no  less  than  ''{70  Huddhist 
temples  aiul  monasteries,  formerly  sanctuaries  and  places  of  refuge,  where  criminals 
and   the  su.spected  from  all  the  surrounding  lands  found  shelter.      The  curved 


:.s*iv  "-i^^m^wK €? '.#^%S^Kfe"«?^ 


TOI'OORAPHY  OF  NIl'-I'ON. 


481 


woo(1h,  iKiiiiliiijifs,  1111(1  liicquci'-wuro  of  Koya-sim  dutc  fn»in  the  HouriHliiiiH;  ('|)(ich  oi 
Jiipiiiicsf  art,  and  isncli  Ih  tlic  maj^iiiticnit't'  of  the  sacn'd  proves  planted  round  tlu! 
(ciiiplcs,  tliat  one  ol'  the  most  majestic  spirit's  of  coiiifors  in  ilapan  lias  rcccivt'd  tlio 
muuL'  of  Koya. 

A  strt'am  in  tho  vicinity  of  Koyii-san  is  cnmscd  by  a  irmarkablc  l)rid;>t',  the 
plunks  in  the  Hour  of  which  nuniU'r  tliirty-Hovcn,  and  arc  marked  with  the  namoH 
of  the  thirty-Hcvcn  lluddhas  (tf  the  Ivonf,'o-kai.  It  is  pojiularly  supposed  that  nooiu" 
who  is  unacceptahlc  to  Kobo  Daishi,  the  patron  of  the  spot,  can  jiass  over  this  lirid^o. 
When  Hideyoshi  made  a  piljjjrima^e  to  tin'  place,  after  bavin;,'  liscii  to  suj)iem(>  jiowcr, 
he  iMHuid  to  have  gone  Hteulthily  by  ui^;ht  as  far  us  the  bridj^'c,  wh'"  h  he  crossed,  and 


Fig.  201. — Nauoya  ASM)  Dki.ta  of  the  Kiro-oava. 

Sonlo  1  ;  HTiO.OOO. 


59F 
50! 


EoFP 


l56'40 


I57'I0- 


_C«nal 


- 13  Miles. 


then  turned  back  again.  Tie  thus  satisfied  himself  that  the  slaughter  he  had  been 
compelled  to  make  of  his  enemies,  in  order  to  obtain  the  protectorate  and  restore 
peace  to  the  naticm,  was  approved  by  Kobo  Dui.shi,  and  that  he  might  now  safely 
venture  to  pay  his  formal  visit  in  full  state,  accompanied  by  all  the  nobles  of  the 
Empire,  without  fear  of  being  put  to  shame  in  their  presence. 

The  basin  of  the  Yodo-gava,  vhich  comprises  Lake  Biva,  fringed  with  its 
"  eighteen  hundred  villages,"  and  where  are  situated,  the  cities  of  Kioto,  Nara,  and 
Ohosaka,  is  pre-eminently  the  historic  laud  of  Japan.  On  the  very  .shores  of  the 
lake  itself  stands  the  populous  city  of  Jlikoiic,  the  ancient  residence  of  the  duiniio  who 
was  entitled  to  the  regency  during  the  minority  of  the  Shogun.  East  of  this 
place,  which   became  famous  during   the  intestine  troubles  towards  the  end  of 


9«*itsi*" 


m^;:^^,  .^  ife  sfes^;^! 


■.'■(Asiflf^fe'i^srvfiiJSE'iSS .  "  J  Vijc-.tf-?::.; 


482 


KAST  ASTA. 


I  I 


|.:l 


0 


till-  sixteenth  century,  is  Nituiited  the  station  <it'  Siiii/n/itini,  where  in  the  y«ir 
1,(K(()  Yeyas  gained  thi-  (h-eisivi-  vietory  wliieli  Inl  in  the  rise  til'  llie  Slid^fiinal 
dynasty  <il'  Toku-piva,  and  to  the  (h'stnietion  of  (lie  laetion  allie<l  to  the 
("Inisliiius. 

O/ntfz  {^(tilzii^  and  Sii/fi'kni,  Iviiio;  ut  tin-  ontlet  o|'  llir  lake,  jointly  I'orin  a  eity, 
tin-  possession  oi'  wliieli  was  also  In  tpieiitly  disjmted  hy  tlie  rival  political  parties. 
On  the  heights  oi'  the  lliyei-san,  overlnokiiij;  it  on  the  north,  stand  wtme  famous 
Sinto  sanctuaries  and  still  more  celehrated  Mnddliist  temples,  that  esjM'cially  <d' 
Mii/ii/fni,  whose  reIi<i:ious  innnites  took  part  in  the  stru^^le  ajj;ainst  Otu  Nol)unapi, 
dictator  (d"  the  Mmpireaiid  protector  of  the  Jesuit  missionary  Francis  Xavii-r.  Oliolz, 
with  its  stratry:liM;,'  sul)ui'l>  of  /rzr,  is  now  a  connnenial  city,  and  may  he  re^^arded  as 
an  advanced  (piarter  of  Kioto,  with  which  it  comnnmicates  i)y  a  hranch  of  tli<« 
nHM'iitly  (tpened  railway,  lly  means  of  its  steanjers  it  has  also  ac(piired  the  mono- 
p(dy  of  the  local  traih^of  hake  Miva,  from  whose  waters  sailinj^  vessels  have  already 
nearly  disappeared.  A  speciality  «d'  the  industry  (d'  Ohot/  iu  the  munufucturo  of 
ahacuses  (soruhtiii^,  or  calculating'  uiachineH, 

The  city  of  Kiiifa,  tliat  is  to  say,  "Capital,"  caH(<d  also  J//Vf/,o,  or  the  "  Ilcsi- 
dence,"  Sriikt'o,  or  the  "  Western  Capital,"  and  Jfiidiizio,  or  "Castle  of  Pouco  and 
Tranquillity,"  has  lost  its  rank  amonjj^st  Japanese  cities,  and  is  now  inoroly  one  of 
the  three  imperial,  and  the  third  only  in  the  numi)er  of  its  iidiahitants.  After 
hiivin>i[  hoen  the  soat  of  K)ni)ire  for  nearly  eleven  hundred  years,  it  wuh  HUpjdanted 
by  its  east«'rn  rival,  Yedo,  in  INOS,  whi'u  th(>  sweepin<>;  revolution  took  place,  which 
chan<,'cd  at  once  tin;  frovernment,  administration,  and  national  customs.  Since 
then  the  population  has  diminished  hy  mon-  than  one-half,  and  whole  ([uarfers 
have  renuiined  almost  uninhahited.  Xevertheless,  Kioto,  with  its  historic  associa- 
tions, still  renuiins  the  city  of  beauty,  eh'<,'ance,  and  refinement,  Tt  also  excels  the 
new  capital,  if  not  in  industrial  acrtivity,  at  least  in  the  artistic  tusto  of  its  pro- 
ducts. 1  [ere  are  found  tiu>  most  skilled  Japanese  artisans  in  the  manufacture  of 
silks,  bi'oi'ad(>s,  embroi(U'red  fabrics  of  every  kind,  enamels,  porcelains,  ornamental 
bronzes,  and  other  metal  wares. 

The  ancient  palace  of  t  lu'  ^1  ikados  at  Kioto  covers  a  space  of  alrout  twenty-six  acres 
with  its  enclosures,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  roofed  wall  of  earth  and  plaster  with  six 
gates.  The  inner  court  Is  approached  by  a  Hi<^ht  of  eighteen  steps,  corresponding 
in  number  to  the  orijjinal  series  of  grades  into  which  the  Mikado's  officials  were 
divided.  Outside  the  court  is  a  building  called  Kashiko-dokoro,  where  was  kept 
the  copy  oi  the  sacred  mirror  given  to  the  Mikado's  ancestor  by  the  Sun-(jfoddes.s» 
the  original  of  which  is  supposed  to  be  still  preserved  in  her  temple  at  Ise.  When 
the  palace  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  900  the  mirror  flew  out  of  the  shrine  in  which 
it  was  then  deposited  and  alighted  <m  a  neighbouring  cherry-tree,  where  it  was 
found  by  one  of  the  Nai-shi,  or  female  at  t(>ndauts  of  the  Mikado.  Henceforth  the 
NaK-shi  always  had  charge  of  the  sacred  emblem.  Since  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century  the  ])alace  has  been  six  times  destroyed  by  lire,  the  last 
occasion  having  been  in  1S04.  In  the  follitwing  year  it  was  restored  exactly  in  its 
previous  size  and  style,  but  very  nearly  experienced  the  same  fate  again  in  1804, 


'-*i'^f^^^-^m^M^umm^^^smi^s$^w^mM 


i,S«y^- 


Toi'oaiiAi'uy  uF  Nir-i'UN. 


4])a 


wlirn  rrincr  niu-sliiti  uttomptcd  to  soizr  tli(>  Mikado.  On  thin  occuMioii  Kioto  it. 
self  frll  II  prey  to  the  fliiiiics,  and  iwarly  oiic-liull'  of  il  wiis  rcdiicffl  to  iimI'cs.  Si(ic(> 
tlu'ii  lui'j,'!'  Npact's  loriiit'i'ly  covi  rc^l  Ity  hoiists  liavr  1mm>ii  coiivfrli'd  into  inatkrt 
jl[iirdcns,  and  the  !)(>,()()()  rfsidrnecH  nu'iitiont-d  l»y  Knini-iN  Xiivirr  in  one  of  his 
lottcrs  Imvo  now  Won  ivdui-cd  to  about  half  tliat  nmnlx'r. 

Tlio  Miihurl)  oi  .tnifo,  lyin^  I'ant  of  tho  lity,  Iium  for  ccnturicH  l)«'i«n  inliuliitcd 
by  a  coninmnity  of  far-f'mncd  potters,  ori^'inally  from  K<»n'n.  They  work  in  tbcir 
homes,  where  they  prepare  and  niouhl  their  paste,  (h-eoratin;^  and  baking'  il  them- 
Nidves.  Their  products  an;  tlins  jj^enuine  works  of  art  stamped  with  the  orijiiiialitv 
und  perfect  workmanship  of  each  individual  aitisan.  Few  towns  in  Nip-jxin  can 
Ik)  compared  with  Kioto  for  the  re^uhirity  and  order  of  its  streets,  all  of  which  inter- 
Hoct  each  other  at  ri^ht  an«?les,  liko  thoHC  of  so  many  Ajneriean  cities.  The  limpid 
waters  of  tbt^  Kamo-jjfava  sweop  round  its  east  side,  liero  soparatiiif?  it  from  souk* 
irre^idarly  built  oullyin^j;  (pmrters.  It  is  crossed  by  several  i)ri<ljj;es,  which  are 
much  crowded  by  tralHc,  especially  in  summer.  The  north-east  an<  h'  of  Kioto  is 
occupied  by  the  Kinri,  or  old  paluco  of  the  Mikados  with  its  now  negl.  /ted  gardens, 
while  the  heart  of  the  city  is  commanded  from  'ho  west  by  tl^o  Mi/io,  a  former 
stronjjliold  of  the  Shoguns,  the  true  masters  of  tho  land,  and  now  the  residence  of 
the  provincial  governor.  Some  of  the  temples  uro  nmrvels  of  architecture.  Tinted 
especially  for  tho  carved  ontabluturos  of  their  porticos,  und  tlu  neighbor  uug  ceme- 
teries are  tho  finest  in  Japan.  According  to  the  ofhcial  returns,  ther"  .  r>  in  Kioto 
no  less  than  nine  hundred  und  forty-five  buildings  of  all  sorts  erected  to  the  vt- 
ship  of  Buddha,  wmie  of  whicli  date  fnmi  the  ninth  and  tcw'i'  >  nturies.  "  Tt/  'lio 
westward  stands  the  great  temple  of  Kennin-ji,  on  a  height,  i  tid  lo\»cr  down  towards 
the  south  another  named  Ilongan-ji,  both  now  in  use  for  the  exhibition  buildings. 
Tier  upon  tier,  and  in  close  proximity  along  the  sides  of  the  hills,  are  temples  of 
various  sizes  and  celebrity,  from  the  one  containing  the  colossal  innige  of  Uai  Ihtiz, 
or  'Great  liuddhu,'  to  the  smallest  wayside  shrine."* 

Tho  Daillutz  here  referred  to  is  preserved  in  the  temple  of  Todai-ji,  and  is  said 
to  be  53  feet  high,  consequently  7  feet  higher  than  the  Kamu-kura  statue.  It  is  in 
a  sitting  posture,  with  the  legs  crossed ;  the  right  hand  ui:)lifted  with  the  iialm 
outwards,  the  left  hand  resting  on  the  knee.  The  body  and  all  the  ancient  purls  of 
the  lotus  flowers  on  which  it  is  seated  are  apparently  formed  of  bronze  jjlatcs 
soldered  together.  But  the  head  looks  like  r  :  i';;vcle  piece,  although  the  temple  is 
so  obscure  and  the  height  so  great  that  it  would  be  difficult  to  distinguish  seams  if 
there  were  any.  A  peculiar  method  of  construction  is  said  to  have  been  adojjtod, 
namely,  of  gradually  building  up  the  wuUs  of  the  mould  as  the  lower  part  of  the 
casting  cooled,  instead  of  construct  I  ii{.  the  whole  mould  first,  and  then  making  the 
casting  in  u  single  piece.  This  process  would  explain  the  aj)pearance  of  scams. 
On  a  hill  near  the  temple  .  tands  a  tower  containing  the  huge  bell  cast  in  the  year 
732  A.u.  This  bell  is  13  feet  by  (5,  with  9  feet  extreme  diameter  und  8  inches 
extreme  thickness  at  the  edge,  and  about  36  tons  of  copper  with  one  ton  of  tin  were 
used  in  the  casting.     (Sa<o«'.) 

•  S.  Mossman,  "  Japan,"  p.  23. 


'<rS^'$»[S^^^^mi;i£^<Sim^^^iS^0mii^:Mmimm^ 


^...'^iy>'i^^'c-'^^/^^Mf^^'-'^''^^'^ 


484 


EAST  ASIA. 


The  vast  and  fertile  plain  of  Kioto,  which  amongst  other  produce  yields  the  best 
tea  in  the  kingdom,  contains  a  number  of  other  towns,  wliich  deijcnd  for  their  trade 
and  industries  on  the  capital.  Thvis  Fiisimi,  which  might  be  regarded  as  a  suburb 
of  Kioto,  is  its  chief  port  on  the  Udzi-gava,  now  regularly  navigated  by  steamers. 
Another  outlet  of  its  trade  is  the  port  of  Yodo,  lying  lower  down  at  the  confluence 
of  the  Kitzu,  the  Udzi,  and  the  Kamo,  whose  joint  streams  form  the  Yodo-gava,  or 
"  Sluggish  River."  The  Kitzu,  which  here  unites  with  the  emissary  from  Lake  Biva, 
flows  by  Nara,  one  of  the  oldest  cities  in  Japan,  and  amongst  the  earliest  imperial 
residences.     Here  are  some  magnificent  sacred  groves,  and  especially  a  park,  in- 


Fig.  202.— Lake  Biva. 

ecalo  1  :  320,000. 


133?3o* 


.  6  Miles. 


m 


habited  for  a  thousand  years  by  herds  of  tame  deer,  whose  antlers  arc  worked  into 
all  kinds  of  little  fancy  objects,  wliich  are  regarded  as  sacred.  Here  also  is  the 
sumptuous  temple  containing  the  Dai'  Uutz,  a  bronze  statue  over  50  foot  high,  and 
weighing  450  tons.  It  is  one  of  the  largest  and  oldest  in  Japan,  dating  from 
the  eighth  century.  Knnim-bava,  one  of  the  suburbs  of  Nara,  is  the  ancient 
Axiafra,  capital  of  the  Kingdom  of  Zinniu  Tenno,  founder  of  the  dynasty  of  the 
Mikados.  From  the  name  of  this  place,  Nip-pon  was  long  known  as  Asivara,  the 
"  Valley  of  the  Pliant  Keeds."  Not  fur  from  Nara  is  Kori-i/atiia,  another  city  of  some 
importance. 

Kioto  is  connected  by  rail  with  its  seu-port  of  Ohomka,  which,  like  the  two 


•"^m^^ 


I 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF  NII'-rON. 


435 


capitals,  is  honoured  with  the  title  of  fa — that  is,  Imperial  City — and  which  ranks 
as  the  second  in  Japan  for  pojmlation,  and  iirst  for  its  trade  witli  the  interior. 
From  its  geographical  situation  Ohosaka  was  naturally  destined  to  acquire  a  com- 
manding position  amongst  the  cities  of  the  Empire.  A  general  survey  of  the 
Japanese  Archipelago  shows  at  a  glance  that  the  most  favoured  region  is  the  coast 


Fig.  203.— Ohosaka. 
Scale  1  :  160,00a 


EofG 


ISS'PS 


.    .     155°  50-    I 


m 


0  to  16  Feet. 


10  to  32  Feet.         32  Feet  and  upwoids. 

— — i^-^~->^^  3  Miles. 


of  the  large  island  watered  by  the  inland  sea.  The  west  side,  facing  the  inhospi- 
table shores  of  Manchuria,  is  exposed  to  cold  winds  and  a  heavy  surf.  The  eastern 
sea-board  again  is  turned  towards  the  boundless  wastes  of  the  I'acific  Ocean.  On 
the  other  hand,  vessels  from  China  must  have  first  reached  the  southern  shores, 
which  enjoy  the  three-fold  advantage  of  a  genial  climate,  good  harbours,  and 


immm>a,x,v.$tmma>ftmmiiiSgmms^r* 


486 


EAST  ASU. 


:if 


proximity  to  civilised  lunds.  The  ports  of  tbc  Inland  Soa  also  enjoy  the  sareo 
jmviiegcs  as  inland  marts,  standiiif^,  as  they  do,  at  the  converging  point  of 
numerois  trade  routes.  Ohosaka,  which  lies  near  the  eastern  entrance  of  the 
Japanese  Mediterranean  to  the  north  of  Sakahi,  which  it  has  succeeded  as  a  large 
sea-port,  occui^ies  a  central  position  relatively  to  the  southern  division  of  the  great 
island,  while  it  is  connected  by  a  navigable  stream  with  an  extremely  fertile  and 
densely  peopled  plain.  In  the  surrounding  waters,  which  present  one  of  the  easiest 
ap])roaches  to  the  I'acific,  storms  arc  rare,  and  the  prevailing  south-west  and  north- 
west winds  elsewhere  obstructing  the  coast  navigation  for  months  together,  are  here 
replaced  by  breezes  alternating  with  the  morning  and  evening,  and  thus 
facilitating  the  progress  of  sailing  vessels.  Thus  everything  combines  to  secure  u 
large  trade  for  the  sea-port  of  Ohosaka.  Deep-sea  vessels  are,  doubtless,  obliged  to 
anchor  at  some  distance  from  the  muddy  canals  which  intersect  the  city  in  all 
directions.  But  the  local  merchants  have  contrived  to  preserve  their  foreign 
relations,  and  conduct  the  exchanges  through  the  medium  of  other  ports,  By 
means  of  numerous  steamers  of  slight  draught,  this  emporium  still  retains  a  monopoly 
of  the  local  traffic  in  rice,  fish,  edible  sea-weed,  timber,  and  other  products,  which 
are  distributed  from  this  place  throughout  the  whole  of  South  Japan.  Here  is 
prepared  the  best  saki  in  the  country,  and  Ohosaka  has  also  become  an  important 
industrial  centre,  where  arc  manufactured  many  wares  formerly  imported  from 
Eurojjc.  The  fancy  goods  of  this  place  are  now  forwarded  in  large  quantities  to 
Europe,  and  as  many  as  four  millions  of  fans,  worth  about  £26,000,  were  exported 
in  the  year  1877.  Watch-making  has  been  recently  introduced  by  a  young  man 
who  acquired  a  knowledge  of  the  trade  in  Switzerland. 

Ohosaka  is  the  "  Venice  of  Japan,"  at  least  in  its  lower  districts,  which  are 
intersected  in  every  direction  by  rivers  and  canals,  crossed  by  hundreds  of  bridges. 
But  one  of  the  quarters  rises  gently  on  the  north-west  side  towards  the  castle, 
wliose  half-ruined  granite  walls  still  present  an  imposing  appearance,  owing  to  their 
groat  size  and  solidity.  From  this  point  a  fine  view  is  afforded  of  the  surrounding 
district.  The  imperial  mint  is  a  model  establishment,  erected  at  great  expense, 
and  fitted  with  all  the  appliances  found  in  similar  edifices  in  the  West.  The  plant 
was  brought  from  Hong  Kong,  where  it  had  proved  a  failure ;  but  under  Japanese 
management  it  has  succeeded  so  well  that  the  Government  has  been  able  to  dispense 
with  the  further  assistance  of  nearly  all  the  origiuii'  English  staff. 

The  usurper  Hideyoshi,  having  resolvetl  to  make  Ohosaka  the  seat  of  Empire, 
caused  a  castle  and  palace  to  bt  .  rected  here  in  the  year  1583,  which  were  probably 
the  most  magnificent  group  of  buildings  ever  raised  in  Japan.  The  palace  sur- 
vived the  storming  of  the  castle  by  lyeyasu  in  1G15,  and  in  1867-8  the  members 
of  the  European  legations  were  several  times  rccei\ed  within  its  walls  by  the  last 
of  the  Shoguns.  Vast  sums  were  lavished  by  Hideyoshi  on  the  decorations,  and 
the  enormous  blocks  used  in  the  construction  of  the  principal  gateway  still  attest 
the  magnificent  plan  of  the  founder.  In  February  1868  the  buildings  within  the 
castle  were  set  on  fire  by  the  Shogun  faction,  and  were  completely  destroyed  in  a 
few  hours.     Since  then  the  fortifications  have  been  occupied  by  the  head-quarters 


all 


TOPOOEAPUY  OF  NIP-rON. 


487 


of  the  Ohosakn  Milittiry  Dopartinont.  The  castle  domains  arc  nearly  !{  miles  in 
circmnforcnce,  and  although  smaller  than  that  of  Tokio,  the  castle  itself  is  still  the 
strongest  in  the  Empire.  Some  of  the  granite  stones  composing  the  hastions  range 
from  20  to  42  feet  in  length,  by  10  to  20  in  width,  and  6  to  H  in  thickness.  They 
arc  said  to  have  \y^r,^  quarried  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood,  but  even  so  il  is 
difficult  to  underst'.nd  jow  they  were  raised  to  their  present  position.  Even  yet 
the  place  would  be  impregnable  to  any  except  the  heaviest  modern  guns,  and  in 
the  hands  of  skilled  engineers  might  hold  out  for  a  long  time  against  European 
ironclads. 

Some  of  the  temples  of  Ohosaka  are  amongst  the  most  remarkable  in  Japan. 
Such  is  that  of  Si  Tennozi — that  is,  of  the  "  Four  Heavenly  Gods,"  the  "  Maha 
Haja  "  of  the  Hindus.  It  lies  in  the  south  of  the  city,  where  it  has  given  its  name 
to  a  suburb  classed  in  the  statistical  returns  as  a  separate  town.  Another  temple, 
situated  near  the  shore  on  the  road  to  Sakahi,  an  industrial  dependence  of  Ohosaka, 
is  an  ancient  Shinto  sanctuary,  frequented  esiieciully  by  tt,*hermen.  The  turtles  and 
fishes  here  preserved  in  the  sacred  ponds,  overgrown  Avith  the  lotus  plant,  are  fed 
by  the  piety  of  the  faithful.  But  the  multitude  is  at  present  attracted  to  the  other 
side  of  the  city,  where  stands  the  railway  station,  centre  of  the  passenger  and  goods 
traffic  for  the  whole  of  South  Japan.  The  HiogoHne,  at  the  junction  of  the  Kioto 
and  Hiogo  lines,  which  is  twenty-two  miles  long,  passes  by  Amaynsaki,  Nisinoitiii/a, 
and  some  other  large  towns  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  bay. 

The  ancient  city  of  Hiogo,  which  stands  near  the  neck  of  a  promontory,  often 
gives  its  name  to  the  new  town  of  KoIm',  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  dry  ravine. 
The  headland  overlooking  Hiogo  shelters  on  the  south-west  side  the  harlM)ur  of 
Kobe,  which  is  deep  enough  for  large  vessels  to  anchor  close  to  the  shore.  The  400 
or  500  Europeans  settled  in  Kobe  constitute  the  most  important  foreign  colony  in 
the  Empire  next  to  that  of  Yokohama.  The  roadstead  may  be  regarded  as  the 
advanced  outpcrt  of  Ohosaka,  the  foreign  trade  of  which  passes  almost  entirely 
through  the  new  sea-port.  During  the  summer  months  the  strangers  residing  in 
Kobe  visit  the  famous  hot  springs  of  Arima,  which  lie  in  a  romantic  upland  valley 
farther  north.  Near  the  springs  is  a  dry  well  called  Tori-ji-goku,  or  "  Bird-hell," 
the  deadly  exhalati(ms  from  which  are  said  to  be  fatal  to  birds  and  small  animals 
approaching  too  near  the  spot. 

Close  to  Hiogo  is  the  artificial  island  of  Tsuki-jima,  said  to  have  been  constructed 
by  Kiyomori  in  the  year  1161  a.d.  According  to  the  legend,  this  island  was  twice 
swept  away  by  the  waves,  when  a  learned  sage  being  consulted  discovere<l  the 
cause  and  remedy.  The  sea  at  that  spot  was  inhabited  by  a  dragon,  who  was 
enraged  at  the  usurpation  of  his  domain,  but  who  might  be  appeased,  if  thirty 
"human  pillars"  were  sunk  in  the  sea  and  stones  inscribed  with  Hindu  texts 
placed  over  them.  The  required  number  of  "  pillars  "  having  been  collected  from 
travellers  passing  that  way,  a  great  outcry  was  raised  when  it  was  found  that 
some  of  them  were  natives  of  Hiogo.  These  had  accordingly  to  be  released 
and  replaced  by  others,  whose  friends  again  objected  so  energetically  that 
the  ceremony  had  to  be  postponed.     Meantime  a  youth  named  Matsuwo  Kotei  came 


ll  i 


488 


EAST  ASIA. 


forward  and  ofTerod  liiinsolf  as  a  vohuitary  victim  instead  of  the  thirty,  adding  that 
the  dragon  woidd  certainly  prefer  ono  willing  to  thirty  unwilling  pillars.  Tho 
offer  WU8  aecei)ted  and  >ratsuwo  placed  in  a  stone  coffin,  which  was  sunk  in  the  sea 


Fig.  204. — Hiofio-KonE. 
Poiile  I  :  4.').000. 


155*  10 


I35'I5'  EOfG. 


0  to  32  if cet. 


32  Feet  and  upwards. 
^^1^  1,100  Yards. 


to  the  entire  satisfaction  of  the  monster,  who  opposed  no  further  obstacle  to  the 
construction  of  the  island. 

On  the  north  side  of  the  large  island  the  two  cities  of  Tsuruya  and  Obama  on 
Vakasa  Bay  corresjjond  to  those  of  Ohosaka  and  Iliogo,  with  which  they  com- 
niunicate  through  Lake  liiva  and  the  neighbouring  depressions.  These  northern 
ports  of  the  isthmus,  turned  towards  the  stori'i-tossed  seu  of  Japan,  and  possessing 
merely  a  narrow  strip  of  arable  land  at  the  foot  of  the  hills,  eould  scarcely  hope  to 
compete  with  the  commercial  cities  of  the  southern  shores.     But  carriage  roads  and 


ii 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF  NIP-PON. 


489 


that 


even  railways  will  ore  lonjic  serve  to  forward  the  produoe  of  the  soutli  to  the 
northern  coast  lands,  wliilc  (he  adverse  winds  of  llu'  western  waters  have  heen 
already  overeomc  by  the  introduction  of  steam  navigation.  Tlie  harbour  of 
Tsuriiga,  which  is  of  small  extent,  but  which  is  accessible  to  the  lai-gest  vessels,  inid 
which  is  slieltered  by  an  amphitheatre  of  hills  from  all  winds  except  that  of  the 
north-west,  is  the  best  on  the  inner  side  of  Hondo,  and  will  probiddy  become  the 
chief  station  for  vessels  trading  with  the  ports  of  Korea  and  Russian  ^Maucliurla. 
Tsuruga  is  already  one  of  the  enircjjufs  for  the  edible  sea-weeds  and  fish  forwarded 


U 


Piff.  205.— Matsuye. 
Scale  1  :  900,000. 


ISS-JO' 


Eof-C3 


53°50 


'<(' 


15  Uiles. 


from  Hakodate,  a  traffic  in  which  hundreds  of  junks  are  yearly  engaged.  The 
question  of  opening  this  port  to  European  shipping  has  been  frequently  dis- 
cussed. 

West  of  the  isthmus,  the  centre  of  which  is  occupied  by  Lake  Biva,  nearly  all 
the  towns  stand  on  the  shores  of  the  Inland  Sea,  or  at  least  on  the  southern  slope  of 
the  peninsula,  which  is  by  far  the  most  fertile  and  populous.  Nevertheless  a  few 
busy  places  are  also  found  on  the  opposite  side.  Towards  the  western  extremity  of 
Vakasa  Bay  lies  Yum,  in  the  midst  of  orange  groves  which  yield  the  best  fruit  in 
Japan.  In  the  neighbourhood  is  found  the  "  third  wonder  "  of  the  country,  the 
Amutate-basi,  a  natural  causeway  of  rocks  projecting  far  into  the  sea.  Farther  on 
the  highway  along  the  coast  traverses  the  towns  of  Toitori  and  Yoiiafjo.  A  little 
west  of  the  latter  place  stands  the  picturesque  town  of  Mntrntye,  or  Siiiiane-hen,  on 
the  banks  of  the  winding  brackish  lagoon  of  Sinzino-ike,  which  communicates 
through  a  narrow  outlet  with  the  sea. 

Akasi,  the  first  place  lying  west  of  Hiogo  near  the  coast  of  the  Inland  Sea, 


f 


*te«* 


,|^jfef«'^#I»M^*4^»^g^'M^■^BlJ^WA«^»w■v■«^j^a^J^^^^ 


^'-^-Lv ' '  ^!  '.-^Uin^.'-W.i^^^r^'^^''' 


ij 


440 


EAST  ASIA. 


H 


I  ! 


*;,; 


(iL'ciipica  on  tho  south  side  ii  comuiiiiuliiip;  site,  wlionrp  is  iiffordod  n  niafjnifioont 
panontinu  of  tlio  ishiiid  of  Aviid/i  iind  tlic  1\vo  fine  bays  surround  in  jjf  it.  FartluT 
on  llimcdzi,  a.ssociati>d  witli  the  meniory  of  Taikosaina,  lies  at  thi>  outh't  of  an 
oxtrcniely  fcrtik'  vaUcy,  and  at  th(!  junction  of  several  routes,  one  of  which,  built 
by  FrencOi  engineers,  is  the  best  in  Japan.  It  leads  to  the  interior  of  the  peninsula 
and  to  the  productive  mines  of  Iknito,  the  chief  nu-tallur^ic  establishment  in  the 
Kmpiro.  The  French  directors,  by  whom  it  is  nianajj^ed,  reduce  the  gold  and  silver 
ores  for  the  imperial  mint  at  Ohosaka,  but  they  have  not  yet  begun  to  smelt  the  rich 
copper  ores  of  the  same  district.  Tlu'  chief  industry  of  Ilinied/i  is  the  leather  ware 
still  prepared  according  to  the  old  Japanese  method,  and  rivalling  in  beauty  and 
durability  that  formerly  produced  in  Cordova. 

Tho  inland  town  of  Tm-iitiiua  is  occupied  chiefly  with  spinning,  dyeing,  an'" 
ironmongery.  ]}oth  Oka-i/aina  and  Faku-tjama,  which  lie  on  deep  inlets  or  creeks  of 
the  Inland  Sea,  were  the  former  residences  of  powerful  daimios.  But  they  have 
now  been  outstripped  by  the  commercial  port  of  Onomitui,  one  of  the  chief  stations 
of  tho  coast  steamers  plying  between  the  two  sides  of  the  winding  Inland 
Sou. 

East  of  Ohosaka  and  lliogo-Koln?  the  most  important  port  in  these  waters  is 
Ilii'O-sima,  which,  like  Ohosaka  itself,  lies  at  tho  northern  extremity  of  a  crescent- 
shaped  bay,  and  on  the  mouths  of  a  river  winding  through  a  fertile  plain.  With 
its  immerous  winding -canals,  hvidges,  and  boats  plying  in  all  directions,  this  place 
might  also  claim  to  bo  regarded  as  a  sort  of  Japanese  Venice.  On  oiie  of  the  islands 
studding  the  bay  over  against  Iliro-sima  stands  another  of  the  "  three  wonders  "  of 
Japan,  the  much  frequented  Shinto  temple  of  Itsku-sima,  or  "  Isle  of  Light,"  con- 
secrated to  the  three  divine  virgins  sprung  from  the  broken  sword  of  the  God  of  the 
Winds.  The  sanctuary  contains  some  curious  antique  wood  carvings,  but  the 
finest  objects  in  the  island  arc  the  magnificent  woods,  which  are  never  touched  by 
the  axe.  Previous  to  the  revolution  of  1868  no  food  was  allowed  to  be  consumed 
on  the  island,  where  all  burials  were  also  interdicted.  At  the  death  of  any  of  tho 
priests,  pilgrims,  innkeepers,  or  fishers,  who  form  the  whole  population  of  the  island, 
those  engaged  in  removing  tho  body  to  tho  mainland  were  obliged  to  remain  away 
for  fifty  days,  and  on  their  return  were  confined  in  a  sort  of  quarantine  for  the  same 
period.  It  is  still  forbidden  to  cultivate  the  soil  of  this  holy  island  of  Itsku-sima, 
so  that  all  provisions  have  to  ha  brought  every  morning  from  across  the  Avater. 
On  the  arrival  of  the  boats  hundreds  of  tame  deer  collect  from  the  depths  of  the 
forests,  to  receive  their  share  in  the  distribution  of  the  food. 

Ueyond  Iliro-sima,  and  on  the  west  side  of  the  bay,  stands  the  industrial  town  of 
Ivakmii,  noted  for  its  pajjcr,  matting,  and  woven  goods  manufactures.  Farther  on 
several  less  important  places  follow  from  inlet  to  inlet  as  far  as  the  Simono-seki 
(Akamaga-seki)  channel,  the  north  side  of  which  is  occupied  by  the  straggling 
town  of  like  name.  Enclosed  between  wooded  hills  and  the  sea,  Simono-seki  has 
been  called  the  Constantinople  of  the  Japanese  Bosphorus,  although  occupying  a 
secondary  place  amongst  the  cities  of  the  Empire.  The  neighbouring  shores  yield 
the  edible  sea-weed  of  commerce.     The  large  city  of  Uagi,  standing  on  a  roadstead 


■    '■-iS'*!?.- 


vr.iii^P^-1*^^^^;' 


.iisw 


TOI'OGKAl'IIY  OP  SIKOK,  KIU-SIU.  AND  KIU-KIU. 


441 


«tucl(l(Hl  witli  islands  inul  islets,  1ms  boon  roccntly  succrcdod  us  rui)it;d  of  tlu>  ])n)- 
vincc  of  \ii<,'iito  by  YamaijiitHi,  which  lies  fiirthor  iidaiid  on  a  small  alllucnt  of  Iho 
Jttpauesc  Mediterruueuu.     In  the  neighbourhood  ure  uunieioiis  tliornuil  sprinjjs. 

Tni'ooKAPHY  OK  SiKOK,  Kn-sir,  and  Hit -kiu. 

All  the  important  towns  of  the  island  of  Sikok  stand  cither  on  the  coast,  or  in 
the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  sea.  JSIost  of  them  facie  the  mainland  of  Hondo,  from 
which  they  ure  separated  by  straits,  whicih  may  easily  be  traversed  in  a  few  hours. 
The  attractive  force  of  Kioto  and  Ohosuku  has  drawn  the  inhabitants  especially  to 
the  north  side,  where,  going  east  und  west,  the  towns  of  Tokii-nima,  TakatimtH, 
Manii/dinp,  Imabai;  and  MittsH-i/ama  follow  eueh  other  in  quick  succession. 
Umziiua  alone  stands  on  the  strait  which  separates  Sikok  from  the  island  of  Kiu-siu. 
On  the  south  coast,  which  faces  the  open  sea,  there  is  only  one  town,  Kotxi,  capital 
of  the  formerly  powerful  feudul  principality  of  Toza.  Thanks  to  the  intelligence 
und  industry  of  its  inhabitants,  Kotsi  has  become  the  busiest  place  in  JSikok,  and  the 
centre  of  the  paper  manufacture  for  the  whole  of  Japan. 

The  most  animated  part  of  the  largo  and  populous  island  of  Kiu-siu,  or  the 
•'  Nine  Lands,"  is  turned  towards  the  south  and  west — that  is  to  say,  towards  China 
and  the  southern  waters  first  reached  by  vessels  from  the  West.  On  the  east  coast 
the  only  important  place  is  Mii/asaki,  and  on  the  north-east,  facing  the  Inland  Sea, 
the  only  large  centres  of  population  are  Umhi  and  Nrikafs.  Oitu-kcii,  or  Fundi, 
where  the  Catholic  missionaries  founded  the  first  Christian  community,  is  now  in  a 
state  of  decay,  as  is  also  Kokura,  which  stands  over  against  Simono-seki,  south  of 
the  entrance  to  the  Inland  Sea.  The  silting  of  its  harbour  now  prevents  large 
vessels  from  approaching  Kokura,  while  the  passenger  and  goods  traffic,  which 
formerly  followed  the  coast  route  from  Nagasaki  to  Tokio,  and  which  was,  conse- 
quently, obliged  to  use  the  ferry  at  Kokura,  is  now  conducted  by  steamers,  which 
are  no  longer  obliged  to  stop  at  this  place.  The  marine  channel  here,  about 
1,800  yards  broad,  will,  ere  long,  be  probably  crossed  by  an  already  projected 
railway  viaduct. 

The  twin  to^vns  of  Ftikmka  and  Ilaknta,  separated  by  the  mouth  of  a  small 
river,  which  falls  into  a  picturesque  bay,  concentrate  all  the  trade  of  the  north-west 
side  of  Kiu-siu,  Fukuoka,  lying  to  the  south,  comprises  the  administrative  and 
aristocratic  quarters,  while  the  traffic  and  industries  are  centred  in  Ilakata,  where 
are  manufactured  some  fine  silk  and  cotton  goods.  Some  temples  and  old  flat- 
roofed  houses  in  the  neighbourhood  are  the  only  stone  buildings  which  existed  in 
Japan  before  the  late  revolution.  The  two  cities  are  connected  by  much  frequented 
routes  with  the  populous  towns  of  Kurume  and  Saga,  situated  farther  south,  near 
Simabara  Bay.  In  the  neighbouring  peninsula  of  Hizen  are  some  coal  and  kaolin 
deposits.  Here,  and  especially  near  Arita,  in  the  same  district,  are  produced  the 
finest  Japanese  porcelains ;  amongst  others,  the  small  delicate  and  transparent  shell- 
shaped  cups.  Over  two  hundred  ovens  are  constantly  burning  round  about  Arita. 
These  wares,  which  have  long  been  imitated  by  the  Dutch,  are  indifferently  known 
Gl 


Sss 


■'^ms^m^sm^sm^i!&m;mxm^B,is^i'^.3m-mmcr-^mwm:ir<'f.:u'  -^ 


■  -*x^-K/.^,^r^.7r?r — ^"'' 


0' 


« 


442 


EAST  ASIA. 


i!  I 


as  Hi/en,  Arita,  or  Iinuri  porcclaiiin,  from  tlio  numcs  of  fho  province,  the  industrial 
town,  and  the  soa-port  wlionco  they  an?  forwarded.  Tlie  town  of  J/iradi)  nr  Firanffo, 
in  file  island  of  like  name  at  the  extremity  of  the  peninsula,  is  much  fre(piented  hy 
the  .steamers  plying'  alon;,''  the  eoast.  In  the  seveutoeiith  century,  for  the  ten  years 
from  KiUJ  to  Ki'JM,  this  place  was  thrown  oj)en  to  the  Knj^lish  und  Dutch  traders. 

NtiijaHnki,  or  "  Cape  \An\\r,"  which  became  famous  in  the  West  as  the  oidy  place 
in  tlie  Empire  not  closed  to  foreij»n  trade  after  the  expulsion  of  the  i'ortugueso  in 
lG2>'i,  is  by  no  means  one  of  the  largest  cities  in  Japan.  Although  its  excellent 
port,  or  ratlier  the  inlet,  is  from  GO  to  100  feet  deep,  and  well  sheltered  by  the 
surroimding  hills,  it  has  the  disadvantage  of  being  situated  ut  the  extremity  of  u 
narrow  i)eninsula  destitute  of  fertile  or  productive  lands.  Hut  while  its  foreign 
trade  has  remained  almost  stationary,  the  local  traffic  has,  nevertheless,  considerably 
increased,  entirely,  however,  to  the  profit  of  the  native  shipping.  Naga.suki  export)^ 
little  agricultural  produce,  but  does  u  large  trade  in  lacquer  und  mothcr-of- pearl 
wures,  enamelled  luid  clomnue  pottery,  und  other  products  of  the  local  industries. 
A  portion  of  its  export  trade  is  now  shared  by  Fukubori,  und  some  other  neighbour- 
ing towns.  But,  thanks  to  its  historic  associations,  Nagasaki  still  remains  one  of 
the  most  interesting  places  in  Japan  for  all  intelligent  European  truvellers.  Its 
buy  also  presents  one  of  the  finest  prospects  in  these  waters,  although  the  view  has 
been  somewhat  marred  by  the  erection  of  unsightly  fortifications  on  the  surrounding 
headlands.  The  bay  is  encircled  by  an  amphitheatre  of  green  hills,  rising  to  u  height 
of  1,000  feet,  laid  out  in  well-cultivated,  terraced  plots,  or  clothed  to  their  summits 
with  a  dense  forest  growth. 

The  entrance  of  the  buy  is  studded  with  numerous  islets,  amongst  which  is  the 
solitary  rock  of  Takaboko,  or  the  "  Lofty  Spear,"  the  Pupenberg,  or  "  Priests' 
Hill  "  of  the  Dutch,  so  named  in  memory  of  the  missionaries  and  Japanese  converts 
said  to  have  been  hurled  from  this  spot  into  the  sea  in  the  yeur  1622.  Above  the 
city  the  place  is  also  shown  where  twenty-six  priests  were  crucified  in  1597.  The 
narrow  artificial  fan-shaped  islet  of  iJe-sinift,  where  the  Dutch  traders  were 
confined,  like  victims  of  the  plague,  is  now  connected  with  the  mainland,  and  the 
buildings  whicl\  served  us  the  prison  houses  of  the  foreigners  from  1G39  to  1859 
have  been  destroyed  by  a  fire.  In  the  interior  of  the  city  is  shown  the  quarter 
where  the  Chinese  merchants  were  confined.  The  neighbouring  town  of  Inaaa 
possesses  some  dockyards,  reluctantly  ceded  to  the  Russian  Government  for  refitting 
its  vessels.  Further  south,  and  beyond  the  buy,  are  scuttered  several  islands,  amongst 
others  Taka-sima,  which  has  some  coal  mines  worked  according  to  the  European 
method.  In  1881  the  daily  yield  was  about  1,000  tons,  or  as  much  as  that  of  all 
the  rest  of  Japan. 

The  town  of  Simabara,  which  was  destroyed  by  an  eruption  from  Mount  TJnzen 
in  1792,  lies  at  the  east  foot  of  this  volcano,  whence  flow  numerous  hot  springs. 
It  commands  the  west  entrance  of  the  large  bay  of  like  name,  while  to  the  east  of 
the  opposite  side,  and  some  distance  inland  the  town  of  Kmamoto  {^Kumamoto),  is 
grouped  round  an  ancient  stronghold,  whose  sloping  bastions  are  crowned  with 
verandahs  and  elegant  houses  under  the  shade  of  camphor  trees.     This  is  the  most 


-K 


'■''v%i^9Sfi- 


'Mi- 


I 


rrJT?:igr;.'-;;j'4  '>iMn»^-«WAg  ir'TT-.'i'jB-.-. .Bgferifcfe..'.',.';-'  Wf -".:'.i.<«-j.-'j 


tm  I 


i! 


li 


-t — r:*r    -r-;H,f^-"^^fM'  ^.-^.-^^^ 


TOl'OUUAI'llV  OF  81KOK.  KIU-SIU,  AND  lUU-KlU. 


11B 


central  an  well  as  thplarj^e-Mt  city  in  the  iMlaiid  :  hut  there  are  few  iinpdrtant  oentres 
(tf  populalinii  in  tlie  district,  and  the  phice  ha.s  no  harlxjiir,  altlinuj>:h  it  in  urcessihh' 
toHat-hottonii'd  cnil't,  which  are  hen-  h>ad(il  witli  ])rndiice  tor  the  Najjasiiki  market. 
On  the  other  hand  the  I'anious  principality  ol  Satsnia  (Siit/mna),  "  hind  of  the  hrave 
and  intelligent,"  in  the  southern  part  of  the  island,  has  no  lar^e  cities.  Hut  idon^ 
tlic  ooaMt  or  in  tlu>  vicinity  of  the  seu  there  are  wveral  husy  jdaci's,  such  as  Ii/zmi, 
AkiiHc,  iSnii/iti,  Kiisri/(i,  luiijo,  Jlit/aiiozio,  Yditifi-f/ani,  h'ii(/:iJ,i,  h'i>/,ii/iii,  and  on  Kiiijo- 
sima  Hay  the  town  of  like  name.  TIum  famous  place,  whose  citadel  was 
boniharded  by  the  English  in  1HG4,  Htrctches  along  the  west  side  of  the  bay  over 


Fig.  '.'Ofi.— Nafa  AM)  Sirni  in  tiik  Imland  of  Okinava. 
Soale  1  ;  IStt.OOO. 


I37<'40 


EofG 


;27'50' 


16  to  64  Feet.  MoUrepore  Reefn.     <>l  Feet  and  upwurds. 

against  the  magnificent  solitary  volcano  of  Sakura.  The  trade  of  Eago-sima  is  in- 
significant, and  it  has  no  noteworthy  industries  except  faience  and  imitations  of  all 
the  "  Old  Satsma  "  porcelains.  Recently  some  Japanese  capitalists  have  here 
established  a  cotton  spinning  mill  and  a  manufacture  of  arms.  Kadziki,  at  the 
north-west  angle  of  the  hay,  is  much  better  situated  for  trade,  its  harbour  being  far 
less  exposed  to  storms,  while  it  enjoys  easy  communication  with  the  productive 
districts  in  the  north.  According  to  Voycikov,  it  would  soon  become  one  of  the  most 
flourishing  sea-ports  in  the  Empire  were  it  thrown  open  to  European  shipping.  The 
tobacco  of  Kadziki  is  already  exported  to  Cuba,  whence  it  is  distributed  over  the 
rest  of  the  world  under  the  form  and  name  of  "  Ilavanna  cigars." 


ifei*^-- 


::-^  t;>iSB».w^awtt  a  ». . 


.■^ligrr-icu-  */(,wA«^itcv?'^ '  -  i--.*xv»»^^.t'  -^  ■■ 


444 


i:ast  ASIA. 


Tlir  iiiliiil)itiintH<)f  Tiiu-kiii  (Iliu-kiii),  lirin^  Ncattcnfl  uvit  t)it>  iiuiiiiTotiH  iNlutidM 
of  tilt'  iiri'liipi'lii^ro,  iiri>  iiiohiIv  (tiiicciiti-atrd  in  Niiiall  vilhi^fCM  Iviii^nn  tlir  IxitikMof  (lii> 
crt'ckn.  'I'lir  only  tdwii^*  woitliy  <if  llic  iiaiiu>  nrc  t'uiiml  in  ttir  larj,'c  itla;:  !  tlio 
central  ^roii]),  <  )kina\a-MiiMU  (I'kinia),  tlic  ('liiinj^-chin^-tai)  ul'  tlic  CliiiU"  '  lltTO 
Nii/inw  Xuru,  Hlandinj;  «>n  a  l)ay  coniplrlrly  mIicIi*  red  from  all  winds,  Iuih  Iji  •.  >  lio 
inoHt  fri'(|n(Mitcd  M>a-|)ort  in  the  an  lii|i('la^r<>,  notwitliNtandin^f  tlic  iiunitToUN  rctd's 
olmtru('tin)(  the  approach  to  tlic  roadHtcad.  ItH  chief  ex}M)ilN  are  HU^:ar,  cotton,  and 
Bilks,  which  arc  shipped  l>y  .la[)aneHo  vcHHelH  for  the  northern  islandM  U>  u  yearly 
value  of  alM)nt  i'  1(1,0(10.  A  jtaved  ronte,  one  of  the  tinest  in  the  I'inipirc,  wincU 
hetwcen  wooded  hills  tlirou;,'h  a  pleasant  valley  from  Nafa  up  to  Sinn'  [Siiiii,  S/iiii, 
Kliirliimi^,  cajjital  of  IJiu-kin.  Stan<lin>^  on  a  plateau  which  overlooks  the  two  seas, 
this  town  is  regularly  laid  out,  and  Hurrounded  i»y  Hne  plantations  cd'  urocuand  other 
tropical  plants.     One  of  its  huildinfifs  Ikmu's  the  tith'  id'  University. 

The  lar^;e  island  also  containH  two  other  towriM,  Toman  and  Knintii,  and  the 
urhan  population  ninnhers  alto^'cther  (lO.OOO  souls,  or  half  <»f  the  ])opidation  of 
Okinava,  consisting  «'.\clusively  of  Siziihii,  or  "  nohles."  All  the  peasantry  ar(; 
hi'imiii,  or  "  pleheians,"  and  are  disliuguished  from  tho  uobluH  by  the  bronze  pins 
Avorn  in  their  huir.* 

TiiK  HoNiN  Aitcmi'i'.i.Afio. 

Besides  Liu-kiu  and  the  numerous  islands  geoffraphically  dependinp;  on  tho 
main  arehipela<fo  of  >«'ip-])on,  the  Ja])anese  (iovcnnnent  also  lays  claim  to  a  small 
group  lyinj^  in  the  I'aciiie  Ocean,  (iOO  miles  in  a  straij^ht  line  to  tho  Houth-south-eust 
of  Kioto.  This  solitary  group  is  known  in  Kurope  astlio  Ilonin  Archipelago,  limiiii 
being  a  corruption  of  the  Japanese  Jlinn'n-fo,  or  "  I'ninhabited  Islands."  Hut 
having  been  again  occupied  in  recent  times,  they  should,  properly  s])eaking,  resume 
the  name  given  to  them  at  the  end  of  tho  sixteenth  century,  when  I'lince  Sadayori, 
driven  thither  by  a  storm,  took  possession  of  them  on  behalf  of  the  Government, 
and  gave  them  his  family  name  of  (hjnHtimra.  At  tlmt  time  they  had  already  been 
sighted  by  the  Spanish  explorer  Villulobos,  when  navigating  those  waters  in  1543. 
A  century  later  on  the  Dutch  ( ■aptain  Matthys  (Juast,  uccompanied  by  the  illus- 
trious navigator  Abel  Tusman,  also  surveyed  the  southern  islands  of  tho  group, 
which  already  figure  on  various  contemporary  charts  of  that  part  of  tho  Pacific 
C)cean.  Nevertheless  tho  memory  of  those  discoveries  had  been  completely  for- 
gotten when  the  American  whaler  Coffin  visited  the  southern  i.slands  in  1823.  Next 
year  he  was  followed  by  his  countryman  Ebbot,  also  a  whaler,  who  explored  the 
central  islands  of  tho  archipelago.  In  1827  the  English  Admiral  Beechey  occu- 
pied tho  Ogasavara  group,  and  the  English  continued  to  claim  possession  of  it  till 
the  year  18G1,  when  tho  question  was  finally  settled  in  favour  of  Japan. 

Although  frequently  visited  by   whalers  and  others  since  tho  hydrographio 

surveys  of  Beechey,  LUtke,  CoUinson,  and  Perry,  tho  Benin  Archipelago  is  still  far 

from  being  fully  explored,  and  only  a  very  few  points  have  been  astronomically 

determined.      The  great  discrepancies  still  prevailing  in  the  outlines  and  nomen- 

*  Gubbins,  in  Proceedings  of  the  lioyal  Geographical  Society  for  October,  1881. 


'^^smJi^mXWWi 


TUK  BONIN  AUCIIirELAGO. 


146 


cluturc  of  the  vnrii»UH  iNliiii<ls  aro  ovidcnt  from  iN-rry's  nia|)  iniiiiiunMl  with  iho 
Jiipaiit'si' chai't  of  tlic  two  priiicii>iil  j^roupH  of  I'l'cl  iiikI  ('olliii.  <  'n  \\\v  I'luiojnan 
iiiii|)s  (he  (wo  uortlirrii  f,MdUits,  far  less  iiiipoitaiit  than  llic  others,  hear  the  iiiiiikh 
t)f  KatiT  1111(1  I'lin-y.  Tlu'ri-  arc  altoj^ctht  r  four  ^;idup.H,  ciMiipiisinjr  ci^rliiy-nin,. 
iNhiiids,  with  a  joint  iimi  of  Wl  Mipmic  iiiiU'M,  iiiul  a  total  hiifjth  of  nn  U<hh  than  SI 
iiiih'M.  All  tlicMo  iHlaiidN,  which  arc  diripoMfd  in  tlu>  direction  of  the  nieiiiiiaii,  nuiy 
he  ief,'ai(led  as  a  j^coloj^ical  continuation  of  the  volcanic  chain  of  the  "Sevtii 
Ihlands "  lyiii;;:  south  of  Ycdo  May.  Ilatziseo  is  distant  M!)0  miles  from  (he 
J'arry  proiip ;  hut  other  intermedia(e  isle(s  rise  ultove  (he  surface,  while  teiiipdrnry 
volcanoes  arc  known  (o  liavc  made  (heir  appearance  in  these  wa(crs.  The  hills  of 
the  Oj^asavara  Archipela;;:o,  Nome  of  which  rise  to  a  hei^;ht  of  l,'-UH)  feet,  arc  alwi 
mostly  of  volcanic  formatiim.  They  ahound  in  lavaM,  tufa,  basalt  columns,  while 
the  crt'HtH  of  the  cones  terminate  here  and  there  in  craters.  Hut  schists  and 
crystalline  rocks  also  occur,  nor  did  the  naturalists  of  I'erry's  American  expedition 
ohserve  any  traces  of  recent  igneous  action. 

Lying  hetwcen  (he  '-itSth  and  'idth  parallels  of  latitude,  luyoiid  the  idld  oceanic 
current,  these  islands  enjoy  a  tropical  climate,  warmer  than  those  of  th(>  I,iu-kiu 
Archipelago,  although  the  latter  are  situated  nearer  to  the  equator.  The  forests 
eh)t]iing  the  hillsides  behnig  to  the  vegetation  of  the  torrid  zone,  consisting  mostly 
of  palms  such  as  tho  urcca  and  pandanus,  besides  the  sngo  phint  and  a  species 
resembling  the  cocoanut.  Here  are  also  tree  ferns,  but  the  camphor  tree  has  not 
yet  been  discovered.  The  giant  of  these  woodlands  is  a  species  of  mull)erry,  the 
stem  of  which  exceeds  !.'{  feet  in  circumference.  The  .soil,  being  composed  of 
\iAvumv  (k'hm,  isextremely  fertile,  yielding  all  the  Japanese  cereals,  the  sugar-cane, 
banana,  pine-upjjle,  taHow  tree,  and  wax  plant.  In  the  valleys  the  edible  mushroom 
grows  in  the  greatest  profusion. 

There  are  no  indigenous  (piadrupeds,  and  the  sheep,  goats,  pigs,  cuts,  and  dogs 
found  in  the  wild  state  are  the  descendants  of  domestic  animals  landed  on  the 
i.slands  by  the  early  navigators.  A  few  hannless  reptiles  glide  amidst  the  rocks,  and 
tho  forests  are  tenanted  by  a  very  limited  number  of  birds.  When  tho  first 
explorers  landed  on  the  islands  these  birds  betrayed  no  fear  of  man,  and  allowed 
themselves  to  be  taken  by  the  hond.  The  islets  abound  in  various  kinds  of  fishes, 
cctacea,  Crustacea,  and  turtles. 

The  archipelago  was  first  occupied  in  recent  times  in  the  year  1HJ50  by  immigrants, 
who  traded  with  the  whalers.  At  the  time  of  the  American  expedition  the  island 
of  Peel,  the  Tsitsi-sima  of  the  Japanese,  had  a  population  of  thirty-one  souls, 
Americans,  English,  Portuguese,  and  Polynesians  In  1880  their  numbers  had 
greatly  increased,  for  in  that  year  there  were  no  l(w.s  than  a  hundred  and  sixty 
houses,  of  which  a  hundred  and  thirty  belonged  to  Japanese  subjects.  Peel  is  the 
only  inhabited  island,  and  here  is  Port  Lloi/d,  the  Olio  Miiiato  of  the  Japanese,  and 
the  centre  of  the  administration.  It  occupies  the  interior  of  u  crater  whose  sides 
have  fallen  in,  and  affords  good  anchorage  i)i  130  feet  of  water. 


\^:''ir-^i>''.'*h^lSi!n^if^='-^'**i**Vi't^^^ 


.^i»i  ..»s*s;w- 


446 


EAST  ASIA. 


Vital  Statistics — AoRiruLTuuK. 

Although  Japan  is  to  a  largo  extent  covered  with  mountains,  and  in  the  north 
too  cold  to  be  tliickly  peopled,  the  population  of  the  archipelago  is,  nevertheless, 
fur  denser  than  that  of  France  or  of  many  other  countries  in  the  west  of  Europe.* 
In  Nip-pon  proper,  that  is  in  the  "Eight  Islands,"  there  are  about  230  inhabitants 


Fig.    207. — BoNIN,   on   OOASAVAUA   AuCHirBLAOO. 
Scale  1  :  900,000. 
Accordinp  to  Perry.  Accordinir  to  the  Japanese. 


18  Miles. 


i 


to  the  square  mile,  and  the  increase  has  been  very  rapid  since  the  revolution  of 
1868,  when  regular  official  censuses  began  to  be  taken.  The  returns  gave 
35,110,825  for  the  whole  Empire  in  1871,  and  35,925,000  in  1880,  so  that  for  the 


*  Area  and  population  of  Japan  :- 


Nip-pon 

Yeso  and  Euriles 

Liu-kiu  . 


Aiea  In  aqaare  miles. 

112,000 

38,000 

900 

160,900 


Population,  1880. 

35,4.51,413 
163,35.5 
310,546 

35,926,313 


MCE  AND  TEA  CULTUEE. 


447 


intervening  nine  years  the  increase  was  at  the  rate  of  about  90,000  yearly.  Iloi  e 
in  the  natural  excess  of  births  over  deaths  Japan  stands  nearly  on  a  level  with 
Great  Britain,  while  the  population  of  both  countries  is  about  equal,  Should  it 
continue  to  enjoy  internal  peace,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  archipelago  will 
outstrip  France  in  the  number  of  its  inhabitants  long  before  the  close  of  the 
nineteenth  century. 

The  returns  having  been  carefully  made,  the  general  results  may  be  accepted  as 
approximately  true.  Consequently  there  can  be  no  reasonable  doubt  that  in  Japan 
the  male  is  in  excess  of  the  female  population,  a  remarkable  fact  already  attested  by 
the  ancient  national  records.  The  excess  seems  to  be  about  three  per  cent.,  whereas 
in  European  countries,  or  in  those  in  the  enjoyment  of  European  culture,  this  pro- 
portion is  found  to  be  reversed  in  favour  of  the  female  sex  wherever  systematic 
returns  have  hitherto  been  made.* 

How  such  a  large  relative  population  can  be  supported  in  the  land  is  explained 
by  the  diet  and  habits  of  its  inhabitants.  The  national  tradition  recognises  five 
sacred  plants,  rice,  wheat,  barley,  sarasin,  and  the  azuki  pea,  which  the  Wind-God, 
brother  of  the  Sun,  extracted  from  the  body  of  the  Goddess  of  the  Great  Air,  and 
which  he  planted  in  the  soil  of  South  Nip-pou.  Amongst  these  five  plants  rice 
holds  by  far  the  first  rank,  and  supplies  the  chief  food  of  the  people.  Every  person 
usually  requires  about  two  and  a  half  pounds  daily,  but  the  vegetables,  fruits,  and 
farinaceous  preparations  added  to  the  staple  article  of  diet  do  not  average  more  than 
ten  ounces.  The  poor  scarcely  ever  touch  meat,  which  is  little  eaten  even  by  the  upper 
classes.  Thus  all  the  arable  land,  formerly  valued  at  scarcely  more  than  11,000,000 
acres,  is  directly  employed  in  the  production  of  food.  Wherever  it  can  grow,  even 
on  the  slopes  of  the  hills  and  mountains,  which  cannot  be  irrigated  without  great 
labour,  rice  is  planted,  Nor  is  it  loosely  sown,  but  disposed  by  the  hand  in 
parallel  lines,  carefully  manured  with  animal  substances  and  constantly  watered. 

Rice  and  Tea  Culture. 

"  Riqe  being  the  staple  produce,  the  seasons  for  sowing,  growing,  and  reaping, 
are  diligently  watched  by  the  farmers,  who  formerly  cultivated  the  land  under  the 
daimios  as  part  of  their  retainers,  but  now  farm  under  the  Mikado's  government, 
paying  an  annual  tax  or  rent.  The  rice  lands  generally  lie  fallow  all  the  winter, 
and  consequently  yield  only  one  crop  in  the  year.  In  the  last  days  of  April,  or 
about  the  1st  of  May,  little  patches  of  ground  are  prepared  in  the  corners  of  the 
fields  as  seed-beds  for  the  young  plants.  Here  the  seed  is  sown  thickly,  sometimes 
having  been  steeped  in  liquid  manure  previously  to  its  being  sown.  It  vegetates 
in  the  wonderfully  short  time  of  three  or  four  days  if  the  weather  be  moist  or 
warm,  as  is  generally  the  case  at  that  season  of  the  year. 

"  In  the  meantime,  while  the  seed-beds  are  vegetating,  the  labourers  are  busily 
employed  in  preparing  the  land,  into  which  it  is  to  be  transplanted.  This  operation 
commences  at  the  beginning  of  June.   About  three  inches  deep  of  water  then  cover 

•  Proportionof  the  sexes  according  to  the  census  of  1880:— men:  18,210,500;  women:  17,714,823. 


4 


Ill  I 

E<1 ! 


448 


EAST  ASIA. 


the  fields,  and  the  planting  goes  on  with  astonishing  rapidity.  A  labourer  takes  a 
lot  of  plants  under  his  left  arm  and  drops  them  in  little  bundles  over  the  inundated 
soil,  knowing  almost  to  a  plant  what  number  will  bo  required.  Others,  both  men 
and  women,  take  up  the  bundles  whieh  are  thus  thro\vn  down,  and  the  planting 
commences.  Tbri  proper  number  of  plants  are  selected  and  planted  in  rows  by  the 
hand  in  the  muddy  soil.  When  the  hand  is  drawn  up  the  water  rushes  in,  carry- 
ing down  with  it  a  portion  of  the  soil,  and  thus  the  roots  are  immediately  covered. 
The  planting  season  is  at  its  height  about  midsunnner,  and  is  generally  over  by 
the  middle  of  July.  By  November  the  bright  green  crops  are  waving  in  the 
breeze,  the  ears  arc  ripe  and  harvest  is  concluded. 

"  Besides  this  great  summer  crop  of  rice  there  are  winter  crops  of  wheat,  barley, 
buckwheat,  peas,  beans,  onions,  and  potatoes.  The  three  first  mentioned  may  be 
considered  as  the  staple  winter  productions  which  are  cultivated  on  land  above  the 
level  of  the  rice  valleys.  The  wheat  and  barley  are  sown  in  the  end  of  October  or 
beginning  of  November ;  these  soon  vegetate  and  cover  the  hillsides  with  lively 
green  during  the  winter  months.  As  the  land  has  been  carefully  cleaned  and 
prepared  previously,  scarcely  any  further  labour  is  necessary  until  the  following 

spring. 

"  By  the  beginning  of  May  the  plants  are  in  full  ear,  and  harvested  in  June, 
the  corn  being  cut  with  a  small  reaping-hook.  When  housed  the  heads  are  struck 
off  by  a  short  bamboo  and  fall  through  a  grating  from  the  straw.  These  are  then 
laid  on  a  broad  flooring  of  cement,  hard  and  smooth,  and  the  wheat  or  barley 
threshed  out  with  a  flail."  * 

Nevertheless,  a  portion  of  the  land  has  to  be  reserved  for  the  cultivation  of 
economical  plants,  such  as  the  mulberry,  ginseng,  indigo,  and  trees  yielding  vege- 
table wax,  lacquer,  and  paper.  The  tea  pi  nt  is  carefully  cultivated,  and  yields  a 
produce  highly  appreciated  by  the  Ameri(;an  buyers,  who  prefer  it,  notwithstand- 
ing its  roughness,  to  that  of  Hankow  and  Shanghai.  In  some  districts  of  the 
southern  islands  the  facilities  of  exportation  have  given  a  preference  to  the  grow- 
ing of  oranges  even  over  that  of  cereals.  Siebold  enumerates  altogether  about  five 
hundred  plants  cultivated  in  Japan  for  economical,  ornamental,  and  other  purposes, 
and  of  this  number  over  one  half  have  been  introduced  from  abroad. 

Next  to  rice  by  far  the  most  important  plants  are  the  mulberry  and  tea,  "  Silk 
is  more  or  less  produced  in  almost  every  province  of  the  main  island  north  and 
east  of  Osaka.  But  the  four  districts  in  which  it  is  cultivated  in  the  greatest 
abundance  are  Oshui,  Joshui,  Koshui,  and  Sinshui.  Oshui  produces  the  largest 
quantity,  but  the  silk  does  not  equal  in  quality  and  fineness  of  size  that  of  the 
other  districts.  Joshui  and  Sinshui  are  noted  for  the  fine  size  of  their  silks,  which 
fetch  the  highest  prices  in  the  London  market.  But  the  greater  part  of  them  are 
sold  on  the  Continent,  as  baing  better  reeled  than  any  other  silk  from  the  East. 
Duj'ing  the  failure  of  the  silk  crops  in  Italy  and  other  continental  states,  through 
the  deterioration  of  the  silkworm,  eggs  were  imported  in  very  large  quantities  from 
Japan,  which  improved  the  culture.  . 

*  Mossmim,  op.  cit.,  p.  108, 


~-^mm!Jis$ 


RICE  AND  TEA  CULTURE. 


449 


"Tea  IS  still  more  important  than  silk,  and  its  cultivation  and  manufacture 
employ  a  considerably  greater  number  of  people.  The  tea  plant  was  introduced 
from  China  into  Japan  about  the  beginning  of  the  ninth  century  by  a  Buddhist 
bodze  named  Yeitsin,  who  presented  the  first  cup  of  tea  to  Saga,  the  reigning 
Mikado,  who  patronised  the  cultivation  of  the  shrub.  Since  then  its  use  has  become 
universal,  and  the  home  consumption  is  now  so  great  that  there  is  not  nnicli  left 
for  exportation.  So  genial  are  the  climate  and  soil  of  some  districts  for  its  growth 
that  the  plant  grows  wild,  while  it  forms  hedges  in  gardens. 

"  Tea  is  produced  throughout  the  greater  part  of  Nip-pon  and  in  all  the  provinces 
of  Kiu-siu.  The  finest  qualities  come  from  Yanm-siro,  but  the  two  largest  producing 
districts  are  Isay  and  Owari.  Suringo,  Simosa,  and  Koshui  are  the  provinces 
which  supply  the  Yokohama  market  with  the  earliest  new  teas, 

"  Tea  of  the  finer  qualities  requires  special  care  in  the  cultivation.  The  planta- 
tions are  situated  remote  from  the  habitations  of  man,  and  as  much  as  possible 
from  all  other  crops,  lest  the  delicacy  of  the  tea  should  suffer  from  smoke,  impurity, 
or  emanations  of  any  kind.  Manure  of  a  special  kind  is  applied  to  the  roots,  con- 
sisting of  dried  fish  like  anchovies,  and  a  liquor  expressed  from  the  mustard  seed. 
No  trees  surround  the  plantations,  for  *bey  must  enjoy  the  unobstructed  beams  of 
the  morning  sun,  and  the  plants  thrive  best  upon  well- watered  hillsides.  The  plant 
is  pollarded  to  render  it  iuore  branchy,  and  therefore  more  productive,  and  must 
be  five  years  old  before  the  leaves  are  gathered. 

"  The  process  of  harvesting  the  leaves,  or  rather  of  storing  the  tea  harvest,  is  one 
of  extreme  nicety.  The  leaves  of  the  finer  and  the  coarser  teas  are  sorted  as  they 
are  plucked,  and  no  more  of  a  kind  are  gathered  in  a  day  than  can  be  dried  before 
night.  There  are  two  modes  of  drying,  called  the  dry  and  the  wet  process.  In 
the  one  the  leaves  are  at  once  roasted  in  an  iron  pan,  then  thrown  upon  a  mat,  and 
rolled  by  the  hand.  During  the  whole  operation,  which  is  repeated  five  or  six 
times,  or  till  the  leaves  are  quite  dry,  a  yellow  juice  fxudes.  This  is  called  the 
dry  preparation. 

"  In  the  wet  process  the  leaves  are  first  placed  in  a  vessel  over  the  steam  of 
boiling  water,  where  they  remain  till  they  are  withered.  They  are  then  rolled  by 
hand  and  dried  in  the  iron  roasting  pan.  When  thus  prepared,  less  of  the  yellow 
juice  exuding,  the  leaves  retain  a  lighter  green  colour,  and  more  of  fine  flavour. 
When  fresh  dried,  the  tea  is  delicately  susceptible  of  odours  and  requires  to  be 
carefully  guarded  from  their  influence.  The  finest  qualities  are  packed  in  jars,  in 
order  to  retain  their  aroma.*  " 

The  Japanese  are  excellent  husbandmen,  or,  at  least,  market  gardeners.  They 
till  the  land  in  the  same  way  that  the  European  gardeners  work  their  plots  with 
the  spade  and  hoe.  No  weeds  are  allowed  to  sprout,  and  everything  available  for 
manuring  purposes  is  ca:  ;. ally  utilised.  The  quantity  of  animal  refuse  used  in 
this  way  probably  exceeds  that  which  is  actually  consumed,  for  enormous  quantities 
of  fish  are  imported  from  Yeso  for  the  sole  purpose  of  enriching  the  land.  Ne\'er- 
theless,  the  soil  is  inadequate  for  the  ever-increasing  population.     All  the  plains 

•  Mossman,  p.  180. 


.t 


^feaiSWaWiMSi 


JBaaaWlHilWW  lillMIMIIN'**WJ<^ife* 


450 


EAST  ASIA. 


urc  under  tillage,  and  nothing  now  remains  to  be  reclaimed  except  some  marshy 
alluvial  tracts  and  the  slopes  of  the  mountains. 

Natural  Resources  of  Yeso. 

The  island  of  Yeso  no  doubt  presents  a  vast  field  of  colonisation  to  the  Japa- 
nese. Larger  than  Ireland,  and  yielding  the  same  description  of  plants,  it  might 
support  a  population  of  several  millions.  But  it  is  too  cold  for  the  cultivation  of 
rice,  so  that  the  people  emigrate  reluctantly  to  a  region  so  much  more  inhospitable 
than  their  own.  Nearly  all  the  Japanese  attracted  to  Yeso  by  the  Colonial  Office 
regard  themselves  as  exiles,  and  never  fail  to  seize  the  first  favourable  opportunity 
to  return  to  their  homes.  But  although  offering  such  limited  agricultural  advan- 
tages, Yeso  must  soon  attract  attention  in  consequence  of  its  vast  resources  in 
timber  and  minerals.  The  whole  island  may  be  said  to  constitute  a  boundless 
forest,  consisting  of  various  species,  amongst  which  are  thirty-six  kinds  of  trees 
useful  to  the  carjienter  and  cabinet  maker.  Scarcely  does  the  traveller  leave  the 
beaten  track  when  he  finds  his  progress  arrested  by  thickets  of  creepers,  bamboos, 
and  other  undergrowths,  overshadowed  by  trees  of  great  size.  It  is  difficult  even 
to  cross  the  clearings,  where  the  clusters  of  the  Etilalia  Japonica  grow  in  dense 
masses  to  the  height  of  a  man  on  horseback. 

Until  good  roads  are  opened  Yeso  must  continue  to  derive  its  importance  exclu- 
sively from  the  coast  fisheries.  lu  the  abundance  of  its  marine  life  this  island 
resembles  Oregon,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Pacific.  Some  of  the  nets  employed 
in  the  salmon  fisheries  are  4,000  feet  long,  and  require  seventy  men  to  manipulate 
them.  At  the  end  of  the  day,  after  three  draughts,  as  many  as  20,000  fish  are  found 
to  have  been  taken  in  these  nets.  Even  the  worst  seasons  will  yield  1,200,000 
salmon,  with  a  total  weight  of  3,000  tons. 

Fishing  is  also  successfully  pursued  along  all  the  co^  :  of  Japan  proper  and  of  the 
Liu-kiu  Archipelago,  and  fish  is  far  more  generally  ".onsumed  by  the  people  than 
meat.  Piscicultural  establishments  have  even  of  late  years  be'^n  formed  on  a  large 
number  of  streams  in  Central  Nip-pon.  Mother-of-pearl  is  collected  by  divers  in  the 
Liu-kiu  Islands,  while  the  rorqual  and  other  species  of  cetacea  are  pursued  by  daring 
fishers  in  the  open  seas.  A  favourite  subject  of  pictorial  representation  is  the 
fleets  of  smacks  pursuing  these  large  animals,  and  driving  them  with  the  harpoon 
towards  strong  wide-meshed  rope  nets. 

Land  Tenure — Mining  Industry. 

The  land  belonged  formerly  to  the  State,  under  which  the  peasantry  held  it  as 
hereditary  tenants.  Thanks  to  this  perpetual  tenure  from  father  to  son,  the  culti- 
vators had  at  last  acquired  a  certain  independence,  ranking  in  the  social  scale 
immediately  after  the  nobles,  and  above  the  merchants  and  artisans,  who,  however 
wealthy,  were  regarded  as  their  inferiors.  The  land-tax  varied  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  crops,  the  abundance  of  the  harvests,  ana  the  caprice  of  the  prince. 


'^^m. 


LAND  TENURE— MINING  INDUSTRY. 


451 


Fixed  in  some  districts  at  no  more  tlian  one-tenth,  it  rose  in  other  places  to  a  third 
a  half,  and  even  three- fifths  of  the  whole  yield.  The  recent  revolution,  by  which  the 
whole  social  system  has  been  so  profoundly  modified,  could  not  fail  to  deal  with  the  land 
question.  By  a  tax  of  two  and  a  half  per  cent,  the  peasantry  have  become  the  virtual 
proprietors  of  the  soil,  and  the  Japanese  law  of  land  tenure  may  in  a  general  way  be 
said  to  have  been  conformed  to  the  Roman  right.  Large  landed  estates  have  already 
been  developed  in  Yeso,  in  the  northern  section  of  Hondo,  and  even  in  certain 
central  districts,  wherever  the  land  was  found  lying  fallow.  Some  of  these  recently 
formed  domains  rival  in  extent  those  of  Ireland  or  Russia.  There  is  one  estate  near 
Nihi-gata  entirely  under  rice,  which  is  no  less  than  twenty  square  miles  in  extent,  and 
yields  an  income  of  about  £16,000  to  the  owner. 

The  laws  of  inheritance  still  bear  traces  of  a  matriarchal  social  order.  The 
eldest  son  inheriting  a  patrimony  cannot  abandon  it,  and  his  wife  must  occupy  it 
with  him  and  take  his  family  name.  The  daughter  inheriting,  Avhen  the  father  has 
had  no  male  issue,  must  in  her  turn  remain  on  the  paternal  estate,  in  which 
case  residence  also  becomes  obligatory  on  her  husband,  who  takes  her  name. 
When  a  new  household  is  founded,  if  the  dwelling  has  been  furnished  by  the 
father-in-law  the  husband  also  takes  the  name  of  the  wife  who  brings  him  the 
residence. 

The  raining  industry  is  of  less  relative  importance  in  Japan  than  was  formerly  the 
case.  In  the  seventeenth  century  the  Portuguese  are  said  to  have  annually  exported 
from  the  archipelago  six  hundred  barrels  (?)  of  pure  gold,  valued  at  nearly  £800,000. 
This  metal  was  at  that  time  comparatively  plentiful,  for  it  was  only  twelve  times  the 
price  of  filver.  In  many  mines  the  copper  ores  contain  a  considerable  proportion  of 
gold,  and  these  ores  were  accordingly  reckoned  amongst  the  most  lucrative  articles 
exported  by  the  Dutch.  The  Sado  gold  mines,  which  are  the  oldest  in  Japan,  have 
been  worked  for  centuries,  but  most  of  the  other  mines  are  not  sufficiently 
productive  to  continue  the  works  Tho  only  minerals  at  present  mined  are  silver, 
copper,  and  iron.*  Considerable  deposits  of  iron  are  found  in  various  parts  of  the 
archipelago,  and  Ui up,  one  of  the  Kurilo  Islands,  harbours  immense  reserves  of  ores 
containing  as  much  as  eighty  per  cent,  of  pure  metal.  The  mines  in  the  neighbour- 
hood .v;  -lendai  supply  the  smelting  works  with  orep  sufficient  to  jdeld  as  much  as 
fifty  tons  of  iron  daily. 

Other  metals,  such  as  lead,  tin,  cobalt,  quicksilver,  are  produced  in  insignificant 
quantities,  and  the  petroleum  wells  have  deceived  the  hopes  of  speculators,  who 
expected  to  find  in  Japan  "  oil  rivers  "  rivalling  those  of  Pennsylvania.  On  the 
other  hand  the  archipelago  is  extremely  rich  in  coal  deposits.  The  island  of  Yeso 
especially  contains  carboniferous  measures  estimated  by  Lyman  at  400  billions  of 
tons,  a  quantity  sufficient  to  supply  tho  present  consumption  of  the  whole  world  for 
the  next  2,000  year^.  Yet  the  output  in  all  Japan  was  no  more  than  350,000  tons 
in  the  year  1879. 

Most  of  the  Japanese  mines  belong  to  the  Government,  which  has  also  begun 

•  Yield  of  gold  in  Ji-pan  (1877) :     1,000  lbs.,  valued  at  £52,000 

76,000  lbs.         „        233,000 


silver 
»        copper 


3,800  tons 


220,000 


|x«&i^»;itsM  attOi-^  ~>A«R!«l'«-iM>f mSH  -r-ft**; 


V 


»l« 


I 


EAST  ASIA. 

to  work  the  marble  quarries,  hitherto  neglected  on  account  of  the  hardness  of  this 

material. 

J{iit  from  various  adverse  eircumstanees  the  mining  industry  bears  no  proportion 
to  the  great  natural  mineral  wealth  of  the  archipelago.  "  The  methods  of  working, 
which  were  until  comparatively  lately  in  vogue,  were  crude  and  unremunerative; 
and  even  now  there  arc  nuuiy  mines  which,  although  worked  on  foreign  i)rinciples, 
yield  little  or  no  profit,  chiefly  on  account  of  their  imperfect  comnuuiication  with 

l'"ig.  20S.  — MiNwiAi,  Dei'osits  of  1'ebu. 
Scale  1  : 5,&OU,000. 


t40" 


14  5"    EoFG 


Iron. 


Railway. 


i 
Coal. 


.,__  60  Miles. 


centres  of  trade.  Far  up  among  the  inountains  thero.iu.  leading  to  them  are  often 
wretched  bridle-paths,  accessible  only  t()  pack-horses,  so  that  transportation  is  both 
slow  and  expensive.  The  present  Government,  however,  have  turned  their  atten- 
tion to  the  improvement  of  the  highways.  The  recent  outlay  for  costly  machinery, 
and  the  heavy  expenses  incurred  in  sinking  shafts,  constructing  furnaces,  &c.,  have 
also  tended  to  consume  any  revenue  derivable  from  the  GovernTncnt  mines.  Gold, 
silver,  copper,  iron,  lead,  sulphur,  coal,  basalt,  felspar,  greenstones,  granites  (red 
and    ;^rey),    maible,    rock-cirystal,   agate,    carneliau,   amber,   pumice-stone,    talc, 


- '  *::'!** 


S£;■35.■<s**^'*^;^- 


MAXUFACTUllKS— JAPANESE  ART— POKCELAIN. 


458 


alum,  &e.,  are  foxiiul  in  greater  or  less  quantities.  Coal-beds  extend  from 
Nagasaki  to  Yeso.  The  supply  of  sulphur  is  almost  inoxhaustiblo,  and  of  wonderful 
purity."  * 

MaNUFACTURE.S J.VPANIiSK   AllT roUCEI.AlN. 

Although  the  chief  occupation  of  the  people  is  the  cultivation  of  the  land  for 
the  local  consumption,  the  Japanese  Einiiire  is  of  all  Asiatic  lands  the  most 
industrial,  und  the  products  of  its  factories  are  now  exported  to  all  quarters  of  the 
globe.  The  Japanese  have  always  been  renowned  potters.  Even  the  graves  of  the 
anthroi)opha;ji  discovered  by  Morse  have  yielded  highly  ornamented  eavthenwarc, 
the  patterns  of  which  persisted  throughout  the  historic  ages.  In  the  burial-places 
of  all  the  subsequent  epochs  archaeologists  have  found  baked  clay  figures,  which 
were  disposed  in  circles  round  the  graves.  Nevertheless,  to  the  Chinese  and 
Koreans  the  Japanese  are  indebted  for  their  proficiency  in  this  art.  The  most 
famous  names  of  potters  in  the  national  records  are  those  ])rought  by  a  prince  of 
Satsma  from  a  victorious  expedition  to  Korea  in  1592,  and  settled  by  him  at 
Naesivo-gava,  in  his  principality.  These  were  the  makers  of  the  chui'ie  imitation 
porcelains  known  as  "  Old  Satsma  "  ware,  which  are  still  so  highly  esteemed,  but 
which  have,  unfortunately,  become  extremely  rare.  The  manufacture  of  porcelains, 
properly  so-called,  was  also  first  introduced  by  Korean  craftsmen,  who  settled  in 
the  sixteenth  century  at  Kioto.  In  recent  times  the  number  of  keramic  works 
has  been  greatly  increased,  and  seme  districts,  where  the  art  was  hitherto  unknown, 
noAV  produce  wares  remarkable  for  the  richness  of  their  colours  and  the  originality 
of  their  floral  and  animal  designs.  The  most  famous  potters'  villages  differ  in  no 
respect  from  the  ordinary  hamlets  of  the  country.  Each  workshop  comprises  the 
members  of  a  single  family,  each  of  whom  watches  in  his  turn  over  the  baking  of 
the  materials  in  the  public  oven  of  the  commune.  In  the  fabrication  of  bronzes, 
also,  each  object  is  entirely  produced  by  the  same  artist,  who  casts  the  metal,  does 
the  chasing,  colours  it  with  oxides,  encrusts  it  with  the  precious  metals,  nacre, 
coral,  or  pearls. 

"  A  superficial  examination  of  Japanese  and  Chinese  porcelain  might  lead  to  the 
conclusion  that  there  is  not  much  difference  between  the  two  kinds.  But  this  is 
only  so  far  true  that,  like  most  other  arts,  the  former  is  derived  from  the  latter. 
But  a  careful  comparison  of  the  products  of  each  country  will  show  how  much 
more  graceful  in  form  and  finish  a.'e  those  of  Japan  than  their  Chinese  prototypes, 
which,  in  comparison,  may  be  regarded  as  almost  clumsy  and  inelegant.  The 
human  figures  painted  on  them  do  not  certainly  differ  materially  in  artistic  design 
or  proportion  of  form.  But  the  birds,  fishes,  insects,  plants,  and  flowers  of  the 
Japanese  school  are  infinitely  more  true  to  nature  than  are  those  of  the  Chinese 
designers.  There  is  also  a  considerable  difference  in  the  selection  of  the  subjects, 
animals  such  as  tigers,  bears,  and  boars  being  frequently  seen  on  Chinese,  but  very 
rarely  on  Japanese,  porcelains.     This  arises  from  the  fact  that  there  are  few  such 

•  ''The  Land  of  tbe  Morning,"  p.  12. 


464 


EAST  ASIA 


oniinals  in  the  archipelngo,  while  they  still  abound  in  the  mountain  regions  of  the 
northt-rii  und  wostorn  provinces  of  the  ^Uddle  Kingdom. 

"Japanese  porcelain  has  constituted  for  several  centuries  one  of  the  most 
important  articles  of  export  to  Europe,  where,  on  account  of  its  excellence,  it 
immediately  excited  the  admiration  of  connoisseurs,  and  is  to  the  present  day 
considered  one  of  the  most  beautiful  branches  of  Oriental  art.  The  chief  porcelain 
manufactories  for  the  finest  ware  are  in  the  province  of  Fizcn,  in  the  island  of 
Kiu-siu,  and  especially  in  the  department  of  Mashura,  near  the  hamlet  of  Uresino, 
where  the  material  from  which  it  is  made  is  found  in  abundance.  Although  the 
clay  is  naturally  fine  and  clean,  it  is  necessary  to  knead  it,  to  wash  it  and  cleanse 
it  before  it  acquires  the  degree  of  purity  required  to  render  the  porcelain  trans- 
lucent. 

"  At  another  place  in  the  same  province  the  material  is  found  in  the  hills  close 
to  the  sea-port  town  of  Imari,  on  the  slopes  of  Idsumi-yama,  from  which  more  than 
forty  different  kinds  of  porcelain  are  manufactured.  This  kind  of  material  is  hard, 
and  when  mixed  with  the  soft  clay,  it  prevents  the  fabric  from  cracking  or  break- 
ing in  the  oven  when  being  baked.  Before  this  the  patterns  are  painted  with  fine 
brushes  on  the  ware.  The  fire  is  then  kept  up  for  fixing  them,  which  soon  dries 
the  earth  spread  over  the  outside  of  the  oven. 

"  Articles  designated  Ycn-gui,  such  as  cups,  saucers,  plates,  and  dishes  of  every 
kind,  which  are  in  common  use  among  all  classes,  and  constitute  nine-tenths  of  the 
porcelain  manufacture,  are  made  by  hand  and  turned  on  the  lathe.  The  cups  and 
saucers,  when  painted  inside  and  outside  with  circular  lines,  are  placed  on  the  disc, 
turned  round,  and  the  paint  brush  thus  forms  the  circle.  "When  they  receive  two 
coatings  of  glaze  they  are  well  dried,  and  placed  in  the  oven,  where  they  are  baked 
a  second  time. 

"  There  are  other  localities  engaged  in  the  industry,  which  obtain  the  raw 
material  for  manufacturing  porcelain  from  Kiu-siu,  and  have  come  into  note  since 
the  Japanese  exported  so  largely  to  the  national  exhibitions  of  Europe.  Of  these 
the  now  well-known  Satsma  ware  has  obtained  pre-eminence.  It  is  of  a  rich 
cream  colour,  bearing  tasteful  designs  of  flowers,  birds,  insects,  and  other  natural 
objects.  Sometimes  it  is  manufactured  into  elegant  chimney  ornaments  and  graceful 
vases,  in  imitation  of  a  bamboo  stalk  and  the  like.  But  the  foreigners  prefer  tea 
and  coffee  services,  card  baskets,  and  other  European  designs,  which  restrict  native 
genius  in  the  art. 

"  Near  the  ancient  capital  of  Kioto  there  is  a  similar  description  of  ware 
manufactured,  but  of  inferior  quality.  Of  all  these  tiny  productions,  that  of  egg- 
shell tea-cups,  as  thin  as  their  name  indicates,  but  sometimes  strengthened  by 
delicate  bamboo  work,  is  prized  highly  by  connoisseurs.  It  is  said  not  to  be  a 
Japanese  invention,  but  to  have  been  copied  from  the  Chinese  many  centuries 

ago." 

"  Mossman,  p.  181. 


LACQUEK-WAIIE  ANi>  TAPER. 


455 


L.VCQVKR-WARK   AND   PaPKK. 

Tho  .TapimoHo  artisans  have  also  been  for  centuries  acquainted  with  the  art  of 
weaving  heavy  linen  and  silken  fabrics,  and  their  brocades,  interwoven  with  gold 
and  silver  thread,  still  form  admirable  hangings  or  festive  robes.  In  one  of  the 
temples  at  Nara  an;  preserved  some  lacquer  boxes,  said  to  date  from  the  third 
century  of  the  Christian  era,  which  attest  the  superiority  of  the  Jajjaneso  in  this 
industry  for  a  period  of  one  thousand  six  hundred  y(>ars.  The  Japanese  lacquers 
of  the  bettor  epochs  fixed  on  copper,  or  more  frequently  on  the  wood  of  the  Pinua 

Fig.  209.— ScKNKB  or  Txdvstkiaj.  Life. 
i'ao-timile  from  a  JapaaeBc  Album. 


retimspom,  and  ornamented  with  gold,  silver,  or  mother-of-pearl,  are  amongst  the 
choicest  contents  of  our  museums.  The  most  highly  esteemed  are  those  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  a  period  answering  to  that  of  the  Renaissance  in  the  West. 
The  finest  specimens  have  a  metallic  lustre,  and  are  almost  indestructible.  The 
Nile  having  been  wrecked  on  the  Mikomoto  reef,  near  Simoda,  all  the  treasures 
she  was  conveying  to  the  Exhibition  of  Vienna  remained  for  eighteen  months 
under  water.  Yet  when  the  lacquer  objects  were  at  last  brought  up  by  the  divers, 
they  were  found  to  be  perfectly  intact,  their  polish  having  lost  nothing  of  its 
original  splendour. 


450 


EAST  ASIA. 


Jiipaiu'sr  Iiu(|U('r-wiin'  far  HurpasHOs  even  tho  finest  ChiueHO  H»eci)ncjiH  in 
flclicacy  and  finisli.  It  also  possossoH  an  unt'Xplaincd  property — a  hardncsH  enabling 
it  In  rcsi.st  tlio  rou^jflient  n.sajife  without  being  h(  latelied,  and  to  endure  high 
temperatures,  wliile  its  polish  is  the  most  perfect  known.  The  pro('e.sH  of  its 
manufaeture  is  tlius  described  by 'ractpieniart.  "The  wood  when  smoothly  planed 
is  covered  with  a  thin  sheet  of  paper  or  silk  gauze,  over  which  is  .spread  u  thick 
coating,  made  of  powdered  rod  sandstojio  and  huffalo's  gall.  This  is  allow<'(l  to 
dry,  after  which  it  is  poliMhed  and  rubbed  with  wax,  or  cIhc  it  receivop  a  \\a.sh  of 
gum-water,  holding  chalk  in  Holution.  The  varnish  is  laid  on  with  n  fl.il  urush, 
and  the  article  is  ])lated  in  a  damp  drying-room,  whence  it  passes  into  the  hands  of 
a  workman,  who  moistens  and  again  polishes  it  with  a  piece  of  very  Hne-grainod 
soft  clay  slate,  or  with  the  stalks  of  the  horse-tail  or  stave-grass.  It  then  receives 
u  second  coating  of  lacquer,  and  when  dry  is  once  more  polished.  Those  operations 
are  repeated  until  the  surface  becomes  perfectly  smooth  and  lustrous.  There  are 
never  a])i'lied  less  than  three  coatings,  but  seldom  more  than  eighteen,  although 
some  old  Japanese  ware  are  said  to  have  received  upwards  of  twenty. 

"  The  most  highly  esteemed  varieties  are  the  gold,  the  black,  and  the  rod  lacquer, 
the  last  of  which  .seems  peculiar  to  Japan.  It  is  nearlj*  always  of  a  pure  bright  colour, 
and  the  ornamental  ])arts  are  very  carefully  executed.  The  black  variety  is  distin- 
guished by  the  number  of  its  coatings  and  the  perfection  of  its  polish,  which  has  the 
elfect  rather  of  a  metal  than  a  varnish.  The  illusion  is  enhanced  by  the  delicacy 
of  the  reliefs  in  gold,  certain  pieces  looking  like  burnished  steel  incrustod  with  j)ure 
gold.  Some  of  the  specimens,  especially  those  known  as  "  mirror  lacquer,"  are 
remarkahle  for  the  puritj'  of  their  lustre,  and  for  their  peculiar  style  of  ornamenta- 
tion, the  ])rocess  of  which  has  remained  a  mystery.  On  the  surface  are  brought 
out  th(  details  of  plants  executed  in  gold,  with  the  most  delicate  reliefs.  Then, 
according  as  the  sti  -ns  sink  in,  the  reliefs  disappear,  the  details  vanish,  and  the 
whole  continies  to  fade  away,  as  might  an  object  immersed  in  water,  and  gradually 
oblit(>rated  by  the  depth  and  absence  of  light.  Black  lacquer  is  applied  to  every 
conceivable  object,  from  furniture,  panels,  folding-screens,  tables,  seats,  and  stand.s, 
to  the  caintiest  artistic  conceptions,  such  as  fruits,  flowers,  figures,  armorial  bearings, 
plants  and  animals." 

The  Japanese  are  also  pre-eminent  in  the  manufacture  of  certain  kinds  of 
paper,  which  they  prepare  from  the  pulp  of  the  mulberry,  the  Briissonetia  popi/rifcm, 
tlie  JiihisciiH,  and  several  other  species  of  pLtnts.  If,  as  has  been  pretended,  the 
rank  of  nations  in  the  scale  of  civilisation  is  to  be  determined  by  the  quantity  of 
paper  consumed  by  them,  the  Japanese  might  certainly  claim  the  first  place.  They 
use  paper,  not  only  for  printing  and  painting,  but  also  for  a  multitude  of  other 
purposes.  Quires  of  paper  replace  our  handkerchiefs  and  table-napkins ;  the  stools 
used  as  pillows  are  covered  with  paper ;  the  windows  have  panes  of  paper  instead 
of  glass,  while  panels  of  the  same  material  form  the  movable  partitions  of  the 
houses.  Paper  garments  coated  with  vegetable  wax  are  worn  in  rainy  weather ; 
paper  is  still  the  substitute  for  the  leather  coverings  of  the  vehicles  drawn  by  hand ; 
and  in  machinery  paper  bands  are  found    more    durable  than    those  uiade  of 


II 


^*^>IS!&^:Wt«*S^lKfSi|s^ 


LACQUEllWAllK  AND  I'Al'EU. 


467 


leather.  All  attoinptw  to  imitate  Home  of  the  Japanese  paj)ers  have  hitherto  failed, 
but  for  perfect  whileiieHM  the  Kiij^lish  and  French  products  uro  superior,  those  of 
Japan  always  sliowinj,'  a  yellowish  tin^,'e. 

The  Kiiji,  or  paper-tree,  and  the  process  of  its  conversion  into  paper  are  tlms 
dcserilH'd  hy  Mossinan.  "  From  ustronfjf-hranehed  wochI  nnit  rises  a  straight,  thick, 
equal  trunk,  very  much  branched  out;  covered  with  a  fat,  tirm,  clammy,  chestnut- 
coloured  bark,  roug;h  without,  but  Hm(M)th  on  the  inside,  where  it  adhcTes  to  the  _ 
wood,  wliich  is  h)ose  and  brittle,  with  u  larp^e,  moist  pith.  The  branches  and  twif^s 
are  very  plump,  and  covered  with  ii  snudl  down,  or  wool,  of  u  fj;re(>n  colour,  in- 
clining; to  j)urple.  Kvery  year,  when  the  leaves  have  fallen  «)lf,  in  the  tenth 
Japanese  month,  which  answers  to  our  December,  the  twigs  are  cut  into  lengths, 
not  exvT'eding  three  feet,  and  put  together  in  bundles,  to  be  afterwards  boili'd  in  an 
alkaline  lye.  These  fajrgots  are  placed  upright  in  a  large  kettle,  which  nmst  bo 
well  covered,  and  boiled  until  the  bark  shrinks  so  far  as  to  allow  about  half  an  inch 
of  the  wood  to  appear  naked  at  the  top.  When  they  have  beciu  sufficiently  boiled 
they  are  taken  out  into  the  air  to  cool,  aft'  \hich  the  burk  is  stripi)ed  from  the 
wood,  which  forms  the  pulp  for  making  t  ,)er.     For  this  purpose  it  has  to  be 

washed  and  cleansed,  and  this  process  is  oi  no  smuU  consoquenco  in  producing 
smooth,  white  paper. 

"  The  washing  takes  place  in  a  running  stream,  the  bark  being  placed  in  a  sort 
of  sieve,  which  lets  the  water  run  through,  while  it  is  stirred  constantly  with  the 
hands  until  it  becomes  u  soft  woolly  pulp.  Ifaviug  been  sufficiently  washed,  the 
pulp  is  spread  out  upon  a  thick  wooden  table,  and  beaten  with  a  wooden  nmllet 
until  it  is  reduced  to  the  requisite  fineness.  Then  it  is  put  into  a  narrow  tub  with 
a  slimy  infusion  of  rice,  and  of  a  root  called  Oreni. 

"  The  moulds  on  which  the  paper  is  to  bo  made  arc  formed  of  the  stems  of  bul- 
rushes cut  into  narrow  strips.  The  sheets  are  then  lifted  one  by  one  from  the 
mould,  and  laid  xip  in  heaps  upon  a  table  covered  with  a  double  mat,  and  a  small 
plank  or  board  placed  on  each  heap.  Weights  are  gradually  piled  up  for  a  daj', 
after  which  the  sheets  are  lifted  off  singly  on  the  palm  of  the  hand,  and  transferred 
to  a  rough  plank,  on  which  they  are  placed,  and  afterwards  dried  in  the  sun.  The 
finest  quality  is  of  a  white,  smooth  surface,  although,  as  already  remarked,  never 
quite  approaching  the  pure  white  colour  of  the  best  European  paper." 

The  Japanese  are  also  our  masters  in  wicker-work  and  in  the  preparation  of 
straw  objects,  of  which  they  have  a  surprising  variety,  ranging  from  waterproof 
cloaks  to  marionettes  of  all  forms  and  sizes.  The  leather  industry  is  represented 
in  several  towns  by  some  choice  articles,  but  as  a  rule  this  material  is  very  little 
used  in  the  industrial  arts,  owing  to  the  contempt  in  which  the  tanner's  trade  is 
held.  Those  engaged  in  the  dressing  of  skins  were  formerly  included  in  the 
despised  caste  of  the  Etas.  Amongst  the  noteworthy  products  of  Japanese  industry, 
mention  should  bo  made  of  those  "  magic  mirrors  "  whose  dazzling  brightness, 
according  to  the  legend,  induced  the  inquisitive  and  jealous  Sun-Goddess  to  emerge 
from  the  cave  to  which  she  had  withdrawn.      The  images  projected  by  these 

mirrors  on  walls,  under  the  influence  of  heat  and  of  the  pencil  of  rays,  are  due  to 
62 


._^... «. 


J 


468 


EAST  AHIA. 


tlu)  fact  tliiit  tln'  inctui  Hiirfiico  Im  nnt  of  uniform  fhicknoss  imd  ('oiiHi'sfonc^  ifonco 
wlicn  heated  it  cxpaiidi^  iircf^uliirly,  aixl  thus  rcvcaU,  by  the  cnlculnlci'  ■cHcctioii 
of  itH  viiryiiiH;  rclicI'M,  the  dt'si^Mis  or  writiiigM  which  arc,  an  it  wen ,  i'ml)odicd 
in  it. 

The  strikiiifj;  orij^iiialily  and  cndh'ss  vcrsatality  of  thp  national  artistic  jfcnnis 
an-  well  illiisl rated  liy  the  Japanese  ivory  carvinjifs,  tiiany  of  which  chaUeMfj;e  our 
hij^liest  praise  and  athniralion.  AnKHijj;  these  ohjects  are  the  i)i(on(jH,  or  pencil-cases, 
no  less  vi;i;orous|y  executed  than  thosu  of  China.  The  pliant  material  is  also 
fashioned  into  curious  buxcH  und  cubinotH,  cunninfj;ly  embellished  with  tine  reliefs 


Fig.  210. — Hthbkt  HcESEi. 
Fnc-iimlln  from  a  JaiHtiiPw  Albiim. 


divided  into  compartments  most  skilfully  put  together,  forming  those  medicine- 
chests  that  look  lik(^  a  single  piece,  and  on  which  stand  out  figures  of  the  dairi  in 
their  rich  costumes,  their  emblems  carefully  reproduced  and  often  held  by  attendant 
officers  crouched  behind  them.  All  this  microscojjic  work  is  occasionally  heightened 
by  touches  of  lacquer  and  gold,  and  incrustations  of  mother-of-pearl  or  of  pietrn 
dura. 

Yet  it  is  not  this,  nor  even  the  miniature  caskets  with  their  endless  divisions, 
that  excite  the  greatest  wonder.  In  them  we,  of  course,  recognise  a  marvellous 
art,  but  still  traditional,  and  like  the  Chinese,  somewhat  mechanical,  so  that  the 


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Photographic 

Sciences 

Corporation 


33  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  14S80 

(716)  872-4503 


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LACQUER- WAEE  AND  PAPER. 


4S9 


style  of  Olio  piece  prepares  us  for  another.  Rut  it  is  in  the  minute  little  ncrzlces,  as 
thoy  are  callod,  that  to  the  astonished  ohsorver  is  revealed  the  unforeseen,  the  mind 
of  each  individual  artist,  with  its  manifold  types,  its  surprises  and  constant  flashes 
of  genius. 

These  little  trinkets  or  charms,  known  in  Europe  as  Japanese  buttons,  were  the 
only  ornaments  with  which  the  upper  classes  relieved  the  somewhat  sombre  hues  of 
the  old  national  costume.  Each  minute  ivorj'  object,  with  its  studied  expression, 
attitude,  and  dress,  often  profusely  adorned,  is  an  original  composition,  a  chapter,  so 
to  say,  on  history  or  manners,  a  caustic  satire  aiming  its  darts  at  the  social  vices, 
and  not  unfiequently  at  religion  itself.  One  represents  the  Sinto  God  Cheu-lao 
jeering  at  the  followers  of  the  Tao-tso  cult,  and  making  the  most  comical  grimaces 
beneath  his  prominent  skull,  which  assumes  the  form  of  a  cucumber  ;  another  shows 
the  same  divinity  typified  by  a  rival  artist  as  a  cuttle-fish  impaled  upon  a  rock. 
Elsewhere  groups  of  devotees  arc  groujied  in  the  most  grotesque  attitudes,  and 
making  the  most  hideous  faces.  Nor  is  there  any  lack  of  graceful  forms.  Jacque- 
mart  mentions  a  group  of  young  women,  carved  out  of  a  solid  piece  of  ivory,  decked 
with  elegant  head-dresses  and  richly  attired,  one  of  them  suckling  a  child.  ( )u 
examining  the  little  head  bent  over  her  nursling,  we  are  astonished  at  the  fkill 
displayed  by  tlie  artist,  in  dejiicting  on  such  a  minute  scale  the  tender  care  of  a 
mother,  and  her  total  abstraction  from  everything  except  the  child  of  her  affections. 
Very  wonderful  also  are  the  figures  of  professional  beggars,  which  exist  in  great 
variety.  Nothing  can  be  imagined  more  curious  or  more  jiicturesque  than  these 
real  or  sham  cripjiles,  borne  on  the  backs  of  animals,  or  themselves  leading  monkeys 
about,  and  grouped  in  all  manner  of  grotesque  associations. 

The  representations  of  animals  are  no  less  correct  and  amusing  in  their  infinite 
humour  and  variety.  Here  we  have  a  most  lavish  display  of  the  most  fanciful  and 
whimsical  conceptions — frogs  dancing  a  wild  sarabando  on  an  old  straw  slipper ; 
rats  huddled  together  with  their  lively  faces  peeping  out  in  all  directions  ;  a  mouse 
that  has  taken  possession  of  a  fruit,  and  ensconced  itself  like  the  rat  of  the  fable  in 
a  cheese.  Here  is  a  chestnut  pierced  by  the  gnawings  of  a  worm,  which  has  traced 
out  in  the  ivory  a  narrow  passage,  emerging  at  last  through  a  hole  in  the  brown 
rind,  and  crawling  to  the  surface,  where  it  seems  as  if  still  creeping,  so  lifelike  is 
the  imitation.  Here  again  is  an  egg,  an  irregular  fracture  in  its  broken  shell 
giving  a  peep  inside.  As  far  as  the  eye  can  penetrate  it  detects  the  microscopic 
figures  of  a  IJuddhist  pantheon ;  each  separate  divinity  may  be  recognised  by  his 
features,  as  well  as  by  his  distinctive  attributes. 

After  studying  these  ingenious  objects,  distinguished  at  once  by  their  technical 
skill  and  inspiration,  we  remain  more  than  ever  convinced  of  the  enormous  differ- 
ence between  the  Japanese  and  Chinese  schools  of  art.  The  latter,  at  once  j)ains- 
taking  and  skilful,  repro<luce8  with  undeviating  fidelity  the  types  handed  down  by 
the  national  traditions  from  time  out  of  mind.  The  former,  trained  to  the  indepen- 
dent observation  of  nature,  and  left  to  the  promptings  of  individual  genius,  infuses 
into  its  work  that  distinctive  humour  and  pungent  fancy,  which  a  philosophic  mind 
may  delight  to  embody  in  grotesque  scenes,  in  order,  through  them,  to  aim  the 


,.Tl.(,, 


km 


H: 

M 


;rj»:m<mtimsimm^&^t^.-!^^'  .i^,f'i4^mis>!Mti>if»!t''-^:-'i^^''-^^''>^  - 


-t^fi~.ie^\<'*ir:.- 


4G0 


EAST  ASIA. 


sluifts  of  their  satiro  ap^iiinst  flio  inunnors  of  the  times.  Th(^  Japanese  ivory  trinkets 
tlius  present  some  anal()<>y  to  the  Puiic/i,  Cliarimri,  uud  other  illustrated  caricature 
literature  of  the  European  nations. 

Dkcuxk  ok  Art— Tram'tc  in  "  Cirios." 

Sineo  Japan  has  begun  to  trade  freely  with  the  rest  of  the  world,  the  national 
industries  have  ent«>red  on  a  period  of  suspense,  if  not  of  actual  decline.  In  order 
to  meet  the  increasing  foreign  demand,  the  native  craftsmen  have  been  chiefly 


Fig.  211.— Thr  Gods 
Fac-simile  from  a  Japiiuesc  Album. 


occupied  in  the  production  of  cheap  wares,  whereby  their  artistic  skill  has  been 
impaired.  .Foreign  competition  has  also  ruined  several  of  the  local  industries. 
Nevertheless,  the  best  traditions  of  art  have  been  kept  alive  in  the  production  of 
bronzes,  lacquer- ware,  pottery,  silks,  painted  and  figured  papers.  In  these  branches 
the  works  of  the  Japanese  artists  are  still  distinguished  for  the  harmonious  dispo- 
sition of  the  colours,  the  sobriety  of  the  ornamentation,  the  natural  grace  and  variety 
of  the  designs.  Flowers,  foliage,  branches,  insects,  fishes,  birds,  small  quadrupeds,  and 
all  natural  objects,  are  depicted  with  an  almost  miraculous  happiness  of  expression, 
a  boUbicss  of  foreshortening,  and  a  freedom  of  execution  beyond  all  praise.   In  the 


LACQUER- WAEE  AND  PAPER. 


461 


most  offhand  wiiy  the  luitivo  artist  will  dash  off  vast  decorative  compositions,  in  which 
all  the  partsare  iiert'ectly balanced, and  syinnieti-yseeuredwithouta  repetition  of  forms. 
Kven  in  strewinjj;  the  floors  with  many-coloured  sands,  the  conunon  people,  who 
are  by  no  means  artists  by  profession,  improvise  ornamental  patterns  of  surpiisin<^ 
truth  and  lifj;htnes8.  ])c8iji;n  enters  into  the  ordinary  course  of  instruction,  and 
the  native  of  Js  ip-pon  is  always  ready  with  his  pencil.  Shrewd  observers  of  nature, 
the  Japanese  artists  display  remarkable  skill  in  seizin<»'  the  characteristic  traits  and 
attitudes  of  individuals,  and  the  shafts  of  their  satire  arc  aimed  not  only  at  the 


lit] 


!1  a! 


Fig.  212. — IUts  as  IIicb  Meuchants. 
Fuc-simile  from  a  Jiipanexe  Album. 


m. 

t 

1 

3 

39 

& 

c 

^ 

^ 

^ 

despised  bodzes,  but  also  at  the  grandees,  always  represented,  however,  under  the 
figure  of  foxes,  apes,  wild  boars,  or  such  like  animals. 

Although  Japau  received  its  first  lessons  in  Art  from  China,  it  soon  escaped 
from  mere  servile  imitation,  retaining  nothing  but  the  method  and  processes,  which 
it  applied  to  the  objects  of  its  choice  with  a  perfect  freedom,  full  of  sprightliness 
and  endless  fancy.  Even  in  the  traditional  art  of  the  Buddhist  monasteries  the 
motives  imposed  by  religion  are  reproduced  with  a  surprising  variety  of  details. 
But  if  the  human  figure  is  always  treated  with  great  energy  of  action,  an  astonish- 
ing intensity  of  expression  and  a  remarkable  ai)preciation  of  types  and  characters, 
it  is  seldom  that  the  limits  of  the  grotesque  are  not  passed,  so  that  the  representation 
usually  degenerates  into  caricature.    At  the  Exhibitions  of  1807  and  1878,  Japanese 


li   !',t 


4m 


'"'■>■','' 


m 


''smms^(k-im- 


'^mi&am^.i^ffX^ii'. 


462 


EAST  ASIA. 


Art,  which  had  long  been  appreciated  by  European  experts,  revealed  to  an 
astonif^hod  public  its  incontestable  superiority  over  the  Chinese  school.  It  has 
already  ex(>rcised  considerable  influence  on  modern  ornamental  designs,  especially 
for  porcelains,  wall  paintings,  and  woven  fabrics.  The  Japanese  school  deserved  to 
iind  imitators  in  the  West,  altliough  its  fame  was  established  in  foreign  lands  at 
the  very  time  when  it  began  to  degenerate  at  home  through  a  love  of  gain  and 
hasty  workmanship. 

The  trafhc  in  "  Curios"— that  is,  in  all  sorts  of  artistic  objects,  old  and  modern, 
real  or  sham,  has  already  become  a  hiding  feature  of  Anglo- Japanese  life  in  the 
sea-ports  open  to  foreigners,  and  Dixon  gives  us  a  graphic  account  of  the  "  Curio- 
men  "  engaged  in  this  lucrative  business.  "  I  had  not  been  long  in  Japan  before  I 
was  scented  out  by  the  Curio-men.  One  day  at  luncheon  my  boy  entered  with  the 
information  that  a  (foijit'i/fi  (curiosity-dealer)  had  come,  and  was  waiting  in  tho 
hall.  When  the  meal  was  over  I  went  to  see  him.  lie  was  a  little  man,  with  a 
simpering  countenance,  and  on  my  appearance  touched  the  floor  repeatedly  with 
his  forehead,  muttering  something  the  while  in  a  tone  of  the  most  perfect  courtesy. 
It  was  to  tho  effect  that  ho  had  taken  tho  liberty  of  coming  to  hang  on  to  the 
august  master's  eyes,  in  order  that  he  might  bo  so  fortunate  as  to  sell  to  the  august 
master  a  few  old  and  rare  Curios,  which  ho  hud  recently  bought  from  some  great 
daimios. 

"Around  liim  his  goods  were  laid  out — lacquered  cabinets,  bronzes,  pieces  of 
pi)rcelain,  swords,  and  the  like.     With  a  look  of  the  most  thorough  deference,  ho 
squatted  while  wo  examined  these,  his  assistant  keeping  humbly  in  the  background. 
A  cabinet  took  my  fancy.     I  asked  if  this  were  really  old.     He  at  once  replied  in 
an  assuring  voice,  and  pointed  with  satisfaction  to  a  daimio's  crest  imprinted  on  it. 
'  How  nvach  ? '  I  asked.     '  It  is  really  a  good  article,  and  as  this  is  the  first  time  I 
will  make  it  cheap,  although  by  so  selling  it  I  shall  not  make  a  single  tempo  (cent) 
of  profit.     Because  it  is  the  first  time,  and  the  gentleman  will  no  doubt  give  me 
his  honourable  custom  in  future— -it  is  really  old,  and  I  am  not  telling  a  He— I  will 
make  it  20  yen  and  50  sen  (about  £4  10s.).'     '  Nonsense !  that  is  far  too  dear  ;   I 
believe  after  all  it  was  made  in  Birmingham.'     This  evoked  a  hearty  laugh,  and  a 
look  at  my  boy,  as  much  as  to  e-iy,  'Your  master  is  a  knowing  one,  isn't  he?' 
But  the  imputation  was  vigorously  repelled.      '  No,  honourable  master,  all  my 
goods  are  genuine ;  English  imitations  are  in  Yokohama  only.     As  this  is  the  first 
time,  I  will  sell  it  for  19  yen.     I  have  some  cheaper  things  behind  here,  but  I 
know  the  honourable  gentleman  would  not  condescend  to  buy  such  inferior  things. 
Just  look  at  the  difference.     This  article  is  really  good  ;  19  yen,  even  a  little  more 
I  cannot  reduce  the  price.'     '  I  ofPer  12  yen.'     The  two  men  look  at  each  other, 
and  laugh  incredulously.     '  I  will  reduce  the  price  to  18  yen.     I  cannot  go  further 
without  losing  on  it.'     '  Let  us  split  the  difference— 15  yen.'     There  is  a  thought- 
ful pause,  then  a  low  conversation  with  his  assistant,  the  result  being  that  he  bows 
his  head  to  the  floor  with  a  resigned  expression,  and  the  bargain  is  struck. 

"  A  few  minutes  later  there  is  a  sound  of  much  laughter  and  joking  in  tho 
servants'  quarters,  whither  the  Curio-men  have  betaken  themselves,  and  my  boy. 


FOKEIGN  TIJADE. 


4G3 


when  ho  ncxi  cntrrs,  iU>vh  not  fail  to  admin"  llio  artichi  I  liavc  bought,  and 
commend  til'.' cliiiructor  of  tho  dcidor  who  him  noM  it.  rrcsciitly  1  catcli  a  sif,rht 
of  that  worthy  bowing  to  mo  through  tho  window,  as  lio  walks  oil  with  hi.s  pack  on 
his  back. 

"  From  that  diiy  forth  the  visit  ol  tho  dogu-ya  was  an  occurronco  that  couhl  bo 
roliod  upon  almost  us  surely  as  luncheon  itself.  Thero  were  about  half-a-dozen 
men  with  whom  I  had  dealings,  and  it  was  not  uncommon  for  two  or  more  of  them 
to  arrive  at  tho  same  time.  No  doubt  all  of  them  alike  had  learned  everything 
ubout  mc  from  tho  servants— my  tastes,  my  hours  of  leisure,  whether  or  not  I  was 
hard  to  drive  u  bargain  with,  on  what  day  of  tho  month  my  pay-day  fell,  whether 
or  not  I  was  a  rigid  Subbutariun,  &c.  Tho  right  of  entering  tho  house  was 
possibly  purchased  from  tho  domestics,  in  whose  qiun-ters  th(>y  would,  in  tho  event 
of  my  absence,  sometimes  wait  for  mo  several  hours.  Their  plausibility  was  as 
irrepressible  as  their  sagacity.  According  to  their  own  account  they  wero  always 
giving  bargains.  At  their  first  visit  it  was  because  it  was  tho  first  time  that  they 
agreed  to  sell  their  wares  ut  a  clear  loss.  But  on  every  succeeding  occasion  they 
professed  to  make  the  same  sacrifice  for  some  reason  or  another,  often  one  of  an 
elaborately  fictitious  character.  No  exposure  could  dis(;oncert  them.  They  were 
always  ready  to  disarm  reproof  by  making  an  opi)ortune  confession.  It  was  (juito 
true  that  they  had  once  or  twice  taken  advantage  of  a  newcomer's  inexi)erience,  but 
the  honourable  gentleman  with  whom  they  were  now  dealing  was  too  sharp  to  have 
u  like  fate ;  he  could  not  be  taken  in.  Tho  august  master  know  well  Avhat  he  was 
alK)ut,  didn't  he  ?  And  with  that  the  one  would  look  knowingly  at  the  other.  If 
all  their  customers  More  as  well  versed  in  Curio  buying  as  the  honourable  master, 
they  would  make  no  profit  at  all ;  they  would  need  to  start  a  jinrihma.  And 
here  they  would  all  laugh  good-naturedly. 

"  They  were  always  ready  for  any  amount  of  banter,  and  did  not  hesitate  to 
reply  to  a  piece  of  irony.  '  It  is  a  lie ; '  an  expression  which  in  English  seems  an 
insult,  but  which  on  account  of  the  inadequate  appreciation  of  truthfulness  that 
prevails  amongst  the  Japanese,  in  common  with  other  Easterns,  often  moans  little 
more  than  '  You  arc  joking.' 

"Even  the  most  artful  of  these  Curio-men  were  generally  kind-hearted  fellows, 
so  much  so  that  it  was  difficult  to  lose  one's  temper  even  when  most  flagrantly 
cheated.  And  some  of  them  were  certainly  more  honest  than  others.  There  was 
one  jolly  fellow  who,  I  remember,  brought  mo  a  present  at  the  New- Year  time,  and 
on  the  morning  after  a  serious  fire  had  occurred  at  the  college  several  of  them 
called  to  congratulate  me  on  my  escape."  * 

Foreign  Trade. 

After  the  expulsion  of  the  Portuguese,  and  the  extirpation  of  the  native  converts, 
the  trade  of  Japan  with  Europe  had  fallen  in  the  year  1685  to  the  sum  of  300,000 
taels,  or  a  little  more  than  £80,000.  At  this  time  the  Governor  of  Nagasaki  also 
took  every  precaution  to  prevent  the  imports  from  exceeding  the  stipulated  value. 

•  Op.  cit.,  J).  274,  H  seq. 


I 


-■•--■t  -«u'.^,- 


404 


EAST  ASIA. 


1  I 


Tho  CliiiioHO  traders  had  <ho  ri<jflit  of  disposing?  of  jjjoods  at  Nafj;asaki  to  douldo  that 
amount.  IWit  they  wore  otherwise  as  jcahmsly  watched  as  the  J)utch  thcniselvcs, 
in  punishment  of  their  contraband  trafhe  in  crosses  and  ('atliolic  devotional  works. 
Tlie  eonunereial  rehilions  of  the  industrious  hnid  of  the  Ilisiufj;  Sun  with  the  outer 
worhl  had  been  altoj^ether  nnluced  to  exchanges  of  the  annual  value  of  about 
i;'.i4(l,()(K).  Although  Japan  is  surrounded  by  islands,  islets,  and  inlets,  alfording 
every  facility  for  smuggling,  the  (!ontraband  trade  was  almost  extinguislied. 
Piracy  rather  than  trade  became  the  resource  of  those  daring  Japanese  mariners 
who  infested  tlie  coasts  of  Formosa  and  Fokien.  Following  in  the  track  of  those 
corsairs  wlio  during  the  first  centuries  of  the  vulgar  era  hud  penetrated  into 
Malaysia  and  up  theMeinam  Estuary,  and  who  had  supplied  the  King  of  Siam  with 
his  best  troops,  the  Japanese  rovers  again  appeared  in  the  same  waters  towards  the 
end  of  (he  seventeenth  century,  when  a  colony  from  Xip-pon  guarded  the  approaches 
of  Ayuthia,  at  that  time  capital  of  Siam.  JJeing  deprived  of  the  eompa.ss,  to  prevent 
them  from  venturing  too  far  on  the  higli  .seas,  the  Japanese  navigators  had  for  the 
last  three  centuries  ceased  to  make  distant  voyages,  and  even  held  aloof  from 
fori'igners  wrecked  on  their  coasts.  On  the  occasion  of  the  submarine  earthquake 
at  Samoda,  alwut  a  hundred  Japanese  perished,  rather  than  break  the  law  forbidding 
them  to  board  European  ves,sels.  Two  only  of  the  whole  number  availed  them- 
selves of  the  rope  thrown  to  them  by  the  crew  of  the  llussian  ship  Diana. 

Since  the  opening  of  the  treaty  ports  in  the  year  l(So4  trade  has  continued 
steadily  to  increase  from  decade  to  decade,  but  not  from  year  to  year,  j)rogress 
ha\  ing  been  temporarily  arrested  by  the  civil  war  of  IHGH,  by  the  depreciation  of 
paper  money,  overstocked  markets,  and  other  causes.  During  the  twelve  years 
from  1HG7  to  1880  the  commercial  operations  of  the  Empire  with  foreign  countries 
in  the  six  treaty  ports  of  Naga.saki,  Iliogo-kobe,  Ohosaka,  Yokohama,  Nihi-gata, 
and  JIakodate,  have  been  far  more  than  doubled.*  ]Jut  compared  with  the  foreign 
trade  of  Euroi)ean  countries  this  movement  is  still  far  from  considerable,  scarcely 
representing  much  more  than  eight  shillings  per  head  of  the  whole  population. 
The  expectations  of  many  foreign  merchants,  who  flocked  to  Japan  as  to  a  new 
Eldorado,  have  accordingly  been  disappointed.  Possessing  in  the  country  itself 
most  of  the  produce  and  manufactured  wares  required  for  the  local  demand, 
the  Japanese  import  from  abroad  only  what  is  absolutely  indispensable  for  their 
wants.  In  exchange  for  their  teas,  raw  8ilks,t  camphor,  cocoons,  fans,  and  other 
fancy  articles,  they  take  from  Europe  and  America  nothing  but  woollen  and  cotton 
woven  fabrics,  hardware,  and  u  few  other  manufactured  goods.  Opimn  is  spe- 
cially exeludetl  by  intemational  treaties,  and  all  importers  of  this  drug  are  liable 
to  capital  punishment.  The  sugar  and  rice  taken  from  China  are  paid  for  chiefly 
by  "  sea  cabbage,"  which  is  so  highly  appreciated  by  the  Southern  Chinese,  and 
by  ginseng,  from  the  upper  valley  of  the  Sinano  River. 

•  Foreign  trado  of  Jnpan : — 


Imports.  Exports. 

1867    ....      £3,484,000  £2,648,000 

1880    .         .         .         .         7,044,000  6,020,000 

t  Silk  exported  from  Japan  in  1878  :  £2,180,000 
Tea        „  „  „      1877 :        900,000 


Total. 
£6,132,000 
13,964,000 


M 


FORKION  TRADK. 


46S 


Duiiiij^  the  lust  few  yonrs  t]u>  JiipanoHo  iinportcrH  Imvo  been  infr(t<luciii;i;  lar^o 
quantities  ol'  cotton  yariiN,  which  arc  employed  in  the  families  in  the  production  of 
fabrics  of  a  more  substantial  character,  as  well  as  more  in  accordance  witli  the 
luitional  taste  than  the  slop  guuds  from  tho  Massachusetts  and  Jjancashirc  mills. 
In  certain  inland  districts  every  house  has  its  loom,  which  is  worked  by  tlie  women, 
while  tho  men  arc  enji^ufj;ed  in  tillage  or  f^ardenin<^.  J^arj^e  spinning?  mills  and 
printed  calico  and  cloth  factories  have  also  been  recently  establislied,  in  oi-der  to 
emancipate  Japan  from  tho  monopoly  hithortu  enjoyed  by  the  Knglish  manufuc- 

Fig.  213.— 1*0UT«   OPEN   TO    FoBEION   TUAUE. 

Boole  1  :  13,UOO,000.  ' 


.900  MUes. 


turers  of  such  goods.  For  the  same  purpose  of  becoming  commercially  independent 
of  Europe,  the  Japanese  are  also  engaged  in  developing  the  glass  and  clock 
industries  and  in  the  production  of  lucifer  matches.  There  is  scarcely  a  single 
European  article  that  they  are  unable  to  imitate,  and  the  Ohosaka  craftsmen  are 
now  producing  fire-proof  safes,  perfect  in  all  respects  down  even  to  the  very  names 
of  tho  more  famous  European  patentees.  A  Japanese  house  has  already  opened  a 
branch  in  Milan,  in  order  to  supply  the  Italians  directly  with  silkworms'  eggs,  thus 
depriving  foreign  brokers  of  their  commissions.  England  has  even  received  cargoes 
of  bricks  consigned  from  Japan. 


I 


fill, 


*t 


■"  ■■M*\ 


s^BlK'Sii^t-iafe*^ 


Xiijfcii';V*Sij 


4GU 


EAST  ASIA. 


SlIII'lMNO. 

Th(<  j,Mf<iit  fxfciit  of  Ihcir  s(>ii-l)(»ar(l  and  the  oliHtaclos  imwntcd  to  iiilaiul  ooin- 
mmiicatioii  l)y  llic  Ml^'^'(d  surface  of  llio  land,  combined  with  tlic  facililicK  oircrcd 
to  shipping  by  the  inniiniciablc  circkH  and  inlets.  esi.(>cially  <.n  the  east  Hide  of 
Hon(b),  and  p'lifi'idly  in  the  southern  districtK  of  the  aichipelajjo,  could  not,  fail  to 
niak(!  till'  .lapancHo  u  Hcafarinj,'  people.     Small  cruft  loo  frail  to  veuturo  beyond  tho 


Fig.  2U.— .Iai'ankhk  I.inkh  ok  Navigation. 

S.'ule  1  :  12,(X)0,(X)0. 


Lines  of 
Japiiiese 
Btciimers. 


Lines  of 
Foreign 
gtcuincrs. 


lUilwur. 


Main  Iloul«. 


.'100  Milrs. 


Navigable 
Biver,  or 
Canal. 


H    ! 
5    1 


inlets  arc  counted  by  hundreds  of  thousands,  and  in  the  coast  villaj^es  every  family 
has  its  boat.  Of  vessels  over  20  feet  long,  and  strong  enough  to  face  the  open  sea, 
there  were  numbered  over  30,000  in  1872,  and  before  that  time  the  English  Admiral 
IFope,  when  traversing  the  Inhind  Sea,  met  upwards  of  1,500  junks,  besides  barges 
and  boats.  I'revious  to  tho  i-evolution  of  1S(!8  there  were  no  keeled  ship.s  like 
those  of  Europe,  the  mercantile  murine  consisting  exclusively  of  junks  built  on 


IfOADH-UAlIAVAYS  -TKLKOltAI'ilS. 


1(17 


nuHlols  iiiipcscl  by  tlio  Stat. .  *     Vi't  soiiu^  even  of  th.-m-  vcmscIs  were  (.vcr  •,'(»(»  toiin 
Ixirdcn,  uiul  frwly  imvi)?af(>(I  all  tlu«  watoPH  of  tlic  aicliii).laKo. 

All  (liiTft  roininorciiil  rolati.  mh  with  forcijr,,  l„,„|.s  |„.i„jr  hitmlictcl,  tlio  lar-fo 
junks  which  convfyod  muiuhirius  and  anilmssadois  to  the  l.iii-kiu  Aichii)cla>,'o, 
iMinnosa,  an.l  China,  l)(lonj,'<-d(«.\clu.sivoly  to  tlio  Govenuncnt.  Hut  Hin.c  the  oii<-n- 
in^:  of  this  tn^aty  port.s  to  Kuropcan  triido  tho  nu«irantili' navy  has  Ix-cn  rapidly 
(k'veh)pi'd.  Japan  already  inpials  l-'rant'c,  whih-  HiirimssinK  scvnal  Murop.-an  slates 
ill  the  number  and  tonnage  of  its  steamers,  as  well  as  of  its  whole  fleet.  Thi'  Ihir- 
racoittit,  which  was  tho  Hrst  puddle-bout  that  made  its  appearance  in  a  Jupanese 
poi-t,  liud  scarcely  entered  tho  Nagasaki  waters  when  tho  natives,  eager  to  h-am, 
usked  permissicm  to  study  tln^  action  of  the  engine,  und  obtained  from  tho  chief 
engineer  u  plan  und  section  of  tho  works. 

As  soon  as  tho  Japanese  daimios  fouiul  themselves  in  direct  relations  with 
foreigners  they  hastened  to  purchase  Rtenmers,  with  tlu>  view  of  enlianeing  their 
prestige  in  tho  eyes  of  their  subjects.  About  two  hundred  of  these  vessels  were  pre- 
Hontly  seen  lying  at  anclu)r  before  the  palaces  of  tho  duimios.  Jhit  most  of  them  being 
cru/y  old  boats,  sold  at  exorbitant  prices  and  manned  by  inexperienced  crews,  tlu'y 
soon  becamo  useless  hulks.     Tho  era  of  real  deep  sou  navigation  had  not  yet  begun. 

As  early  as  tho  year  1H72  u  Jupanesi!  vessel  had  alieady  crossed  tho  ocean, 
bound  for  San  Francisco,  and  since  that  time  tho  flag  of  the  Uisiiig  Sun  has 
appeared  in  tlio  ports  of  the  West.  Tho  Mitsubisi  Steamship  Company,  which, 
lu)wover,  enjoys  a  government  subsidy,  owned  in  l«7(j  more  than  forty  vessels  of 
2,000  tons  burden,  plying  between  all  tho  sea-jwrts  of  the  archipelago,  und  running 
us  far  as  JTong  Kong,  Shanghai,  and  Vladivostok.  This  company  is  gradually 
monopolising  the  local  curi-ying  trade  to  such  an  extent  that  foreign  shipping  has 
notably  diminished  during  the  last  ten  years.  Tho  English  flag  uloue  has  hithorto 
suHerod  nothing  from  this  native  competition.  The  Chinese  also  take  a  consider- 
able share  of  the  profits  derived  from  the  trade  of  Japan.  As  brokers  und  ao-ents 
they  are  gradually  rephicing  the  Europeans  and  Americans  in  all  tho  treaty  iwrts. 
In  every  commercial  house  the  situation  of  compmdor  or  commissioner,  is  invariably 
occupiod  by  a  native  of  the  Middle  Kingdora.t 

Roads — Railways — Telegraphs. 

Although  the  sea,  now  lit  up  by  numerous  ligbthou808,+  still  offers  the  readiest 

means  of  communication,  road  building  has  not  been  completely  neglected.     Carts 

*  Jupanese  mercantile  navy  in  1879: — 

8ailin)|^  vessels  of  European  build  .        .        .  7H    of 

Steamers 160      „ 

Junks  averaging  31  tons         .         .         .         .18,174 
I'otal,  exclusive  of  fishing  smacks         .     Iy,0u4 
t  Foreign  Shipping  engaged  in  the  trade  of  Japan  (1878)  :— 

English  vessels          .        .         .         .        487  of  417,691  tons. 
Others 3.J1   „   331,181     „ 

838  „   748,872     „ 
Foreigners  residents  in  the  Japanese  Treaty  Ports  ( 1878) :— English  1, 1 70  ;  other  Europeans  and  Americans 
1,410;  Chinese.  3,028;  total  0,505. 

X  Lighthouses  in  Japan  in  1881  :   45,  besides  the  harbour  lights. 


27,650  ions. 

42,070  „ 
745,134  „ 
815,444  „ 


it 

III 

l<l 

'I 

III 

!(| 


m 


■'■*'ffiji^i«ft'.;^;:,;^5J^^S^?S!g^Sf 


408 


KAHT  ASIA. 


drawn  l>y  oxen  wcrt'  till  rccciitlv  rniiiid  only  in  tin-  nfijjliln)mliiMnl   <>l    Kioto,  ilut 

lur r  ciipiliil  ol  till'  Mikmlos.      Here  llu'  loiiil^  liiivf  Itt'cn   rrpairctl  anil  cxti-mlrd, 

wliilc  clsfwlu'if  tin-  iout«'M,  lor  tin-  most  purt  nicrr  mult'  tmrliM.arc  Itcinj,'  >fra«liially 
widrnt'd  I'or  llu-.///(r//l'(»Vt  tndlic.  A  llniopran  uHpoct  is  ulw»  Itfin^  slowly  imparted 
to  llic  lour  historical  nuiin  liiKliways,  which  take  their  name  from  tho  proviiU'L»« 
truverscd  hv  thcni.     These  are   the  Tokai-do   and    Nakusen-do,  eonneetiiif?  Tokio 


Fix-  'ild.— V'iKW   TAKKN   ON  Till  TuKAI-l)(>    IIlOIIWAV. 


with  Kioto,  one  by  the  coast,  tho  other  over  the  hills ;  the  Hokroku-do,  which 
follows  the  western  slope,  and  the  Tosan-do,  or  great  northern  route. 

As  regards  railways,  Japan  has  hitherto  remained  satisfied  with  setting  an 
examj)le  to  China  by  constructing  the  two  lines  from  Yedo  to  Yokohama,  and  from 
Ohusaka  to  Kioto  and  Kobe,  which  arc  quite  as  nmch  frequented  as  the  busiest 
linos  in  Europe.  But  since  the  completion  of  these  works,  little  has  been  done 
beyond  building  a  few  short  mineral  railways.     Recently,  however,  the  town  of 


K'  ■  M  Hvih.jf  i^isA  i,^  ; 


'<% 


I  'I 


MTKUATI'UK  AND  I'UHLIC  INSTUU(^TION. 


4flO 


of 


Oliot/  tiiiN  bmi  coniKMifc*!  willi  F\i(»t(),  aiul  in  Yi'ho,  Sii|»|iiiri>,  ciipifnl  nf  the  inlutKl, 
iiiiw  nijovN  Ht(>aiii  (■oiiiiiiiuiinitidii  will)  tlic  |Miit  n|'  Otaiuiiiii.  A  iK'^n'niiiii^  Iiiih 
also  Ix'cii  iiiiiilc  with  th(>  fj;rt'iit  prDJcet  of  ooiiHtnictiii^  a  triiitk  liiir  from  ih(< 
iioilhcni  to  the  Hoiitht'iii  cxtrciiiity  of  Hoiuhi,  throiijjfh  Sciiihii,  Tokio,  Nay'ova,  • 
uiiil  Kioto,  willi  hraiiihcs  raiiiifyiii)^'  to  all  the  lar^c  towns  on  tlu>  west  side  of 
the  island.  The  firnf  sirtions  to  !«'  coinph'tcd  of  this  schfint'  an<  those  rnnninj^ 
from  (Miot/  to  Tsnru;];a,  and  from  Tokio  to  Takasaki.  All  ihr  plant  of  the  nrw 
linrs  will  he  of  lot-al  production,  cxtrpt  only  the  h)Comotivi<M,  to  l)(>  snpplicd  from 
Anu'rica. 

The  prnpfross  of  the  tclcjjrajiliic  and  postal  srrviccM  has  Immmi  far  more  rapid. 
Till'  first  f('lt>^:rapliic  line  was  oponi'd  in  |M(1!>,  and  in  ISMO  the  network  comprised 
idlojjether  ahonl  7,M(MI  miles,  inclndinj;  several  snlimarine  eahles  connectinfj;  it 
thron^h  ,Shan^hai  and  Vladivostok  with  the  continental  systems.  At  the  same 
dato  the  postal  routes  had  accpiired  a  total  devehqnnent  of  ;J*),(HK)  miles.  In  tli<> 
adnnnistratiiHi  of  this  mervice,  Japan,  which  wan  one  of  the  first  jjowers  to  join  the 
Universal  Postal  Union,  is  fully  on  ti  level  with  the  leadinjif  states  of  the  West,  and 
fur  in  advanco  of  sovorul  Kuropean  countries, 

LlTEUATrUE    AXl)   Pmi-lC   IxSTRlfTION. 

The  circulation  of  newspapers  luis  increased  at  a  surprisinp;  rate.  The  first 
puhlication  (»f  this  sort  ap])(>ared  in  the  year  IWI,  and  in  1H7H  there  were  already 
ytit)  periodicals  in  Ja])anese  and  !>  in  forei}^n  lan}j;ua<i;es,  with  a  joint  circulation  of 
ahout  2!),()()t>,0()().  Duriufj;  the  same  year  0,;{17  new  works  were  puhlished  in 
1),{)()7  volumes,  so  that,  in  this  respect,  Japan  takes  the  third  place  amoiii>;st  the 
nations  of  the  world,  exceeding  even  Great  Dritain  in  the  numher  of  its  printed 
works.*  Of  late  years,  unscirupulous  Japanese  editors  have  begun  to  compote  with 
those  of  Europe,  by  issuing  counterfeit  ediliims  of  English  publications.  Nearly 
all  the  more  important  European  ^(•ientifie  works  arc  also  regularly  translated  into 
Japanese,  and  the  names  of  Darwin,  Huxley,  and  Jlerbcrt  Spenser  are  household 
words  um()ng.st  the  educated  classes  in  the  Empire  of  the  Rising  Sun. 

The  rapid  progress  of  general  literature  shows  how  earnestly  the  Jajjanese  bavo 
taken  up  tho  question  of  public  instruction.  Education  bus  been  placed  on  u 
democratic  footing,  and  all,  whatever  their  social  position,  are  now  enabled  to  study 
tho  arts  and  sciences  in  the  public  schools.  According  to  the  law,  elementary 
schools  must  bo  founded  in  the  proportion  of  one  to  every  600  souls.  Tho 
educational  machinery,  us  now  organized,  is  completed  by  secondary  and  technical 
colleges,  acudemics  of  art,  industrial  institutions,  the  university  of  Tokio,  and 
several  scientific  high  schools.  Of  these,  the  first  in  point  of  time  is  the  Nagasaki 
Sohool  of  Medicine,  opened  in  1829.  Even  the  prisons  are  transformed  to  systematic 
educational  establishments,  in  which  the  political  criminals  usually  act  as  monitors. 
One  of  tho  heaviest  items  of  the  national  expenditure  is  that  administered  by  tho 
Board  of  I'ublic  Instruction,  while,  apart  altogether  from  tho  action  of  tho  State, 

*  London  and  China  Exprest,  K.  4,  1881. 


'■^vfc-,(*^'!'.' 


470 


EAST  ASIA. 


the  Jai)unosc  people  are  distinfruished  beyond  all  others  for  their  generous  zeal  in 
llie  cause  of  education.  In  the  five  years  from  1875  to  1870  the  voluntary  con- 
tril)uti()ns  for  this  purpose  exceeded  £1,080,000,  exclusive  of  lands,  buildings,  books, 
instruments,  and  donations  of  all  sorts.  Amongst  the  numerous  associations  of 
recent  creation,  is  a  society  founded  especially  for  promoting  education,  and  which 
has  already  no  less  than  ''},000  members  in  every  part  of  the  Empire. 

Nevertheless  two-filths  of  the  boys  and  four-fifths  of  the  girls  arc  still  absent 
from  the  public  scliools.  Many  children,  however,  arc  taught  the  elements  at  home, 
and  tlie  chief  fault  hitherto  found  with  the  Japanese  educational  system  is  that  its 
courses  are  far  too  comprehensive  for  the  primary  and  secondary  schools.  Instruc- 
tion loses  in  dei^th  what  it  gains  in  extent.  The  violent  athletic  exercises  of  the 
Samurai  youth  have  also  been  indifferently  replaced  by  inadequate  gymnastic 
discipline,  much  to  the  detriment  of  the  health  of  the  pupils. 

The  number  of  foreign  teachers  invited  by  the  Japanese  Government  from 
Europe  and  America,  to  instruct  the  peoijle  in  the  arts  and  sciences  of  the  "West,  is 
diminisliing  from  year  to  year.*  The  salaries  also  have  been  gradually  reduced  to 
a  very  modest  figure,  a  circumstance  which  exijlains  the  general  substitution  of 
rjerman  for  E.iglish  and  American  professors.  Engineers  engaged  to  lay  down 
I'oads  and  railways,  or  to  build  and  work  steamships,  physicians  to  whom  the 
management  of  hospitals  had  been  intrusted,  officers  invited  to  instruct  the  native 
troojis,  jurisconsults  chosen  to  draw  up  the  laws,  financiers  arriving  in  the  hoi)o  of 
maiu'ijulating  tlie  national  funds,  were  all  reduced  by  the  gentle  but  firm  attitude 
of  their  hosts  to  the  exclusive  position  of  teachers  each  in  his  special  province. 
They  were  requested,  not  to  apply  their  talents  to  their  own  direct  advantage,  but 
to  render  themselves  gradually  useless  by  training  jjupils  destined  soon  to  rejilacc 
tliem.  In  this  way  New  Japan,  which  aspires  to  renovate  itself  by  its  own  forces, 
nas  able  rapidly  to  dispense  with  the  services  of  many  burdensome  and  indiscreet 
foreigners,  who  have  always  been  regarded  in  the  lij^ht  of  necessary  evils.  "  As 
the  eagle  is  contained  in  the  shell,  so  the  future  of  a  people  lies  within  itself," 
proudly  says  a  modern  Japanese  writer. 


V 


fi   I 


Historic  Retrospect — The  Revoi-ution. 

The  reigning  family  descends  traditionally  from  Zinmu-Tenno,  the  "Divine 
Conqueror,"  son  of  the  god  Isanami  and  great-grandson  of  the  "  Sun-Goddess." 
The  Mikado  now  occupying  the  throne  is  supposed  to  be  the  one  hundred  and 
twenty-third  emperor  bearing  the  three  divine  insignia  of  the  mirror,  sword,  and 
seal.  For  the  dynasty  of  the  Sun,  whose  emblem  is  the  chrysanthemum,  suggestive 
in  its  form  of  the  luminous  globe  encircled  by  rays,  is  said  to  have  reigned 
uninterruptedly  for  twenty-iivc  centuries  and  a  half,  in  other  words,  from  the  time 
of  Nabuchodonosor  or  of  Tullius  ITostilius.  The  first  nine  centuries,  however,  of 
this  dynasty  belong  exclusively  to  the  legendary  epoch,  and  authentic  history  dates 

•  They  numbered  705  in  1875. 


*t    ! 


HISTORIC  RETROSrECT-TIIE  REVOLUTION. 


471 


only  from  the  close  of  the  third  century  of  the  riiristian  era,  when  the  Chinese 
ideof:^riij)hic  writing  system  was  introduced. 

Previous  to  the  recent  revolution,  which  changed  the  form  of  the  governments 
the  authority  of  the  3Iikados  was  little  more  than  nominal.  Since  the  end  of  the 
twelfth  century  they  had,  so  to  say,  heen  relegated  amongst  the  gods,  and  their 
power  was  exercised  through  the  medium  of  a  Shogun,  who  had  become  the  virtual 
sovereign.  When  in  1853  the  Americans,  and  after  them  the  Russians,  pre- 
sented themselves  to  demand  the  conclusion  of  a  treaty  of  commerce  with  the 
Kingdom  of  the  Rising  Sun,  the  only  part  taken  hy  the  Mikado  in  the  deliberations 
was  to  "  address  fervent  prayers  from  morning  to  night  to  the  Kami  and  the 
ancestral  shades."  Shut  up  in  his  palace,  or  rather  his  temple,  and  a  complete 
slave  to  etiquette,  ho  was  allowed  neither  to  tread  the  ground,  expose  his  person  to 
the  oi)en  air,  nor  let  the  sun  shine  on  his  head. 

Rut  the  Shogun  himself  was  no  hmger  in  possession  of  the  supreme  authority, 
which  the  famous  Yeyas,  founder  of  Yedo,  had  bequeathed  to  his  family  at  the  end 
of  the  sixteenth  century.  Although  closely  watched  by  the  Government,  tho 
imperial  feudatories,  that  is  to  say,  the  eighteen  great  dairaios  and  the  three  hundred 
and  forty- four  lesser  daimios,  constituted  none  the  less  a  political  estate  far  more 
powerful  than  the  official  representatives  of  the  so\ereignty.  When  the  Sliogun, 
alarmed  by  the  appearance  of  tlie  American  squadron  under  Commodore  I'erry, 
found  himself  obliged  to  renounce  the  traditional  policy  of  the  Empire,  and  authorise 
foreigners  to  trade  directly  Avith  his  people  and  even  to  take  up  their  residence  on 
Japanese  soil,  such  a  radical  measure  could  not  fail  deeply  to  affect  the  opinion  of 
the  feudal  lords  and  of  the  whole  Samurai  class.  So  loud  became  the  clamour,  that 
the  first  time  for  many  centuries  outward  rumours  penetrated  into  the  sacred  en- 
closure of  the  Mikados.  At  the  instigation  of  the  nobles,  the  reigning  emperor  was 
compelled  to  intervene  and  issue  orders  to  the  Shogun.  Fierce  struggles  broke  out 
in  various  places  between  the  aristocratic  septs,  some  siding  with  the  "  King  of 
Yedo,"  others  with  the  Mikado,  othersagain  acting  still  more  independently,  and  tak- 
ing part,  now  with  one  now  with  the  other,  according  to  their  caprice  or  personal  feel- 
ings. The  league  of  the  daimios  of  Satsma,  Toza,  and  Nagato,  always  opposed  to 
the  free  admission  of  foreigners,  acquired  the  upper  hand  in  1863,  and  ordered  the 
Shogun  to  abrogate  the  treaties  of  commerce.  But  these  feudatories  had  themselves 
European  instructors  in  their  armies,  physicians  and  teachers  from  the  West  or  the 
New  World  in  their  households,  while  the  strangers  also  supplied  them  with  guns 
and  ammunition.  Accomplished  facts  could  no  longer  be  undone,  the  barriers  of 
seclusion  had  been  once  for  aU  burst  asimder,  and  the  social  revolution  henceforth 
followed  its  normal  course. 

While  steps  were  being  taken  to  call  together  the  Gak/iuyin — that  is,  the 
general  assembly  of  the  Samurai — with  a  view  to  the  settlement  of  all  urgent 
internal  and  external  matters,  a  "  cohort  of  the  heavenly  wrath  "  was  being  formed 
in  the  western  districts,  and  foreign  vessels  penetrating  into  the  Inland  Sea  were 
being  bombarded  by  the  coast  batteries.  Rut  not  only  did  the  foreigners  refuse  to 
withdraw  peacefully,  but  they  returned  with  their  fleets,  forced  the  passage  of 


i 


'Tr??^$iit>.,.r 


■'WKv^ 


■;;,it;«3,.=^4!ft,-A:Wfe>;,. 


472  EAST  ASIA. 

Siinono-soki,  and  exacted  a  war  indemnity,  followed  soon  after  by  an  extension  of 
their  privileges.  IJut  although  all  their  demands  had  to  be  granted,  the  Shogun, 
looked  upon  as  responsible  for  these  humiliations,  was  compelled  to  abdicate.  After 
n  vain  attempt  at  resistance,  he  was  deprived  of  all  his  functions,  and  the  Mikado 
re-entered  into  the  full  possession  of  the  supreme  power.  The  daimios  themselves 
petitioned  for  the  abolition  of  their  privileges,  and  one  of  them  intrigued  for  the 
honour  of  razing  his  castle  and  converting  the  site  into  arable  land.  The  feudal 
system  was  abolished,  together  with  all  class  distinctions ;  the  right  of  receiving 
instruction  was  granted  to  every  citizen ;  marriages  were  permitted  between  all 
social  ranks,  and  plebeians  [/lei-min)  were  even  admitted  to  the  administration.  The 
despised  Ufax  were  placed  on  a  footing  of  ecjuality  with  all  other  subjects,  and  the 
Samurai  were  obliged  to  lay  aside  the  two  swords  by  Avhich  they  had  hitherto  been 
distinguished  from  the  populace.  Nevertheless  the  official  census  still  recognises 
the  aristocratic  or  plebeian  origin  of  the  people.*  In  order  to  indicate  that  the 
accomplished  changes  were  irrevocable,  and  that  the  new  era  of  the  Meidzi,  or 
"  Enlightened  Law,"  was  definitely  established,  the  Mikado  removed  his  residence 
from  the  sacred  city  of  Kioto  to  the  much  larger  city  of  Yedo,  in  the  very  heart  of 
the  radical  circles  of  New  Japan.  The  last  insurrection  he  had  to  put  down  was 
that  of  the  crews  of  the  imperial  navy,  who  had  seized  Hakodate  and  set  up  an 
independent  republic  in  that  place,  on  the  model  of  the  United  States  of  North 
America. 

In  1809,  just  one  year  after  the  revolution  had  swept  away  all  the  rival  powers 
of  the  imperial  authority,  the  Mikado  himself  paid  homage  to  the  hitherto  unheard- 
of  power  of  public  opinion.  In  language  that  had  never  yet  been  uttered  in  Japan, 
he  solemnly  promised  in  presence  of  his  ministers  that  a  deliberative  assembly 
should  be  summoned  to  discuss  the  organic  laws,  that  justice  for  all  alike  would 
henceforth  be  his  guiding  principle,  and  that  he  would  on  all  occasions  have  recourse 
to  men  of  sterling  worth  and  intelligence.  These  promises,  sworn  "  in  the  name  of 
the  ancestral  shades,"  have  not  yet  been  entirely  fulfilled,  and  Japan  still  awaits  the 
convocation  of  its  constituent  assembly.  The  envoys  sent  to  Europe,  in  order  to 
study  the  popular  forms  of  government,  reported  in  favour  of  the  system  calculated 
to  insiu'e  for  themselves  the  greatest  amount  of  personal  influence,  and  the  State 
has  consequently  reserved  its  absolute  forms.  The  press,  not  even  excepting  that 
conducted  by  foreigners,  is  regulated  by  extremely  severe  laws,  which  have  been 
aggravated  since  1878,  and  which  permit  the  approval  but  not  the  free  discussion 
of  imperial  measures.  Public  meetings  are  not  authorised,  and  the  continual  watch- 
fulness of  the  " head  of  the  xillage,"  combined  with  an  organised  system  of 
espionage,  still  renuiins  the  chief  instrument  of  government. 

•  Japanese  nobles  in  1875  ; — 

The  Mikado's  Family        ....  31  persons. 

Kiipjho  and  Daimios 2,829       „ 

8aimirai 1,")84,.568       „ 

Sotsii  Samurai ;m;!,881       „ 

Jisi  Samurai 3,330       „ 


ADMINISTRATION. 


473 


of 


Admixistratiox. 

The  only  representative  institution  is  that  of  the  provinciiil  assoniblica,  which 
bears  some  analogy  to  the  Russian  Zcimtvo,  on  which  it  has  been  modelled.  But 
the  electors  must  belong  to  the  proprietary  classes,  and  pay  at  least  twenty  shillings 
of  taxes,  None  are  eligible  unless  they  pay  forty  shillings,  and  have  resided  for 
three  years  in  the  district.  The  deliberations  of  the  assemblies  thus  elected  are 
limited  to  the  discussion  of  the  taxes  and  local  expenditure,  and  the  session  is 
limited  to  one  month  in  the  year. 

The  ministerial  department  is  modelled  on  that  of  European  constitutional 
governments.  The  supreme  council  is  presided  over  by  a  Prime  Minister,  assisted 
by  a  Vice-President,  and  comprises  the  secretaries  of  all  the  chief  administrative 
branches — Interior,  Foreign  Office,  Finance,  War,  Navy,  Education,  Board  of 
Works,  Justice,  Imperial  Household,  to  which  has  recently  boon  added  a  Board  of 
Trade  and  Agriculture.  Below  the  Ministerial  Council  is  the  legislative  body, 
which  prepares  the  laws  under  the  presidency  of  a  prince  of  the  blood,  and  submits  its 
labours  to  the  ministers  without  further  right  of  intervention.  On  some  special 
occasions  the  Government  also  summons  an  assembly  of  the  provincial  functionaries, 
to  consult  them  on  the  question  of  imposts.  But  over  the  deliberations  of  this 
body  the  prefect  exercises  a  power  of  veto. 

In  this  country,  where  the  communes  enjoy  merely  a  fictitious  autonomy, 
although  the  mayors  are  elected  by  the  heads  of  families,  the  administrative 
hierarchy  comprises  altogether  seventeen  ranks,  divided  into  the  three  categories  of 
the  Shoknin,  Sonin,  and  Ilannin,  Till  recently  the  Church  was  connected  with  the 
State  by  means  of  a  public  grant,  which  in  the  year  1879  amounted  to  £27,000  for 
the  "  temples  of  the  gods."  But  the  expenses  of  public  worship  are  now  left 
entirely  to  the  devotion  of  the  faithful.  The  "  Colonies,"  that  is,  the  outlying 
dependencies  of  Yeso  and  the  Kurile  Islands,  were  hitherto  administered  by  a  special 
department ;  but  this  so-called  Kaitakuzi,  or  colonial  department,  has  now  been 
replaced  by  a  company,  which  is  virtually  invested  with  a  commercial  monopoly. 

The  ancient  laws  of  Japan,  modelled  on  the  Chinese  jurisprudence  of  the  Ming 
and  Tsing  dynasties,  and  on  the  decrees  or  "  Hundred  I^aws  "  of  Yeyas,  have  been 
codified  since  the  revolution  of  1868.  But  while  their  severity  has  been  greatly 
mitigated,  certain  actions,  formerly  regarded  as  indifferent,  are  now  subject  to 
penalties.  Thus  the  head  of  the  family  has  been  deprived  of  the  absolute  power  he 
heretofore  enjoyed  over  his  children,  and  the  formerly  widespread  practice  of  sell- 
ing his  female  issue  can  no  longer  be  exercised  with  impunity.  Woman  also, 
whom  the  ancient  jurisprudence  regarded  as  destitute  of  all  rights  except  when 
defended  by  her  husband  or  father,  has  also  now  acquired  a  legal  status  as  a  respon- 
sible human  being.  The  pillory  as  well  as  torture  has  been  abolished,  although 
according  to  the  accounts  of  foreigners  the  latter  is  still  practised  under  the 
relatively  mild  form  of  the  lash.  Murderers,  rebels,  highwaymen,  and  dealers  in 
opium  are  liable  to  capital  punishment  by  hanging  or  beheading,  although  the 
courts  have  seldom  occasion  to  inflict  this  sentence.  Compared  with  the  prisons  of 
G3 


* 


y-^%1 


ja^ 


474 


EAST  ASIA. 


the  W(>st,  those  of  Japan  arc  almost  pnipty.  In  1(S7<'J  they  contained  alto{»ether 
only  (i,4()o  criminals,  amongst  wliom  there  were  less  than  500  women,  a  proportion 
relatively  ten  times  less  than  in  European  countries. 

Some  French  jurisconsults,  invited  to  Japan  in  order  to  study  and  recast  the 
national  laws,  prejiared  a  civil  and  penal  code,  which  the  Japanese  Government 
published  in  18S0  as  the  laws  of  the  iState.  ]iut  it  is  to  bo  feared  that  several  of 
these  innovations  may  have  a  tendency  to  disturb  the  sense  of  justice  in  the  minds 
of  the  i)eople,  many  acts,  such  as  tattooing  and  bathing  in  public,  hitherto  regarded 
by  them  as  perfectly  harmless,  being  nov/  treated  as  criminal.  The  chief  object 
aimed  at  by  the  Government  in  changing  its  jurisprudence  is  to  offer  such  pledges 
to  the  foreign  powers  as  may  induce  them  to  renounce  their  privilege  of  exterritorial 


i    i 


Fig.  216. — The  I'ili.okv  in  Japan  ukfuke  thk  Uevolution. 


11'/,  i 


.;---.,— ^i- 


-■ .  «>'■•■'' — 


^Cii'. 


jurisdiction,  and  allow  their  subjects  to  become  amenable  to  the  local  authorities. 
At  present  all  foreigners  in  Japan  depend  exclusively  on  their  ambassadors  and 
consuls.  But  they  are  strictly  forbidden  to  meddle  with  the  politics  of  the  country, 
or  even  to  publish  Japanese  periodicals  under  jiain  of  imprisonment,  fines,  or  hard 
labour,  inflicted  by  the  consular  courts. 

For  judicial  purposes  Japan  is  divided  into  four  circumscriptions,  with  courts  of 
appeal  at  Tokio,  Sendai,  Oliosaka,  and  Nagasaki,  respectively. 

With  the  exception  of  a  hospital  founded  by  the  Dutch  physicians  at  Nagasaki, 
Japan  possessed  no  public  establishments  for  the  treatment  of  disease  previous  to 
the  revolutionary  ejroch.  lUit  with  its  usual  zeal  for  imitating  European  institu- 
tions, the  country  has  begun  to  found  hospitals  in  many  places.     At  the  end  of  the 


|iatW,.M'    K'l 


?-*-fti-S< 


riNANCE-  MINT— AEMY  AND  NAVY. 


475 


year  1878  there  wore  ultogcther  as  iiuuiy  us  109,  of  which  35  had  boon  cntiivlv 
built  by  means  of  voluntary  contributions.  As  in  most  European  states,  vaccination 
has  become  obligatory. 


of 


Finance — Mint— Army  axd  Navy. 

The  finances  of  the  Empire  are  not  in  a  very  flouri.shing  state.  Being  anxious 
to  stand  on  a  footing  of  equality  with  the  European  nations,  whose  systeujs  of  credit 
it  was  studying,  Japan  has  not  been  able  to  resist  the  temptation  of  creating  u 

Fig.  217. — Adminwtkative  Divisions  op  Jafan. 

Scale  1  :  16,000,OUO. 


I  SOOHflea. 


The  nnmben  inaoribed  on  this  mnp  correspond  to  thoae  of  the  tables. 

public  debt.  Including  paper  money,*  its  liabilities  amount  altogether  to  upwards 
of  £72,000,000,  of  which  no  more  than  £2,400,000  are  due  to  foreign  banks.  The 
pensions  of  the  nobles  and  the  redemption  of  their  privileges  represent  over 
£40,000,000  of  the  whole  debt,  the  annual  interest  on  which  now  amounts  to 
£3,200,000.       Fully  two-thirds  of  the  national  income  arc  derived  from  the 

land  tax. 

Being  protected  by  the  sea,  Japan  could  scarcely  stand  in  need  of  a  standing 
anny.     But  during  the  critical  times  following  the  revolution,  the  new  government 

•  Paper  money  circulating  in  1881,  Je22,600,000. 


^■^a^:Jf:tni:^S*]*S^i5«;3Jc4«i?5iSE?«-sSr7e;C- 


tl'^ 


476 


EAST  ASIA. 


I.  i 


,1 


li 


rcquiml  to  be  protected  from  the  possible  insurrections  of  the  old  military  caste  of 
the  Samurui,  henceforth  deprived  of  its  privileges,  und  only  gradually  transformed 
to  a  class  of  public  functionaries  or  police  agents.  An  army  is  now  being  con- 
stituted on  the  basis  of  conscription,  drilled,  equipped,  and  organised  by  French 
officers  on  the  European  model.  The  service,  which  is  obligatory  in  principle  for 
all  Japanese  subjects,  except  the  Ainos  and  inhabitants  of  the  Liu-kiu  Archipelago, 
lasts  for  three  years  in  the  active  forces,  and  three  in  the  reserve.  The  territorial 
army  with  its  reserve  further  comprises  all  male  adults  between  their  twenty-third 
and  fortieth  yoar  not  in  active  service.  The  peace  footing  amounts  altogether  to 
35,000  men  of  all  arms,  raised  in  time  of  war  to  50,000  exclusive  of  the  reserve. 
These  forces  suffice  not  only  to  maintaui  peace  within  the  Empire,  but  to  defy  China 
and  Korea,  and  even  to  resist  Russia.  It  is  even  to  be  feared  that,  confident  of  her 
strength,  Japan  may  be  induced  to  adopt  an  aggressive  policy  against  her  weaker 
neighbours.  Hitherto,  however,  the  national  forces  have  only  been  called  upon  to 
undertake  one  foreign  expedition  to  the  island  of  Formosa,  on  which  occasion  they 
distinguished  themselves  by  their  perfect  discipline.  But  in  the  year  1877  they 
had  to  repress  the  terrible  Satsma  rebellion,  which  cost  them  over  30,000  men 
killed  and  wounded. 

The  Empire  is  divided  into  six  military  circumscriptions,  Tokio,  Sendai,  Nagoya, 
Ohosaka,  Iliro-sima,  and  Kmamoto.  Two  military  schools  have  been  founded  at 
Tokio,  and  the  two  chief  arsenals  are  those  of  Tokio  and  Ohosaka. 

The  Japanese  navy,  which  has  been  organised  under  the  direction  of  English 
officers  and  engineers,  consists  exclusively  of  steamships,  including  several  iron- 
clads. In  1879  it  comprised  altogether  29  vessels,  mounting  149  guns  and  manned 
by  4,240  sailors  and  marines.  The  chief  dockyard  is  that  of  Yokoska,  near  Tokio, 
and  the  whole  archipelago  is  divided  into  the  two  maritime  uistricts  of  Tokai,  or 
the  "  Eastern  Sea-board,"  and  Saikai,  or  the  "  Western  Sea-board." 

The  ancient  political  divisions  of  Japan,  still  familiar  in  the  mouths  of  the 
people,  are  those  of  the  four  Do,  or  main  highways.  But  in  order  to  break  with 
the  national  traditions,  the  old  provinces  have  been  replaced  by  Ken,  or  departments, 
which  are  again  subdivided  into  Kohori,  or  districts.  Formerly  the  province  of 
Kinai  constituted  the  personal  domain  of  the  Mikado,  to  whom  its  revectues  were 
specially  assigned. 

A  complete  list  of  the  administrative  departments  will  be  found  in  the 
statistical  tables. 


I 


a. 


wtrn,  t-ai *min  ■  '^  u^^fg^y  !"*WiW-'' 


STATISTICAL     TABLES. 


CHINESE   EMPIRE. 


Aran  in  sq.     Estimated  popu 


China  proper 

Korea 

Manchuria 

Mongolia 

Tibft 

Kukii-nor  and  TeaMam 

Kasligariu 

Zunjifuria 

Kulja 

Total 


Provinces. 
PeohiliT    .     . 

Shantung  .     . 

Shansi  .    .  . 

Ilonan .     .  . 

Kiang-BU   .  . 
Ifganwhei 

Eiang-si    .  . 

Fokien .     .     . 

Che-kiang 

Hnpeh .     .     . 

Hunan  .  .  . 

Shen-si  .  . 

Kan-su .  .  . 

Scchuen  .  . 

Kwangtiing   . 


miles. 

l.S.iG.OOO 
116,000 
380,000 

1,350,000 
650,000 
120,000 
260,000 
120,000 
26,000 


lation,  18H0. 

350,000,000 

K,000,000 

12.000,000 

4.000,000 

0,000,000 

150,000 

1,000,000 

300,000 

150,000 


Estimate  of  tub  Popuj.atiox  of  the  Chinehe 
Empire  accokdinq  to  IUces. 


4,667,000         381,600,000 

CHINA  PEOPER 


Area  in  square 
miles. 

67,260 

53,762 

65,949 
66,913 
40,138 
63,980 
68,875 

46,747 

36,659 

69,459 

83,200 

81,192 

269,620 

184,997 

90,219 


Chinoso  Proper 

Si-fan,  Man-t/e,  Mino-tze,  Lolo     . 

Koreans 

Manchus  .... 

Tibetans         

Mongoliarii! 

Tani{uts,  Sok-pa,  and  Hor-pa 
Kashgariana  ..... 

Kirghiz 

Tarouchi,  DunganM,SoIon8,andSil)os 
Europeans  and  Sundries 

Total 


335,000,000 

20,000,000 

8,000,000 

8,000,000 

5,500,000 

4,000,000 

250,000 

750,000 

30,00'» 

60,000 

10.000 


381,600,000 


Pop.  1842. 


36,879,838 

29,529,877 

17,056,925 
29,039,771 
39,646,924 
36,596,983 
26,513,889 

22,799,656 

8,100,000 

28,684,564 

20,048,7fi9 
10,309,769 
19,612,716 
36,000,000 

20,152,603 


Cliiif  Prefectures  ( Ku  > , 


bhuntien  (Peking) ;  Paoting;  Shunte;  Hokiiin  ;  Kwan- 
ping;  Siwanhoa;  Taiming;  Tientsin;  Chingte; 
Chingting ;  Yungpina. 
Tslnan  ;  Liiichew  ;  Uting  ;  Taingan  ;  Tengchew  ; 
Tungchang  ;  Tsaochew  ;  Tsinchew  ;  Yenchow  ; 
Yichew. 
Taiyuan;    Fonchew;    Lungan;    Ningwu ;    Pingyang ; 

Puchew ;  Soping ;  Tatung  ;  Tsecliew. 
Changte;    Chin^chew;    Kaifung;    Honan ;    Hoaiking; 

Juning;  Kweite ;  Nanyang;  Weihwi. 
Nanking;    Hoaingan ;    Sungkiang;    Suchew ;    Chang- 
chew  ;  Chingkiang ;  Yimgchow. 
Nganking;  Fengyang;  Hw'eichew;  Luchew;  Ningkwo; 

Taiping;  Chichew;  Yingchew. 
Niuichang;  Fuchew;  YHOohew;   Swichew ;   Kanchew; 
Kienchang;    Kingan;    Kiukiang;    Kwangsin ;    Liu- 
kiang;  Nangan ;  Nank'ang;  Yuenchew. 
Iniehew;      Chaowu ;      Hinghoa ;     Kienning;     Taipe; 
laiwan;      Changchew ;      Tswanchew ;      Tingchew; 
iongping. 
Hiingchow;    Shaohing;    Huchew  ;    Kihaing ;    Kinhoa  ; 
Kuchew;  Ningpo;  Wenchew  ;   Taichew;  Chuchew  ; 
Ion  chew. 
Wu.hang;    Hanyang;    Shinan ;    Hoangchew ;    Hing- 
yang;     Nganlu;     Chingchew ;     Tengan ;      Ichanj?; 
Yunyang. 
Changsha;  Hengchew;  Packing;  Chnngte;  Cheiichtw; 

Yochew;  Yuanchew;  Yungchew;  Yungshan. 
Singan;    Fenghiang;    Hanchung;    Hiiigan ;     Yulin; 

I'ungchew;  Yengan. 
Unchew;  Kanchew;  Kingyang;    Kungchang;  Liang- 
chew  ;  Ninghia ;  Pitiffliang ;  Sining. 
(hingtu;   Shunking;    Kiating ;    Kweiohew ;    Lungan; 
Ningyuen;     Paoning;    Switing;    Suchew;     Chung- 
Cheng;  Tungchwen;  Yachew. 
Canton;    Shaochew;    Hwiohew;    Kaochew;    Liechew; 
Lienchow;  Chaohing;  Shuochew ;  Kuingchew. 


..,.„..i_ 


478 

r~~;         ■         Area  in  aqusra 

I'rovincei.  mUe«. 

KwiiiigBi  ."".I  81,'200 


STATISTICAL  TABLES. 
CHINA  PUnrER-(co»^MMcrf)- 


122,624 


64,654 


14,600 
16,000 


T„Ui\  of  (;hitm  .  J  1  554014 
I'riipcr     .        !  ) 


Yunnan 


Kwoichow 


Hitinnn  IhIiuiiI    . 
ForinoKii  IhIiiihI  . 


Pop.  1842. 


8,121,a27 
5,823,670 
6,079,128 


2,000,000 
2,600,000 

404,940,614 


Chief  rrefeoture*  (Fu). 
Kwcilin  ;    Kinn>  imn  ;    LiuehowT  Niinninu;; /Wurhcw  ; 
Pinglo;  SochoriB;  Sutichow ;  Swon;  Imping;  th»m- 

Yunnan;    Shunning;    Kiiihoa ;  KnitHing;  Kwai.gniin  ; 

Likiiing;  Lingiin ;    I'uol;    TiiH ;    Chiiotung;   (Jung- 

kiung;  Chu'liiung;  Tunnchwan  ;  Yiingchiing. 
Kwfiviing;    Shikieii ;    llintryi ;     Lii-ing;     Nic«nshun ; 

Smhow  ;    Hunan;    Tilling;    Clienyuun  ;    lungjun  ; 

Tuyun  ;  Tsunyi. 


Okkicial  Retuhnh  oi 


1711 
1763 
1792 


Pechili.  < 


Shantung. 


Shan-bi. 

8llES-BI. 
KaN-8U. 

Sechuen. 

IIUPEH, 

Hlnan 
noanwiiei 


Tientsin 
Poking  . 
Kalgan  . 
Pftoting 
Tungc)icw 
8iwiin-lioii     . 
Pfitang 
"^Chingting      . 
Woi-hicn 
Tongchow-fu 
Tflinan-fu 
Cho-fu   . 
Tsingchcw     . 
Yonchow-fu  . 
Kiaochow 
Ltviyang-fu    . 
Taingan-fu    . 
Poshan  . 
Kinfao  . 
.Tsimi    . 

Tiayuan-fu    . 

Yucnching    . 

Tungkwan    . 

Pingyao-hien 

Chi-hien 

Hiowkao 

Pingilingchcw 
~  Pingyang-fu . 
(  Singan-fu 
X  Hanchungfu 
j-Lanchcw-fu  . 
I  Tsingchew    . 
Sining-fu 
Pingliang-f  u . 
Kunchew 
Chingtu-fu    . 
j  Chungchong-fu 

I  Suchew-fu     . 

I  Batang  . 

[•  Hankow,    ■with 
j      chang,    and 

\     yang 
Ichang  . 

(  Siangtan-fu  . 

I  Changcha 

(  Wuhu  . 

\  Nganking      . 


THK    PorULATlON 
2«,(i06,000 

io;»,o6o,ooo 

307,467,000 

CuiEi-  Towns  ok 
,     020,000  I 
,     500,000  I 
.     200,000 
.     160,000 
.     100,000 
.       90,000 
20,000 
10,000 
.     260,000 
.     230,000 
.     200,000 
.     120,000 
.       70,000 
.       60,000 
.       60,000 
.       60,000 
.       46,000 
.       36,000 
.       26,000 
18,000 
.     260,000 
.       90,000 
.       70,000 
.       60,000 
30,000 
.       22,000 
20,000 
.       16,000 
.  1,000,000 
.       80,000 
.     500,000 
.     160,000 
60,000 
.       60,000 
.       60,000 
.     800,000 
.     700,000 
.     300,000 
3.000 


OK  China  PuorBU  at  Vauioi  » 
1812  .  .  .  . 
1842  .  .  .  • 
1880         .         .         . 


Datrh. 
302,447,000 
406,000,000 
350,000,000 


KlANO-si.    I 


Che-Kuno. 


Wu- 
llan- 


1,500,000 

30,000 

1,000,000 

300,000 

92,000 

40,000 


China  Puoper. 

(Shanghai 
Suchow 
Yangchew 
Chingkiang 
Nanking 
llukow  . 
Kiukiang 
Hangchow-fu 
Shaohing 
Lanki     . 
Wcnchow 
Ningpo . 
Huchow 
Yuyao  . 
Tsekye  . 
Kiuchow 
VTinghai 
/  Fuchuw-f u 
Changchow 
Liangkiang 
Yungping 
Tsongan 
Amoy    . 
\  Nganhai 
Wuchow 
Canton  . 
Fachan  . 
Shuiing 
Tu.igkung 
ShihVing 
Swatow . 
Sainan  . 
Pakhoi  . 
Lienchow 
/  Yunnan-fu 
I  Chaotung 
'  Tali-fu  . 
Kiungchow 
Lohui    . 
Tingan  . 
Iloi-how 
Taiwan-fu 
Tamshui 
Chang-hoa 

ISinchew 
Mengka 
Tangkang 
Kelung. 


FOKIEN.    ( 


KWANO-SI. 


KWANOTUNO. 


Ycnnan. 


Hainan 


FOBMOSA. 


600,000 
600,000 
360,000 
170,000 
130,000 
300,000 
50,000 
800,000 
500,000 
200,000 
170,000 
160,000 
100,000 
66,000 
00,000 
50,000 
36,000 
600,000 
600,000 
260,000 
200,000 
100,000 
88,000 
00,000 
,     200,000 
,  1,500,000 
,     600,000 
.     200,000 
.     120,000 
.     100,000 
,       28,000 
.       20,000 
.       16,000 
.       12,000 
50,000 
,       50,000 
.       23,000 
.     200,000 
.       80,000 
.       60,000 
.       10,000 
.       70,000 
.       05,000 
.       60,000 
.       40,000 
.       40,000 
.       10,000 
8,000 


r--wriWE»^«^"--«S»'^^*»?**'' 


^s^^^^g3:f<^C^^^fSB0tll^^^'iit:^i^i^ 


'■•^■^i^^WM'^ 


STATISTICAL  TABLES 


479 


NrMnFU   op   ClIINERF.   HRTTLFD    AnHOAP. 

1  ,  vim  Miitichiiriii  (1800)         .         .  10,5H0 

Jaiiunt'8(>  I'',in|)iri' (IH71>)     ....  U.O'.'H 

I'liiti'd  Stiit.H(lssi)          ....  105,72") 

llritixh  North  America      ....  12,8.50 

I'.m,  liriizil,  Cuba li),),000 

(liiiiina,  WrHt  huliiu          ....  lO.oOO 

Kamlwich  MandH  (IHSl)    ....  U,.")00 

Oth  r  PaciHc  InlaiulH          ....  20,000 

HritiHh  Iiiilia,  Mauritius,  South  Africa       .  19,000 

AuHtralia(lHHO) 4»,220 

I'hilii.piii'H 2.-)0,000 

Dutch  EaHt  Inlics 325,085 

Malacca  and  StraitH  Settlements        .         .  170,000 

Anmim,  French  Cochin  China  (1880)          .  152,200 

Siam,  Cambojtt,  Burma     ....  1,020,000 

FoKEifix  Resident*  in  China. 

English  Commercial  Houses  220  Residents  2,070 

American        „              „         31  ..  401) 

(lerman           „              ,,         04  ,.  384 

French            „              „         20  „  228 

Kussian           „               „          1'"'  ..  70 

Japanese         „               „            2  „  01 

Yield  op  the  Chinese  Coal  Mines  (1878V 
Shan-»i 1,700,000  tons. 


Traiib  op  Tie\t-«in  (1879). 
Imparls  :  £r.,!>0(),(l()0  ;  exports  :  £170,000. 
Kussian  transit  trade,  i  1,080,000. 

/IJritisli  ....  194,580  tons. 

„..     .       Chinese  .         .         20;),!I50     .. 

'         lAmtincan       .  .  i<),ii->    „ 

\SundrioB        .  .  37,950    „ 

Trade  of  Chn-fii  (1879):   £4,200,000. 

Sliippinjj        „  1,370  ve8M;lg  of  804,000  tons. 


FOUEION  TUADK   OP   I-CUANO. 


1878 

l«,so 


£20,000 
ooo.ono 


Hunan 
Shantung     . 
IVchili 
Other  Provinces 


Total 


Silk  exported  (1870)  . 
Tea  „  (1878)  . 
Opium  imported  (1879) 
Cottons      „  „ 

Linens  ., 

Metals       „  „ 


000,000  „ 

200,000  ., 

150,000  ,, 

350^00  „ 

3,000,000  ., 

£9,.';00,000 
9,355,000 

11,000,000 
7,600,000 
1,486,000 
1,237,000 


Total  Foheion  Tkadb, 
Imports. 
1844  .         .         .       £5,400,000 

18.55  .         .         .        11,465,000 

1879  .  .       24,068,000 

British  exchanges  with  China  (1879) 

Average  trade  with  British  Empire  : — 92  percent. 
of  all  the  imports;  74  per  cent,  of  all  the  exports. 


Exports. 
£2,900,000 
15,344,000 
20,500,000 

£36,000,000 


TiiAui  OP  Hankow. 

Tea  shipped  nt  Hankow  (1880) :   111,000,000  lbs. ; 
vhIuo  £4,200,000. 

Brick  tea  prepared  at  Hankow   for  the  Russian 
market  (1880),  20,300,000  lbs. 

Shipping  of  Hankow  (1879) : — 

1,320  vessels  of  733,835  tons,  of  which 
British       474         „         40.',90'>     „ 
Chinese      058        „        302,000      „ 

Total  cxchnngos  of  Hankow  ;— 

1878 £9,204,000 

1879 11,300,000 

Foreign  trade  of  Wuhu  (1879)  :  £1,100,000. 
TuADB  OP  Siianohai  (1879). 
Importa.  Kxports 

£19,034,000  £17,423,000 

Tea  oxpoited  from  Shanghai  (1879)  :— 
To  England        .         .     38,593,.')C0  lbs. 
United  States         .     20,830,000 
Russia  .         .         .       1,772,000 

Silk  exported  from  Shanghai  (1879)  :— 

To  England     .         .         .     20,240  bales. 
Franco       .         •         .     16,172 
America     .         .         .       6,390 
India         .         .         •      2,075 
Switzerland        .         .       1,038 


Shipping  Retuilvs  (1880). 

Veraela.  Tonnage. 

British          .        .         .         12,397  9,000,156 

Chinese        .         .         •          6,335  4,699,255 

German        .         .         •          1,501  632,044 

America       .         .                    1,070  287,369 

French         ...             128  150,207 

Japanese       .         .         .             128  138,000 

Sundries       ...              709  162,000 

Gitoss  FouEiON  Tbabe  or  the  19  Chinese  Treaty 
Pouts. 


Shipping  of  Shanohai  (1879). 
Vessels. 
British 
Chinese     . 
Japanese   . 
French 
American  . 
German     . 

Total  with  Sundries 


1,974 

1,.581 

157 

62 

271 

192 


4,37i) 


Tuns. 

1,309,505 

1,078,588 

138,208 

121,731 

93,884 

90,049 

3;002;6S2 


Trade  of  Wencbew  (1880) 
Shipping        ,,  ,, 


£122,000 
19,780  tons. 


Tuadb  of  Fuchew  (1879). 


Imports. 
£1,741,000 


Exports. 
£3,200,000 


1870 
1880 


£35,250 
46,278,000 


Shipping      .        .         .     677  vessels  of  418,083  tons. 
Of  which  British  .    433        „         345,569    „ 

Tea  export(  d  (1879),  92,000,000  lbs. 


! 


»SW*f;ife-, -Si3&MSa^HSeS«*li!Si!st«'S  V^'iJ^ 


,:iSH^ 


480 


aTATISTICAL  TAHLl'^S. 


Tkaiik  op  Amiiy  (IH'O). 

IiMiHirtK.  KxixirtK. 

t2,,S.-.II.O()0  £  I, M  10,000 

8uKar  .•xix.rto.l  (IH80),  IH.OOO  toiiH. 

Wiii>i>iti;r(lt*70)         .     1..-.I0  v.-HnrUof  HIl'J.OOOtonB. 

Uf  which  lliitish         .      1.000  „  T'JO.OOO     „ 

Kiiiii?iiiiiti  fniin  Amoy  (1H7U).  '20,.'il2 

ImmiKriiiitrt  to        ,i  ».       20,007 

TlUllE  Ol'  SWATOW  (IH70). 

Kx(h;iiiK<''<.  t.'>,lK-2.<'""- 
ShippiiiK',  ■»r)0,2.'iO  toiiH. 

'I'llADK    OF    ('ANTON  (1H70). 

ImpcirtH.  KxpciitH. 

£2,r)()0,000  Xl,»')2,000 

Of  which  UriliHh  iiboiit  fl')  por  ctut. 

SlIUM'INO   OP  WllAMl'OA  (1870). 

V('lt«'ln. 

Uritinh,  l,l.')!l 
Total      1,H'J2 


ToiiiiiiR''. 
1,4.')1,7.'>0 


.     1,004,000 
TuADB  OK  I'AKiioi  (1880),  .£;170,000. 

TllADK    OF   KlUNdCllEW  (IIaINAn). 

Imports  (1S7U).  Kxp(irtii(lB7!l). 

£1-82.000  £188,000 

ShipiniiB  (1880),  212,724  tons. 

TiiADB  OP  Taiwan,  Foumoha  (1870). 

Imports.  ExportH. 

£493,000  £.-)80,000 

ShipiiiiiR,  104,37.')  tons. 

TuADE  OP  Tamshii,  Foumosa  (1880),  £1,074,000, 
Sliipping  (187'J),  294  vessels  of  88,828  tons. 

Toa  exportod  (1880),  14,025,000  tons.  | 

Siiii-J-iNo  OK  Ho.No  KoNo  (187'J),  4,000,000  tons.     | 

Trade  op  Macao  (1878),  £.-)00,000.  | 

Tua  oxiHirtfJ  (1878),  £2.52.000. 
Receipts  from  the    lottorios   and  gamblin^'-houses, 
£81,000. 

Imi'ekiai.  BunoET  op  China  (1876). 

Land  tax £.i,0  (0,000 

Orain  and  foddor  tax       ....     4,100,000 
Likin,  or  local  charges  on  merchandise    .     0,200.000 

Foroi^n  customs 4,090,000 

Salt  tax 1,564,000 

Sale  of  public  offices,  &c.          ...     2,180,000 
Sundries 438.00P 

Total  Revenue     .         £24,862,000 

Public  Debt  (1878),  £2,232,000. 

AnMY. 


Ciiipp  Towns, 


Tt^ismi 

HhiBa-tzo  and  Tiishi-lumpo  . 
Chetnnn  .... 
dyan/i'  .... 

C'hoim-jonK  .  .  .  ■ 
Kironf;  .... 
Bhakiii-joii^' .         .         .         ■ 

Trade  op  Tibet  with  India  (1879). 
Exports  to  India  .         .         .     £150,000 

Imports  from  India  ....  14,000 

Annuiil  import  of  brick  tcu  from  China,  £350,000. 

KASIUIAUIA,  OK  CHINESE  TrUKKSTAN. 


Katlmnlfd 
I'Mpiiliitlim  • 
.      15,000 

.      14,001) 

.      13,000 

.     fi.OOO 

0,000 

4,000 

3,000 


Manchn  Regulars 
Chinese  Militia,  &c. 


.     270,000 
.     800,000 

Total         .  1,070,000 


Tibet  Proper 
Kuku-Nor  and  Twiidam 


TIBET. 

Area  in 
square  miles. 

.     6.iO,000 

120,000 


Estimated 

population. 

6,000,000 

150,000 


Area  in  nqiiiiro  miles. 
250,000 


Population. 
1,000,000 


Chief  Towns. 


Yarkan 
K  ash  gar 
Khotan  . 
.'^anju 
Aksu 
Kiria 

Yangi-hissar  . 
Yargalik 
Korla     . 


MONGOLIA. 

Area  in 
square  miles. 


Outer  Mongolia  \  1^350,000 
Inner  Mongolia  ' 


60,000 
50,000 
40,000 
35,000 
20,000 
15,000 
10,000 
10,000 
6,000 


Estimated 

Popiilation. 

^  2,000,000 

(  2,000,000 


North 

MuNOOLIA. 


Mongolian 
Kansc. 

Socrii 

MoNOOLIA. 

Attached  to 
811AN-SI. 
Inner 

MoNOOLIA. 

Attached  to 
Pechili. 


Chief  Towns. 

I'rga          ....  30,000 

Kobdo       ....  3,000 

Uliasutai   ....  3,000 

Khailur     ....  3,000 

Kerulen     ....  1.600 

/  Urumchi   ....  15,000 

Turfan      ....  10.000 

I  Ilami         ....  6,000 

I   Kuku-khoto        (Kweihutt- 

)       Cheng)  ....  30,000 

I  Dolon  nor  (Lama-miao)     .  30,000 

r  Jehol  (Chingte-fu)     .         .  40,000 

'   Paku  (Pingchwen-hien)     .  20,000 

\  Ilada  (Chifeng-hien)          .  10,000 


Zungaria   . 
Kulja 


ZUNGARIA  AND  KUUA. 

Area  in  wjunre  miles.     rqP»l"_'i°"' 


120,000 
26,000 


Chief  Towns. 

Old  Kulja 

Suidum  .         .         •         ■ 

Chuguchak 

Manas    .         .         .         • 

Shikho    .... 

Bulun-Tokhoi 

Tultu      .... 

Karkara-DR  u . 

Exclusive  of  lamas  ond  Chiutse  gmiison  troops. 


300,000 
150,000 

15,000 
4,000 
4,000 
3,000 
2,600 
1,700 
1,700 
1..500  (?) 


j-.f-,-.?'-"'^,?^^^ 


^«<4S^Sa4.*-ai  ^ 


J 


STATISTICAri  TAHLllM. 


481 


MANniirinA. 

Area  in  w]iMre  mllcn. 

I'liptilntiiin. 

3HU,0UU 

12,000,000 

ClIIKF  ' 

['l)WN> 

, 

Mlirin  . 

,         , 

I'O.OOO 

NiiiKutik 

(10,000 

I'rovinoo  of  |  '['"'t'''**"''        • 

30,000 

Aiiheho 

, 

40,000 

'I«U.klmr.  1  j,,;;^^,, 

10,000 

r),ooo 

I'lloVtNrK    1 

KiiiyiU!!) 
II01I1111H  ' 

(I'itimu) 

'         ' 

3r»,«oo 

30,000 

/  ^liik(li)n  . 
I'roviiK'H  of  '  Yiinf-t/ii  . 

180,000 

.11-   (J 

IKIN. 

SwunKchftTiK 

30,000 

.  '        40,000 

SitiHfriiiiitiin 

, 

30,000 

Jiiuotuiig;.     'l  'riikiiHhiin 
[  Fiikii-min 

M.'i.OOO 

Tii'iichwann-tui 

,         , 

L'.'l.OOO 

IJ.OOO 

liKlin  . 

,         , 

'.'0,000 

'i'i'ling 

,         . 

20,000 

^  Sansinff 

• 

16,000 

KOREA. 

Area  In  tqnarn  tnllen. 

I'ltimntoil  popuhtion 

116,000 

8,000,00;i 

Trovlneei. 

So.  nf  HouMi. 

Chief  Towni. 

No.  of  niitrioti. 

ricnjftan-to 

•230,400 

I'i(^n(fyiinn' 

42 

lliiiiiki(^nfi;-ti) 

103,'JOO 

lliiiiihi'iiK 

24 

ll(iangliiii-tn 

138,000 

Ilai-tniii 

23 

Kaiinwcn-to 

03,000 

Wcn-tHiu 

20 

Kiciif,'kci-to 

180,000 

llanyiin^  (Suull 

36 

'rnotifft8i('iiK-to 

244.080 

Konf^-tHiu 

64 

KioiiRsanK-to 

421,500 

Taiku 

71 

Tsiuula-tu  . 

290,550 

T8icn 

•tNlU 

56 

1,566,330 


332 


JAPAN, 


Nll'-J'ON. 


IslandM. 

Area  in  iqunre  miloii.                Population,  IH74 

Hondo 

.     90,500 

25,478,834 

Kiu-Biu 

.      14,200 

4,t)8(),(ll3 

Shi-kukii 

.        7,100 

2,484,638 

Sailo      . 

24  \ 

'J'gti-Biniii 

17 

Awnji    . 
Oki 

12 
8 

362,177 

Iki 

3 

^  Tsluts  in  Nip. 

pon   .         .         .           60/ 

Yc«o     . 
Kurilcs 

.     3.5,700  \ 
4,900 

144,690 

Liii-kiti  Islui 

ds     .         .                    830 

167,073 

lionin  Island 

t        .         .         .            38 

09 

Total  Japanese  Empire    .     153,384  33,623,373 

Total  population  (1880),  35,925,313  ;  per  squaro  mile,  230. 


Departments  (Fu  and  Ken). 
Tokoi-fu 
Saikio-fu 
Ohosaka-fu  . 
Kanagava-kon 
Hiogo-kon    . 
Kagasaki-ken 
Nihigata-kcn 
Aitsi-kcu 
Isikavu-kcn 
Hirosima-kcn 
Vakayama-kcn 
Sakahi-kcn  . 
Miagi-kcu    . 
Kotsi-krn     . 
Kmamoto-kou 


Adminihthative  Divisions. 

I'opulation,  1881 

957,121  . 

822,098  . 

582,060  . 

757,462  . 

1,.391,928  . 

1,190,335  . 

1,546,338  . 

1,303,812  . 

1,833,778  . 

1,213,151  . 

597,728  . 

957,407  . 

r,i9,l2u  . 

1,179,247  . 

986,095  . 


Chief  Towns. 
Tokio 
Kioto 
Ohosaka 
Yokohama 
Kobe 
Nagasaki 
Nihi-gata 
Xagoya 
Kanazava 
lliro-sima 
Vaka-yama 
Sakahi 
Sendai 
Kotsi 
Kmamoto 


I 


] 


^__»,rf** 


4H'2 


HTATiaTlt'AI'  TAllLKH. 


OtpurtmciiU  (Fii  i>ni>  Ken). 
Simiiii''-'''  II 
Akitti-Ucii     . 
Kiiitiiiimkin 
'ruiliiikcii     • 
lliiiraUi-Win 
Tiit«iKi-l4''n 
(liiiiliu  ki'n  . 
Miyii-kni 
Hi(l/.wi)Uilo-l»i  n 
Yiiiimniuii-kcii 
SiKik-lii'ii 
(iifu-kiJi 
NiiKiiiiD-ki.'n 
FiikiiMtiim-ki'U 
Ivuli-krii 
Avomoii-ki'ii 
yumuKutii-ktii 
Okiiyiiiim-koii 
yiuimf?ul»i-ki'n 
Yctliimc-kiii 
Fukiiokii-ki'ii 
Oitii-kiii 

Okinavtt-kcn 


Admimimiuti 
i 


ClrcuitH. 


Arcii  in 
wiuiiri'  iiiileN 


Kiniii-do 

Tokiii-do 


ToHim-do   . 

Hokiiroku-tli) 

ISauin-do    .     .  ■ 

fanyo-do  .     .  • 

Nnnkai-do      .  • 

Ijakai-do    .     ■  ■ 

llok'kni-do  (Ycmo 

and  Kurik'M)  . 


'2,007 
16,t7H 

40,478 

0,7H' 
0,490 

8,407 

8,7H4 
10,79.) 


9  Circuits. 


W.    KlVlXlONn— ((•OM/i»M'<') 

i)iiiUlli>n,  IHHit. 

l,o;i7,'2<io    . 
(UH.Hlia     . 

j,io;i,'20i  . 

m>4,;t7ii  . 

oHl,:t.)H  . 

M\,rm  . 

u'io,o2i  ■ 

:i!t.-i,447  . 

7;is,iil  . 

h;iii,(11;»  . 

1,0(1(1.411     . 
h(is,'j:J7    . 

AU1,«81     . 

476,4 1;»   . 

68i,'.»'2i) 

l,0()(),.")70  . 

877,014  . 

l,i;tS,8'J.i  •. 

I,i)y7,'213  . 

731,004  . 

1, '270,403  . 

310,64.5  . 


CiRCVIM  AND  rmiVINCEH. 
Fovulition,  IWe. 


ClilcfT.iinn. 
Mutiny  u 
Akitu 
llmva 
'ritil>a 
Mito 

i'ntHiKi 
Mity<'-))a*i 

AllO-tHII 

Siil/.wukai) 
Knfll 

Oob^iwio 

Iiniiid/.nii 

/I'liko/.i 

Knkii-Himit 

Morioka 

Avomuri 

Yiiinii-Rata 

Oka-yaiim 

Yiiniiimi-tHi 
MiitMii-yuma 

Kukiioka 

Oita 

Ka(;o-Hima 

Hiuri  (Liu-kiu  I»limd») 


•2,094,3')4 
7,V  10,28-2 

7,279,408 

.1,448,109 
1,000,755 

3,048,170 

3,37.'J,724 
5,'280,740 

149,654 
34,047.480 


Provlncet. 


Yainu-Hiro;  Yamato;  KavaUi;  Id/.ii. ;  Het-!. 
S.mmii-    Id/.;    Kiihi;    S.iruKa ;    'lootoim  ;    M'ka%a , 

OUri;    iH.'-.    f^ima,    Iga;    Muza»i ;  Ava;    Kudzuna; 

SiinoKii;  HitatHi.  i.i,„.  T„,iVi. 

(J,ni-  Minu;  Hid.i ;  Sinano;  Kod/.k.-;  Simodzko;  Ivaki, 

Uiio;  IvaHiio;  llvkux.^n ;  Mutn;  l'/'"-  .  „.„„.„ 
Vakasa-  Kt«i/..'ii;  Kaga;  Not..:  Ktmtsm ;  htwRO  Sado. 
I'aSirj'Tango;  Ta/.inm;  lloki;  I.ml.a;  Idzmu;  Ivam.; 

HuHma;  Mimazaka;  Ilizoii ;  Bit«iu ;  Bigo ;  Aki ;  Suvo ; 

k'nir*^Vviid/,i  •  Ava;  Sanuki ;  lyo;  Toza. 

T   kuz^a      T^ikugo;    lluzen;    Hugo;    Hizon ;    Il.go; 

Hiuga;  Ohosmi;  Satsina;  Ik> ;  Tsu-B.n.a. 
OHima;    Siribon ;    Isikari ;    IWho ;    Kitami ;    Iburi; 

Tnllaka;  Tokatsi ;  K.iBiro ;  N emoro  ;  'fa""'"'*-    __ 

84  rrovinces. 


riiiEK 


Yeho. 


CrucuiT  OF 

KiNAI-DO. 


Hakodate 
8aru    . 
Yczasi 
llatsmai 
Sapporo 
Otani . 
Ohosaka 
Kioto  . 
Hiogo-kobo 
Sukalii 
Fiisimi 
Naru    . 
^  Kori-yama 


Towns 

28,800 

18,000 

1,730 

10,300 

8,000 

5,400 

290,000 

240,000 

41,000 

39,000 

23,000 

21,000 

15,000 


PoputATlON  (1873) 


Scndai 

62,000 

/  Akita    .         .         •        • 

38,000 

Hirosaki 

32,900 

Sionai . 

25,000 

Yonezava 

25,000 

Hikono 

24,400 

CincuiT  OF  J 

Morioka 

22,000 

1         TOSAN-UO.  ^ 

Vakainats 

21,500 

Takasaki 

20,000 

1 

Sakata 

18,000 

Y'ama-gata    . 

18,000 

Ohotz    . 

17.926 

^  Kanuina 

10,060 

c.TTCS&!!^>ite»«i-*«f-.*ei^*'Wsff'ar^-#3 


BTATISTICAIi  TAIILKS. 


4RB 


ki; 

iilo. 
mi: 

,vo; 


go; 

iiri ; 


riiiKf 

Tow 

<<:    Popi-i.ATioM  (1873)— (<•< 

Htinutil). 

'  MnyrbnsI     . 

16.000 

Tokio(l880) 

1,037,000 

tTtHiiiiMiia     , 

16,000 

Naifoya          .        ,        < 

l:io,ooo 

MiitmiinDti) 

14,300 

Yok<iliatiia     . 

06,000 

Tuku-yiiiiia  . 

13,000 

Miil/iiiika        > 

32,000 

CmrriT  oi* 

NihiiniiiatN 

11,000 

Yaiiiuda         .         . 

28,000 

ToUAN-llO— 

Aviiiiiiiri 

li.UOO 

T»u 

23,000 

{lunliniiiil). 

(lira     . 

1  r  ,<iuo 

Mlto      . 

20,000 

iMdiioiiiitki 

10,10(1 

I>io«l     .        .        .        . 

18,1100 

IlKiiki  . 

io,i((o  1     Ciiu'vir  nv 

Kiinnn           ,        . 

18,000 

NciHini 

|((,((0()   '        'roKAI.DO. 

Kofii 

111,000 

ItiitNiiiDyo 

10,000 

Nuiiiail/          ,         . 

lu.ooo 

^    KaiHzuvii 

110,000 

AtNiiila                    . 

16,200 

'rii-yiiina 

46,000 

OhiiMiki          .        . 

13,000 

Fiikiiyi 

30,000 

Odoviira 

13,000 

Nilii-Kata 

34,000 

Uyi'iio 

12,600 

'I'likiita 

27,500 

lljiniamutis    . 

11,000 

Nattaiikit      . 

24,000 

FiiliiiHi 

0,600 

'I'likaoka 

24,000 

Nankai-do.        Vaka-yimm    . 

62,000 

Siii-miiiuto 

18,000 

'  T()kii-»iiiia     . 

48,0((0 

CincriT  OK 

Sitmta  . 

18,300 

KiitHi-kia 

30,800 

[UKI'UUKU-I)(>. 

Oilziyii 

l.>,OilO 

Takaiiiat*      .         , 

32,800 

Kiixivu/uki 

1 1,000 

SiKOK. 

MaHtu-yaina  . 

20,150 

Ai^ava 

13,000 

MuruKaiiu> 

14,000 

'I'MiiruKa 

11,600 

Uva/.iina        • 

12,2(10 

Miirakuiiii 

10,000 

Itnalmr 

12,000 

Uvots  . 

10,000 

/  Kmamotu      ■        .        < 

46,000 

KomutH 

10,000 

Fukiiuka  and  Ilakata 

42,000 

<  thuno 

10,000 

KagL'da 

31,600 

\  Sakayi 

10,000 

Nagauaki 

30,000 

MatHiiyo 

37,000 

Ka);u-Hima     . 

27,300 

Ciuri'iT  OP 

Toltori 

20,800 

Kagu  . 

24,000 

HaNINoDU. 

Yoiiago 

10,260 

Haga 

21,700 

1  lliro-sima 
Ha^i    . 
Oka-yama 

76,000 

Ktiriimo 

21,000 

46,400 
33,000 

KlU-BIU. 

UHuki   . 
Sitna-bara     . 

18,860 
18,700 

Iliinudzi 

25,000 

Idzmi    . 

18,000 

CincuiT  OP 

Simono-Huki 

18,700 

Fukabori 

17,800 

8anyo>uu. 

Fuku-yama 

17,700 

Kokubu 

17,150 

Tsii-yama 

16,500 

Miyasaki 

12,000 

OiiomitBi 

15,000 

Nakttts 

11, 000 

AkuHi  . 

14,600 

Akuno 

10,900 

Yaniagutsi 

11,600 

Ilirado 

10,000 

\  Ivakuiii 

10,000 

V  Kadzikl 

10,000 

!,000 

«,000 

2,900 

5,000 

5,000 

4,400 

2,000 

1,500 

0,000 

8,000 

8,000 

17,9'i6 

15,060 


TiauB  Returns. 


Year. 
1866 
1869 
1873 
1878 
1880 


Importa. 

Exports. 

Total. 

.      £2,800,000 

£3,090,000 

£6,490,000 

3,470,000 

2,290,000 

5,760,000 

5,480,000 

4,130,000 

9,610,000 

6,660,000 

6,250,000 

11,910,000 

7,250,000 

5,510,000 

12,760,000 

FOHBION  TllADB  (1880). 

Imports. 

Exports. 

Great  Britain 

£4,645,000 

£787,000 

British  PossessionB      . 

420,000 

62,000 

China         .... 

1,183,000 

1,128,000 

Franco        .... 

762,000 

1,140,000 

United  States      . 

594,000 

2,240,000 

Germany    .... 

335,000 

6,600 

Italy           .... 

31,000 

100,000 

Sundries     .... 

116,000 

30,000 

^M«!^>" 


?^T^°'Jr!r«B;[assss»s5.tE,.^;i:«,5;s^ic. 


r 


464 


Year. 

\mr> 

18611 

iH7;t 

187S 


STATISTICAL  TABLES. 


SiiirPiNO. 
TonnnRC. 
1(16,872 
1,0G(),;W8 

l,o:«i,407 
-4'.),529 


Japiiiifse  Steam  Tonnage  (1880) 
,,       Junk         ,1  •• 

„        Fishing  Cralt  ,, 


Of  wliiehlJritiali. 

'J',),t)49 

410,105 

234,4')9 

417,091 

:i(i,543  tons. 
408, 7oO     ,, 
4  33,000  bouts. 


Chief  Stai-i 

,ES   OF   TllAUE 

Import  H. 

(1879). 

Yarns 

£1,510,000 

Cottons. 

l,03r.,000 

Woollens 

1.158,000 

Kiiw  Cotton  . 

614,1100 

Metills  . 

Kxports. 

377,000 

Silk  and  Cocoonn 

1,841,000 

Toa 

882,000 

Ui.o      . 

928,000 

Dried  Fish    . 

206,000 

Coul      . 

171,000 

Porcelain  (IS.S  >' 

100,000 

FOUF.IOX    'i'llADK    OF    HAKODATE   (1880). 

Imports.  ,?'iTnrm 

£45,000  .1.1.)0,000 

FouEioN  Trade  of  Yokohama  (1880). 
Imports.  KxportB.  Shipping. 


£5,190,000 


£3,710,000 


l,.i22  vussolg. 


FouEiGS  Trade  of  Ohosaka  and  lIiofio-KoiiE  (1880). 

ImprrtK.  Exports.  Shipping. 

£1,750,000         £1,160,000         237,000  tons. 

Foreign  Trade  ok  Naoasaki  (1880). 
Imports.  Exports.  Shipping. 

£280,000  £487,000  £522,000  tone. 

Tu.tDE    OF    THE    LlU-KIU    IsL.\NDS  (1880). 

Imports.  Exports. 

£52,800  £26,6.i0 

Foreign  Residents  in  Jafan. 

BKITISII.  OTIIEllS. 


Year 
1874 
1878 


jfirms. 

155 

92 


Residents. 
1,170 
1,067 


Firm". 
310 
191 


Eisidcnis. 
3,901 
4,438 


Japanese  Aouitii.TVRAL 
Ii!ind  under  timber 
Arable  land  .         . 

Land  under  cultivation 

„         „      rice  . 

,,        ,,     other  crops 
Rice  crop     .... 
Karley  crop 
Wheat  crop 

Tea  crop      .... 
Sorf;hum  sugar  crop    . 
Tobacco  crop 

Pulse  crop  .... 
Silk,  total  yield  . 
Silk  and  cocoons  exported   . 


Returns  (1880). 

60,000  sq.  mile'--. 
50,000,000  acrpH. 
12,530,000     „ 

6,800,000     ,, 

4,2.i0,000     ,, 
205.000,000  biishels. 

60,000,000 

38,000,000        ,. 

90,000,000  lbs. 

65.000,000  „ 

90.000.000  „ 

50,000,000  bushels. 
£11,000,000 

£2,310,000 


Javanese  Mineral  Returns  (187^)— (continued). 

Iron       , 21,000 

Ooal       „ 342,000 

Petroleum  raised         .         .         .         63,500  gallons. 
Coal-fields  of  Yes ,      .  1 50,000, 000, 000  tons. 

Totpl  yield  of  minerals  (1881)      £1,000,000 

Japanese  Uudoet  (1880). 

Income. 

Direct  taxes  ....      £9,075.000 

Indirect 1,672,000 

Customs 477,000 

Miscolliincous         .         .         .  592,000 

ICxpenditure. 

Interest  on  the  Debt       .  .  £4,638,000 

Civil  List  and  Pensions .  .  423,000 

Army  and  Navv     .         •  •  2,150,000 

Kdueation      ....  250,000 

I'ublic  Works        .         .  .  224,000 

Civil  Service,  ic  .         .  .  4,500,000 

Total  Re'cnue  and  Expenditure,  balanced  (1880), 
£11,130,000. 

National  D.bt,  £72,070,000. 

Chief  source  of  Revenue,  the  Land  Tax,  87  per 
cent,  of  the  whole. 

.i»H-i/.— Peace  footing,  35,560;  War,  50,230; 
Reserve,  20,000. 

.V«fv.— Ships,  23;  Men,  4,242;  Guns,  149 

7V/(>e.-23,334. 

Railways  open  (1881),  70  milts. 

Patset.jjer  traffic  (1879),  3,000,000. 

Rai^vays  projecltd.  500  miles. 

Postal  Returns  (1879). 

Letters  forwarded,  55,775,206. 

Money  orders  issued,  249,429-vnlue  £740,^76. 

Post  Offices,  3,927  ;  Mail  routes,  36,062  miles. 

Telegraph  lines,  3,344  miles. 

Telegiaphic  dispatches,  1,045,442. 

Submarine  cable  system  completid,  1880. 

Public  Instruction. 

Elenientiry  schools  (1879),  2.5,459. 

Teachers,  59,825  ;  Pupils,  1,594,792  boys;  668,220 

"  Middle  schools,  389  :   Attendance,  20,522. 

Technical  schools,  52  :  Attendance,  3,361. 

University  (Tokio) :  Professors,  56;  Students, 
710. 

Schools  teaching  English,  25;  other  languages,  3: 
.Vttendancc,  1,522. 

Foreign  teachers  in  Government  employment,  97. 

Literature. 

VVoiks  published  during  the  year  ending  Julj-,  1879. 
liegislation,  political  economy         .         543 
Educational 470 


Japanese  Mineral  Returns  (1879). 
Gold  raised         ....      £46,000 

Silver     „ 90.000 

Copper  ,, 28 (,000 

Lokd      , 5-000 


Geography 

Philology 

Mathematics  . 

History  .... 

Ridigion 

Novels,  poetry,  miscellaneous 

Newspapers,  211  :  Circulatioi 


454 
313 
225 
180 
107 
.  2,925 
29,000,000. 


Miscellaneous. 

Coinage  stiuck  at  the  Ohosaka  Mint  (1880), 
£17,000,000. 

Paper  Money  in  circulation  (1881),  £22,600,0110. 

Native  Christians:  Protestants,  7,500;  Roman 
Catholics,  4,000;  Gseek,  4,000. 


J55;^33Sn"^tiW*U*i-'.'»i-fcJSlMlii-,j;^l(ii»f,- 


Ei&«*afe* 


Abdalli,  63 

Aberdeen  (Hong  Kong),  259 

Aborigines  of  Japan,  400 

Abors,  ^2 

Abulitna  River,  422 

Administration  of  Tibet,  56 

Kashgaria,  74 

Kuku-nor,  80 

Mongolia,  110 

China,  315,  324 

Korea,  351 

Japan,  473 
Adzma-yania,  Mount,  369 
Adzma-yebis,  396 
Agriculiiire,  China,  287 

Japan.  4 16 
Aichcw,  275 
Aigava,  4'J3 
Ai'gun,  123 
Aikhun,  123 
Aimaks,  110 
Ainos,  396 
Aitsi  "ren,  430 
Akano  Hiver,  386 
Akasi,  439 
'Akitu,  390,  421 
Akkcnt,  93 
Aksu  Town,  63 
Akunc,  443 
Alaid  Volcano,  362 
Alaknanda  River.  25 
Ala-shan  Mountains,  100 
Almi-tu,  93 

Altai-nuru  Mountains,  95 
Altin-tagh,  17,  75,  76 
Alti-shahr,  58 
Ambun,  56 
Amdoans,  42 
Amne,  76 

Amno-kang  River,  344 
Ainoy,  245-247 
Andijani,  69 
A  nouta  Mountains,  17 
Anking,  230 
Anong  Tribes,  266 
Ano-tsu,  430 
Ansi,  84 
Aoniori,  421 
"  Apricot  Tilwt,"  13 
Arabian  Sea,  23 
Araido  Volcano,  362 
Arbuz-ola  Mountains,  101 


INDEX 


Arima,  437 

Arita,  441 

Armv  of  Tibet  57 

China,  327 

Japan,  475 
Arru  Tribe,  42 
Artush,  72 

Asania-yania.  Mount,  369 
Ashe- ho,  12') 
Asiiio-umi,  Lake,  371 
Asivara,  431 
Aso-vania  Volcano,  379 
Aten'tze,  209 
Atsiula,  430 
Auckland,  Mount,  340 
Aula,  Mount,  340 
Avata,  433 
Avoniori,  421 
Avoniori  Bay,  307 
Avo-sima  Isle,  367 
Avo-umi  Province,  373 
Ayar-nor,  88 
Az-sind  River,  76,  81 

Baba,  Lake,  62 

Bagarash-kul,  62 

Bai,  7o 

Bakha  Xamiir,  Lake,  20 

Baknak  Puss,  24 

Bakti,  92 

Balkha.sh,  Lake,  13 

Baniu  Uiver,  386 

Banka,  2l^2 

liantai  Cone,  367 

Baotu,  194 

Bar,  Lake,  86 

Barantola,  14 

Barkul,  86 

Barlik  Mountains,  88 

Batang,  220 

Bay  oi"  liengnl,  23 

Bayan-gol  liiver,  78 

Bayan-ingir  Pass,  95 

Bayan-khaia  I'lateau,  207 

Boduneh,  125 

Botcl  Tobago  Island,  284 

Bhatno,  30 

IShutan,  17 

lihutancse,  43 

DishbiUik,  87 

Biva,  I.iko,  373 

Black  Irtish  River,  88 


Black  Lolo  Tribe,  211 

Bocea  Tigris,  219 

Bodyul,  n 

Bogdo-kuren,  111 

Bogla-nor,  62 

"Bogue"  River,  24!) 

Itoiiin  Lslaiuls,  ,<o(i,  144 

lliin-pa  n^ligion,  48 

Borax,  Lake,  22 

lioro-kh'iro  Mountains,  88 

Bostan-nor,  02 

Brahmaputra  Uiver,  30 

Brichu  River,  199 

Biick  Tea,  •.!9l 

Broughton  Mav,  340 

Buddhism,  4t,'  145,  415 

Bugutu,  Mount,  lul 

Bultso,  22 

Bulun-tiikoi,  92 

Bureya  Mountains,  117 

Huriats,  105 

Burkhan,  108 

Burkhan  Buddha   Mountains,  78, 

79 
Bunnese,  130 
l»utan  Tribe,  280 
luiyantu  River,  96 

Cambaluc,  164 
Canton,  255 

Delta,  249 

River,  249 
Cape  Horner,  370 
(,'athay,  7 
Cayley  J'ass,  38 
Chachew-fu,  226 
Chugan-kuren,  194 
Chaidam,  75 
Chuidam  Basin,  78 
Chambo,  5-» 

Chanien  Mountains,  76 
(.'hamuto,  54 
Chang-ehegmu,  40 
Chang  Delta,  230 
('hangcha,  226 
Cliangchew,  247 
('hangchwen  Island,  262 
Changkia-kow,  173 
Changlan-chin,  195 
Chaniite-fu,  190,  226 
('huoking,  2'i4 
Chaosien,  336 


I 


^.;viv*^§P^ifl^-w£.?'i,-'.. 


..■,/r/vV,=^-f?l   '—    ' 


•186 

Chapii,  239 
ChiiiKut-teo,  21 
Chcfu,  17H 

Chikiimn  rrovmce,  21  (,  240 
('lungtt-fn,  lO'J 
ChiTchni,  70 
Chtrchin-diiria,  IS,  GQ 
('hctuiiff,  31,  3n,  53 
(iiitri-slmii,  70 
(;ht'W-sliiin,  240 
Chcwtsun,  178 
Cliichiiiticn,  229  _ 
CbitViif,'-hien,  Ho 
Clii-lii'ii-  I'Ju 
CUiiiii.  12S 
CliiiKliii-liod/.i,  93 
("hiiwnip;!!,  17-') 
Chimhow-t'ii,  190 
ChincHo  LiiiiKmiKi^-  137 
Race,  13G,  212 
T\irki'»tan,  o« 
Uclitiion,  140 
Chinnkiang,  231 
Cl\int?l«ia-kt'W,  17o 
Clhiiigwa-clion,  l!"> 
ChiiiKtu-fii,  221 
l;lliIl^'-l>')  Tribos,  207 
ChiiigtiiiK,  174 
liiiiisi-fu,  «G 
I'hira,  71 
C'li..k-kul,  G3 
CluMigwri,  193 
Chonlo-iloiiK,  Lake,  24 
(Ihoiia-joiig,  53 
Choslii,  4;!3 
t:ho\vkia-kow,  196 
Cluistiaiis  of  (.'liiiia,  151 
Chiirttiaiiity  in  Japan,  41u 
(Ihiiguchak,  92 
I'hiiiiHihciig,  224 
Chungcliiug-t'ii,  272 
Chungking,  224 
Climig  -Miat)  Tribe,  21'! 
Cliungiie-hitn,  193 
(.'hiioan  Islands,  218 
Climate  of  Tibet,  38 
Mongolia,  97 
Mongolian  Kansu,  81 
China,  132 
South  C;hina,  250 
I'onnosa,  278 
Korea,  341 
Japan,  387 
Coal    Measures    of    China, 

297 
ComnianiBm  in  China,  293 
Confucius,  142 
Currency  of  China,  331 

Daba,  27,  50 

Daban-shan,  87 

l)absun-nor,  78 

Daibuts,  statue  of,  428 

Daikil),  3i>4 

Haizen  Cone.  374 

Dalai- lama,  44 

Dalds,  79 

Itanura-yuni,  Lake,  21 
D'Anville'B  Map.  32 
Dapsmg,  Mount,  62 
Dams,  121 

Daiisi'-alin  Mountains,  116 
Debang,  63 
Delangle  I'eak,  36a 
De-sima,  3'i8,  412 
Devil's  Mountain,  362 
Dialeets  of  China,  138 


INDEX. 


Dibong  River,  33 
Di.hu  River,  199 
Dignrehi,  ol 
Dihong  River,  33 
Diosi,  423 
Dogthol,  51 

Doker-la  Mountains,  269 
l)olon-nor,  114 
Donkir,  192 
Dorkhats,  105 
Doikia,  22 

'  Double"  Island,  253 

Dn-kiu  Islands,  381 

iMik-pa,  44 

Diingans,  91 

l)us-alin  Mountains  1 

"Dutch  Folly,"  249 

Dzunibur,  Mount,  101 

Ebi-nor,  88 

Kdsinii  River,  81 

Ediiealion  in  China,  312,  320 

Japan,  4(>9 
Kktiig-Altai,  :»IouT>t,  95 
Kliuts,  83 

Kmigratiou ,  Chinese,  308 
Kmil  River,  92 

Kmper.r's  Household,  China,  317 
Kiurkak,  108 
Krh-hai,  Lakes  271 
Krlit/.a  llalf-eastrs,  110 
Et/.ina  River,  81 
Exploration  of  I'ibct,  15 

('hina,  161 

Japan,  3.')8 

Korea,  337 
Extortion  in  China,  319 


Fachan,  255 
Faku-min,  127 
Fangcbeng,  229 
Fauna  of  Tiliet,  40 
Kashgaria,  66 
China,  134 
Hainan,  274 
Furmosa,  278 
Korea,  341 
Japan,  393 
Yeso,  364 
Fenghoang-eheng,  'Sd 
FtMig-shiu,  143 
Firand.),  442 
Floni  of  Tibet,  40 
191,  Kashgaria,  66 

fJhina,  134 
Hainan,  274 
Formosii,  278 
Korea,  341 
Japan,  389 
Yeso,  364 
Fnabasi,  423 
Fog  Island,  379 
Fokien  I'rovinec,  240 
Fori  igners  in  China,  308 
Formosa  Island,  275 
Fuehang-hien,  194 
Fueliew,  195,  225 
Fuehew-fu,  242 
Fu.  n-ho  River,  195 
Fujii  River,  386 
F'ukabori,  442 
Fukuoka,  441 
Fuku-sima,  422 
Fuku-yama,  421,  440 
Fukuyi,  423 

Funagava  Channel,  367 
Fuuai,  441 


Fungtiao-shan,  Mount,  187 
Fungwang-shan,  127,  334 
Funing-fu,  242 
Funiu,  Mount,  187 
Fu»han,  255 
Fusinii,  434 

Fusi-yama  Voleano,  370 
Fusung  River,  223 
Fuzi-sau  Voleano,  370 
l''uzi-»ava,  a91 

Uakpo  River,  33 
(ialdan,  53 
tianfu,  2158 

(iang-dis-ri  Mountains,  24 
(iangri  Mountains,  24 
Gargunza,  51 
tJarlok,  61 
Oeluk-pa,  44 
(Sensan,  351 

tJeolofjy  of  East  Tibet,  31 
i    (ihion  Tribe,  42 
tlifu,  430 
(iirin,  124 
ttobi  Desert,  93,  96 
Uol,  meaning  of  the  term,  62 
Oomi,  192 

Gordon's  Course  of  the  Isaugbo, 
35 

Goto  Islands,  385 

(iraud  Canal,  IS5 
Chusiin,  239 
Lu-ehew  Island,  284 

Great  Tibet,  13 
Wall,  102- 

Guchen,  87 

Gulf  of  Tartary,  356 

(lulf  of  Tonkin,  2 

tiuniu,  72 

Gurbu  Naiji,  Mount,  17 

Gyakharuia  Mountains,  23 

Gyanzeh,  62 

Gyarung  Tribe,  43 


Hada,  115 
Hani,  440 
Haiihung,  127 
Hai-kow,  275 
Hainan  Island,  273 

Strait,  273 
Hakabt,  441 
Hakka  Race,  252 
Hakodate,  420 
Uakone,  371 
Pass,  371 
Haku-san,  Mount,  373 
Hanianiatz,  430 
Ilami,  8.) 

Han  River,  201,  202 
Hauehang-fu,  214,  229,  363 

Hangehew,  Gulf,  204 

llangehew-fu,  230 

Hangtzen,  Lake,  183 

Ilan-hai,  03 

Han  River,  201,  202 

Ilan-kiang  River,  243 
Korea,  334 

Hankow,  227 

Hanyang,  353 

Hanyang-fu,  227 

Ilaramukotan  Island,  361 

Harinoki  Pass,  372 

Hasibe  Gni,  Mount,  364 

He-nhui  River,  214 

Iliaksai,  336 

Hianien,  246 

Uiaug-hien,  178 


Tr!T^T^.-a« -sei&fiW^fWV******?  ■ 


INDliX. 


487 


1,62 
Tsaugbo, 


23 


1,363 


361 
64 


Hirta  Mountainfi,  ^72 
Hinn-fuii),',  Mount,  340 
iricwkao,  19i') 
Ili^aHiyuma,  442 
HiKliwiiVH,  China,  305 

Ja)ian,  4G7 
llikonr.  4.tl 
llinicd/i,  44U 
Uioi^o,  437 
Jliolo  Uapc,  2o2 
llii-adu,  »8o,  442 
lliroHa'rfi,  421 
lliro-Hima,  440 
]Iiti^i-Hha  iHland,  203 
llivoi-san,  373 
IIoach<!W,  1!»4 
IloiiikinK-fii,  lOG 
Iloai  Kivor,  lfc4 
Iloaii^-ho,  70,  179 
IIuaiiK-Iiii,  2>')7 

Uivcr,  232 
IIoa-s)mn  (Koron),  363 

Muunt,  105 
Ilochow,  103,  22.'} 
ll(>p:^'s  Dctilc,  38 
]Iui-huw,  21  n 
Hokchcw,  243 
lloklo  Uaci>,  2')2 
Ilokow,  230 
Jlo-lao-ltj-kia,  64 
Ilolin,  113 
]Ioiiaii-fii,  10>> 
Hondo,  306,  364 
Hong  Kons;,  267 
llon^-minii;,  281 
IlontHi,  357 
Hor-pa,  20 
llor-sok,  20 
IIov<.'i-8an  C'ono,  370 
lluVhow,  140,  236,  237 
Hunan  I'rovinvo,  217 
Hiindos  I'rovinco,  50 
lliuig-kiang  Uiver,  263 
IIu]H!h  I'rovinco,  190 
Hwi'i-hwei,  149 
Il'wL'n  Tsang,  5 

Ibuki-vnma,  Mount,  373 

l-chang,  225 

Ic'hu,  354 

Idzii  I'oninsulu,  371 

I-jfn  '1  ribog,  210 

Ikt!  Nanidr,  Liiko,  20 

Iki  Island,  357,  385 

Ikuno,  440 

Ilchi,  71 

Hi  Province,  88,  90 

Rivtr,  90 
Imalmr,  441 
Imaidznii,  430 
Iniumntsi,  423 
Inavasiro,  Jjiko,  367,  422 
Indus  Hivor,  24 
luduHtring  i>(  Tibet,  54 

Kavbgaria,  60 

China,  295 

Korea,  :<60 

Japan,  453 
Inhabibuits  uf  Tilwt,  41 

Kutthgaria,  67 

Kuku-nor,  70 

Mongolia,  103 

Mongolian  Kansu,  83 

Zungariti.,  90 

Kuija,  t/1 

Cbiua,  136 

iiechucu,  209 


Inhabitants    of    I,owcr    Yang  tau 

IJiiHin,  211» 

Fokicn,  241 

South  China,  251 

Yunnan,  266 

Hainan,  274 

Fornu)8a,  280 

Korea,  344 

•lapan,  396 

Uiu-kiu,  :<K4 
Inland  Sea,  375 
Iniiir  Moni^olia,  109 
In-Hhan  Mountains,  09 
Irawady  Uivor,  32,  'Mi 
Ircn  Khabirgan  Mountains,  83 
lao.  Temples  of,  430 
Isikari,  419 

Itivor,  362.  380 
Isikava-kmi,  423 
Isinoniaki,  421 
Isothcrnials  of  China,  133 
Ita8iiM\  Mount,  .'{62 
Itinei-iiries  of  Tibet,  16 

Tian-shun,  .^9 

Zungaria,  HH 

Kasbi;aria,  60 

China,  131 
Iturup  Ishind.  418 
Ivaki,  Mount,  367 
Ivakuni,  440 
Ivanai,  420 
Ivoga-sinia,  3R0 
Ivory  carvings,  Japan,  453 
Ivo-sima,  3S1 

Jair  Mountains,  88 
Ja])an,  355 
Japaneso  Raoo,  401 
Language,  408 
Janglachoh,  51 
Ja-ni,  Mount,  207 
Jaratai-dabaisu,  Lake,  101 
.laring,  I^ike,  79 
Jaikent,  93 
Jeliol,  109,  115 
Jesaktu,  110 
Jetson-tampa,  108 
Jews  of  (;hina,  147 
Jinho,  92 
.li-IM-n-kwch.  357 
Jiti-shahi',  58,  74 

Kachin  Tribes,  267 
Kac  Miau  Tribe,  274 
Kadziki,  443 
Kanchang,  354 
Kago,  443 
Kagosima,  379,  443 

Ilay,  380 
Kaichew,  127 
Kaifunu-fu,  183,  196 
Kaihoa-fu,  272 
Kailiu),  Mount,  24 
Kainian,  Mount,  378 
Kaiping,  297 
Kaisong,  354 
Kaiyuon,  125 
Kakhyon  Tribes,  206 
Kalgan,  98,  173 
Kali-L'hung,  125 
Kalmuks,  105 
Kamakura,  428 
Kamchatka,  356 
Kanipu,  238 
Kanchi'w,  83 
Kiuie-gava,  428 
Kanozuva,  423 


Kang-hoa,  335 

Island,  3)4 
Kanpu  River,  33 
Kansu,  179 
Kaokiuli.  338 
Kaoli.  338 
Kai  mi.  179 
K'ma,  336 

Kiira-buran,  l^iko,  63 
Kiira-kash,  60 
Kara-korumTown.  113 

Mountains,  17,  23 

I'liss,  62 
Kara-kurchin,  ()3 
Karangui-tagii,  17 
Karashar,  in 

Lake,  00,  62 
Kargalik,  72 
Karkara-ussu,  Oi 
Karnali  Kiver,  25 
Kasainats,  430 
Kai-eda,  443 
K«»b  Kiver,  90 
Kastigar,  72 

River,  62 
KaKhiiiir,  13 
Ka.siva-b'iva,  434 
Kasivazaki,  423 
Kashgarians,  67 
Katun  Mountains,  88,  90 
KavH,  422 
Kitvana,  4.30 
Keluiig,  282 
Kein,  rivera,  96 
Koiulen  Hiver,  90 
Kentei  Mountains,  I 
Kerulen,  114 
Kb  ibarassu  Pass,  92 
Khachi  Province,  19 

Tribe,  43 
Khaidin-kua  River,  62 
Khaidu-i!ol,  Oi 
Khiiiliir  River,  96 

Town,  164 
Khalaniba-la,  ;.0 
Khiilkhas,  105 
Kliam  Province,  50 
Khainba-la,  24 
Khambas,  42 
Khauii,  Khamil,  85 
Khampas,  42 
Khan-balik.  164 
Khan-tengri,  Mount,  93 
Khara-koto,  114 
Khara-nor,  81 
Khara-ussu  River,  37 
Khash-lon.  20 

Khinan-alin  Mountains,  124 
Khingai  Mountains,  95 
Khitigan  Mountains,  96,97,  99,  116 
Khoniorong-la,  24,  30 
Khor,  20 
Khorgos,  93 
Khorin,  113 
Khoro-la,  24 
Khoshuns,  110 
Khotan,  59,  71 
Khotan-daria,  60 
Khotan  Highlands,  4 
Khulanchen,  125 
Khung-ho  River,  125 
Khurkha  River,  118,  126 
Khutuktu,  56 

Khwangiiing  Mountains,  117 
Kiahing,  237 
Kiai-chew,  105 
Kiai-shau,  275 


'^imp- 


aL 


■188 


Kiaklitii,  89 
Kiii-kiaiiff,  202 
Kiiiliiit?  Kiv.r,  132,  224 
KiuiiKkii.  50,  (J4 
KilUlM;"!'"'  2:n 
Kiiiii,i,'-jmli.  224 
Kiimnsi  I'rovinco,  217 
KiiiiiKwii  rroviiuc.  196 
Kiaii.slu'  IhImikI,  203 
Kiiiinlirw,  179 
KialiuK-fii.  221 
Kiaviii?,  17H 
KiaVu-kiiaii  (ialo,  84 
Kiclm  Uivir,  HI 
Kiciu  liaiiK  KiviT,  222 
Ki(  ii-kiant?  Uivcr,  225,  274 
Ki-jcii,  121 
KilaH  Tril>c,  214 
Kitian,  72 
Kilicii-shan,  70 
Kilning,  17!t 
Kin(li.'W,_127,  104,  226 
Kinfai),  177 
Kirgihiw-fu,  127 
King-ho  Rivrr.  1S8 
Kiiigtij-chon,  TM 
Kin^V/.c,  2'M 
Kiii-kiaiig,  229 
Kinkipao,  149 
Kinliing-kiaiig.  .'i7 
Kiiiniu-lao,  2.;2 
Kiiipai  l'"i)rts,  241} 
Kinsha-Uiaiig  Uivcr,  199 
Kii.to.  4:i2 
Kirghiz  Nomads,  68 
Kiria,  71 

Valley,  19 
Kiri<'liai,  56 
Kiri-sinia  Island,  379 
Kirong,  51 
Kisciiuiua,  366 
Kiso  Uivcr,  372 
Kitai,  7 

Kitiikiiini  River,  365,  386 
Kitao  Trilw,  214 
Kiii-siti,  356,  378 
Kiting-chow,  222,  275 
Ki/.il-ait,  62 
Ki/,il-sn,  62 
Kizil-tigb,  62 
Kmamoto,  442 
Kiiiaso  Uacc,  33l> 
Koac'hew,  231 
Kobdo,  HI 
Kobdo  Plateau,  95 
Kobdo,  Lake,  96 
Kobe,  437 

Kobu-ga-hara,  Mount,  369 
Kofu,  429 
Kok-nor.  73 
Kokubu,  443 
Kokura,  441 
Kok-su,  62 

Komaga  Volcano,  363 
Koinats,  423 

Komats-yama,  Mount,  379 
Koncho  River,  62 
Kong-kio,  Luke,  26 
Kongor-Adzigan  Mountains,  86 
Koakir,  Mount.  76 
Korea,  334 
Koreans,  344 
Korea  Strait,  385 
Kori-yiiiiia,  434 
Korlu,  73 
Kosheti-davan,  86 
Koso,  Lake,  96 


INDEX. 


Kotsi.  441 
Kowhin,  259 
Koyasan,  430 
Kozakov  ("ape,  356 
Kiiaiia,  430 
Kuliati,  421 
Kublai  Klian,  221 
Kucha,  73 
Kuilara,  336 
Kui'ii-iiin  Mountains,  17 
Kuituii,  92 
Kuku-Khoto,  114 
Kuku-nor  Province,  75 

I-akc,77 
Kulja.  88,  90 
Old,  92 
New. 93 
Kulu-ho  Uivcr,  184 
Kuiuai,  444 
Kuinanioto,  442 
Kuuiis,  107 
Kunitag  l)(>scrt,  07 
Kunasiro  Island,  361 
Kiiiilmm,  192 
Kiinchcw,  194 
Kungcs  Uiver,  90 
Kutigtau  Uivcr,  225 
Kurilo  Islands,  360 
Kuro-sivo  Ciirri'nt,  386 
Knruk  Mountains,  02 
Kurunie,  441 
Kiiyvi-sbu,  125 
Kwaciicw,  84 
Kwangchcng-tzp,  125 
Kwangning,  127 
Kwangsi  Province,  247 
Kwjtngtuiig  Province,  247 
Kwan-liiig,  353 
Kwan-sai,  371 
Kwanta'ilu,  267 
K  wan-to,  371 
Kwanyin,  '40 
Kweichew-fu,  225 
Kwci<hew  Province,  214 
Kwcihua-cheng,  114 
Kwei-kiang  lliver,  248 
Kwei-ling,  254 
Kwci-ling  Uiver,  264 
Kweite,  196 
Kwei-yang,  225 

La,  meaning  of,  22 
Labour  Market,  Cnina,  299 
Lachew,  178 
Ladak,  13 

Ladrone  Island*.  250 
Lagar-aul,  Mount,  117 
Lagulung-la,  24 
Laiping  Islands,  250 
Laiyang,  178 
Ltilin,  125 
Ijanagu-l.anka,  Lake,  27 

Lanehew-fu,  193 

I, and  Tenure,  China,  292 
Japan,  460 

I,anki,  239 

Lantzan-kiang,  37,  76 

Laoho-kow,  229 

Laokai,  272 

Laomu-ho  River,  164 

Lao-tze,  144 

Lassa,  52 

Lapcbas,  46 

La  Perouse  Strait,  419 

Lazarev,  351 

Leang-shan  Mountains,  214,  272 

Lema  Island',  250 


Lena  Uiver,  197 
Lhassa,  52 
Li  Tribes,  274 
I.iang-cbew,  83 
Liao-hc  Iviver,  118 
l,iai>ti-shan,  117 
],iaotuiig  (iulf,  119 
liiaoyang,  127 
l.iiinchcw,  203 
I.ikiang-t'u  271 
Liniin,  224 
l,ingan-fu,  2V2 
Liiiicao,  275 
Linshoteu  Islands,  381 
Lintsing,  175 
Lisu  Tribes,  260 
Litang,  208,  220 
Literati,  China,  312 
Little  Uokhara,  58 

Tibet,  13 
Liu-kiu  Islands,  283,  381 
Loli-niir,  02 
Lofu  Hills,  247 
Lohit  River,  33,  38 
Lo-ho  Riv(  r,  187 
Lohui,  275 
Loi  Tribes,  274 

Lokao,  170 

Lolo  Tribes,  210,  266 

Lo-»han,  Mount,  174 

Loyang,  190 

Luchew,  222 

Lu-chu  Islands,  381 

Lui  River,  220 

i^uiyang,  226 

Lu-kiang,  37,  269 

Lungkew,  178 

I^uting-chao,  221 

Lutzc-kiang,  37,  75,  266,  269 

Lutzc  Tribes,  266 


Macao,  259 
Maimaclien,  111 
Malays,  136 
Manas,  92 
Manasse  Saruar,  27 
Mancbu  Race,  120 
Manchuria,  115 
Mandarins,  322 
Maudzi,  122 
Manegrs,  120 
Mungnang,  40 
Mang-ko,  272 
Manhao,  206,  272 
ftlansaraur.  Lake,  26 
Mantzo  Tribes,  210,  266 
Mao-jin  Uacc,  396 
Map-chu  River,  50 

Maralbashi,  73 

Mariam-la,  24,  28 
Markham's  Course  of  the   Isang- 
bo,  34 

Marugamc,  441 

Maruoka,  423 

Matsmai,  421 

Matsmayo  Strait,  364 

Matsu-sima,  365 

Matua  Island,  361 
Matsuye,  439 
Matsu-yama,  441 

Mayebasi,  423 

Mazar,  86 

Mci-kiang  River,  248 

Mci-ling  Moimtains,  218 
Pass,  241 

Mekbong  River,  37 

Mclam  Language,  42 


;  .c,  ■<!>6VS?*S«?;.»5E'i 'i" 


yy^if^.i^m^fmmmi->.(:^ssme»Sf«Xt^fi'^^^SS^^!^XS^S&miiieK,- 


I 


TNDEX. 


489 


M.'lvillo,  .183 
Mciiufho.i-liicn,  271 
]Mi'iii,'kii,  'JH'i 

MlT!,'CIl,   12  J 

M.rkain,  .">! 
Mi'i'ii,  .Mount,  2') 
Mitiko,  4:i'i 
Miiiofinjjf-Hliiiii,  170 
Jliiii)  Weil};  'IVibp,  215 
Miaot/.i'  'IVibcH,  211,  2J2,  2GG 
Mi-ike,  ;{80 
Jlikiiv.i,  (2;! 
Jli-kiimjjr  liiviT,  I'll 
Mikomoto  Island,  a7l 
iMimiinu,  ;i:ii) 
MiiiKirio  JtiviT,  421 
Min  Uivcr,  2(10 

{l''<)kicn\  241 
MiniTiiis  iif  Mongolia,  98 

Knxh^riiria.  71 

liiiinim,  274 

<'hina,  2!Mi 

Kciia,  ;iU 

Japan.  401,  462 
Mi»)iMii9,  42 

Mi-tako,  Mount,  372,  379,  1)80 
Mito,  423 

"  Mixiiil  Courts  "  in  Chiuii,  327 
Aliyanozio,  413 
MiyaHaki,  441 
Miyiilci'M,  432 
Miyi-yania,  Mount.  379 
Mi>u:anii  Uivcr,  422 
Moy:nalari.  Lake,  29 
M<iliainni('iians  of  China,  148 
Moliaiiinii'ilan  Hevoits,  l.'iO 
Monii'in,  2Gi( 
JIonast°ricM  of  Tibet,  53 
Mouffoliu,  75 
Monf,'i)lian»,  79,  103 
Mouf^fdlian  Kunsu,  80 
Jlorioka,  421 
Morko-jot,  52 
Mororan,  420 
Moso  Tribes,  2fi6 
Mozin  Rneo,  390 
Mukden,  125 

Munku-sardik  Mountains,  94,  96 
Mui)ia.  208 
Murakami,  423 
Murinusaii  River,  75,  199 
Muru,  o'A 
Mutan-ho  Uivor,  1 18 

Nafn,  383.  444 

Napisald.  442 

Nagoya.  430 

Naitsi  Island.  357 

Naka-gava  Uivor,  36?,  423 

Naka-sima  Island,  381 

Nakats,  441 

Nak-chu  River,  37 

Xamao  Island,  254 

Xamling,  30,  52 

Nam-tso.  22 

Naniilr.  Lake.  20 

Nanehanpr.  229 

Nanchi.  239 

Nanpfao  Iskind,  253 

Nanliai-tze  Park,  170 

Nanhiung,  255 

Nankion-kiang  River,  274 

Nanking,  231 

Nan-ling  Mountains,  214,  218 

Nan -man  Tribes,  214 

Nan-aan  Islands,  381 

Nan-sbau,  76,  77,  214,  217,  240 

64 


Xantai,  243 

Nantai-san,  .367 

Niiutsiu,  23(! 

Xapi'hu  Hivcr.  37 

Nar:i,  431 

Nari  Province,  10,  50 

Naruto  Strait,  377 

Xava,  111 

Navy  ot'Cliina,  330 

.Ia])an,  176 
Xawtoug  Tribes,  274 
Xaya,  71 

Xciiicr  liivcr,  116 
Xcinoro,  119 
Ncnda.  Mount,  207 
Neiio  Kami  Race,  401 
Nepal,  (> 

Xestori.ins,  1 19.  152 
Xnanbai,  21 6 
Nganlnvei  Mountains,  206 
NjrankiuK:,  230 
Nifinsi.  81,  85 

Itivcr.  HI 
Xffanyi.  195 
Xj^aoriicn.  259 
N^chcw,  254 
X,Lren-kio  River,  37 
Xgiiclmiipf  Tribe,  214 
Nffomi-sban.  .Mount,  208 
Niacbu  River,  199 
Xif-hon.  358 
Nibi-gat:i.  Niigata,  422 
Ni-bon,  357 
Xiboiiinats,  422 
Nikko,  -112 

Highlands,  356,  367 
Xilam,  ol 
.Vinchi  Rare,  121 
Ningbai,  127 
Xiiigbia,  194 
Ningpo,  239 

River,  238 
Xiuguta,  125 
Xingyiien,  127.  222 
Xiiijiii-tang-la,  22,  24 
Nin-yuan.  92 
Nip-pou,  356 
Nip-pon  It  isi,  424 
Nit-piJn,  358 
Niiiehwang,  119,  127 
Noh,  Lake,  29 
Nonni  River,  1 16 
North  Mongolia,  93 
Noshiro  River,  386 
Noto,  423 

Nu-kiang  River,  37 
Xuniadz,  429 
Xyaring-tso.  23 
Nyenshhen-lang-la,  24 

O'Aknn,  Mount,  364 

Ob  River,  197 

Obama,  438 

Odovarii.  429 

Oduntala  Steppe,  78 

Odzu,  432 

Oechardes  River,  62 

Ogasavara  Islands,  356,  44  1 

Oga-sima  Island,  366 

Ohogaki,  430 

Ohokata-bntsiro  Sen,  366 

Ohono,  423 

Ohosnka,  434 

Oho-sima  Island,  371,  383 

Ohots.  432 

Oho-ya-sima,  357 

Oi  River,  386 


Oitaken.  Ill 

(Mwake.  30'.» 

Oka-yania,  440 

Oki  IslaU'ls,  357.  367 

Okiiiava  Island,  383,  444 

OUunia  River,  3S!i 

Oliin-diba  I'ass,  U5 

Onii  I'rovince,  373 

Oiiiii'kotan  I.sland,  361 

()iinniit.si,  410 

OmiIjo  Jtasiii,  lO 

OiM-clm  liiver,  37 

Oiion  River,  90 

On-taki'.  .Mount,  372 

Opium  Smoking,  12,  301,  304 

Ord.w  I'latcau,  100 

Oring,  Lake,  79 

( b'ocbones.  120 

O.saka.  434 

Os(U'i>-.san.  Mount,  367 

Olaru.  419 

Outer  .Mongolia.  109 

Oya-sivo  Current,  387 

I'a-fan  TribiR,  215 

I'a-ho  River,  224 

I'aik-san,  Mount,  340 

I'aiktu-san,  Mount,  339 

I'a-i  'i'rilie,  42.  215,  267 

Rakhoi,  261.  262 

I'aki  Race,  121 

I'aku,  115 

I'ak-wan-.shan  Mountains,  247 

I'algu-tso,  24 

I'aiti,  Lake,  24,  30,  31 

I 'amirs.  19 

I'anchcn-rimbochch,  51 

I'ang-hu  Islatids,  275 

I'ang-kong,  Lake,  28 

I'anliwei-pan,  15i» 

I'antliay  Insurrection,  268 

I'anthavs,  149,  268 

I'aote,  194 

I'aoting-fu,  173 

I'apeh  Tribe,  215,  268 

I'aranmshir  Island,  360 

I'avu  Tribes,  267 

"Reirl"  Kivcr,  249 

rccbili  I'rovinee,  163 

I'ei  'I'ribe.s.  267 

I'ci-hai,  262 

rei-hi,  Mount,  195 

I'ci-ho  River,  163 

I'cima-hu,  Lake.  175 

I'eimon  River,  274 

I'ei-shui  River,  214 

I'eiyun-sban  Mountains,  247 

Pe-kiung  River,  248 

Peking,  164 

Pekuan,  125 

Penal  Code,  China,  326 

Pentapolis.  8" 

Pepohoan  Tribes.  281 

Pescadores  Islands,  275 

I'eshui-kiang  River,  199 

Petsi.  336 

J'etuna,  125 

Philippines,  1 

Pialma,  72 

Piengan,  354 

"  Pigeon  English,"  308 

Pijan,  85 

Piiichew,  194 

Pingchwen-hien,  115 

Pingliang-fu.  194 

Pingsban,  222 

Pingtu,  178 


■ifarriVr       .  . 


490 

I'innyiiiiK-fu,  196 
I'inviui,  U')4 
rishiin   S5 
I'ltlK..  'JHI 
Volini  Uiv.r,  354 
I'dmi,  •'»" 

I'opov,  Mount,  340 
I'lisiiiiin,  7- 
I'dssirt  IViv,  Via.  3tO 
rovunur,  I'iil"-.  ••!"- 
"  l'ri>ytT-Mills,"  40 
I'liliuiij?,  •'j3 
riititint?.  Chinii,  29!) 
.Iiipiin,  410 

I'rovini'i's  of  Tibet,  67 
KiishRiiriii,  74 
Cliinu,  333 
Korea,  3.')4 

Tiihlie     Kxiiiuiniitions    in    (.hina, 
320 

rmhew-fu,  195 

I'lu'-kiimg  River,  248 

I'liUuheh.  124 

I'ulin)?.  i>0 

I'liiiti  Knee,  252 

rutni,  1H4 

I'uto,  240 

(iuclpacrt  Island,  336,  340,  343 

liiulolth.  51 

Valley,  2S 
Uailwuy  Projects,  China,  305 
Hailwavs,  .Japan,  407 
Hiikiis-tal,  I,ako.  20 
Hashua  IhIuikI,  361 
Itaskolnika,  74 
Red  River,  263 
RiMnipanK  'I'ribo,  42 
Reveiiun  of  China,  331 
llixiri.  Mount,  363 
liiu-kiu  Islands.  356,  3S1 
Rivalry    of    White    and    Yellow 

Uac('s,  9-11 
"  Uobher  "  Islands,  250 
Roiiin,  history  of  tho,  426 

Sado.  357 

Island,  423 
Saga.  441 
Sagaini  Hay,  428 
Saikio,  432_ 
Sainan,  255 
Sainoin,  110 
.Sakahi,  436 
ijukata,  422 

Uiv^.,  386 
S  ikayi.  423 
Sakhalin,  356 
Saki-siina,  283 

Sakura,  428 

Sal<ur,i-sima  Isliind,  380 

Salar,  149.  193 

8  lions,  120 

Salwen  River,  37 

Saniayeh,  53 

Sainp'o  River,  30 

Saniukaze,  Mount,  307 

Sanju,  72 

Sanju  Pass,  61 

San-kan,  336 

.Sannan,  283 

Sanshui,  255 

Sansing,  125 

Sapporo,  419 

Sappuro,  Mount,  364 

San:hi,  114 


INDEX. 


Sartes,  68 

Siirthol,  51 

Siirti,  420 

iSatlaj  River,  24,  27 

Salradu  River,  27 

Satsp<iro,  419 

Sauru  Mountiiiiia,  88 

Sehlai^intwiit's     Courso     of     tho 

Tsannho,  33 
Si'a  of  (Okhotsk,  301 
Seehuen  Mountains,  205 
,Seeret  .Societies  in  China,  159 
Sekigahava,  432 
.Seniao,  271 
Sendai,  421,  443 
Sendai  Hay,  365 
Sent?e  Khubad,  28 
Sera,  53 
Setii,  374 
Seto-utni  Sea,  374 
Soul,  353 

Sounglo-shan  Mountains,  230 
"  Seven  Nails,"  Mount,  208 
Shachew,  84 
Shah-i-dul.ih.  00 
Sha-ho  River,  184 
Shakia-jonff,  52 
Shaklunif,  255 
Shamanism,  109 
Shan  Tribes,  266 
Shanghai,  232 
Shanghai-kwan,  127 
Shanghai  Poninsultt,  204 
Shansi,  179 
Shang-tu,  115,  125 
Shantung  Peninsula,  174 
Shanyan-alin  Mountains,  I 
Shnoehcwr,  255 
Shaohing,  237,  254 
Shara-murcn  River,  117,  118 
."ihashantow,  253 
Shayang-ehen  229 
Shavok  Rivoi,  29 
Shazi,  2;6 
Shonsi,  179 
Shigatze,  51 
Shihlung,  255 
Khikho,  92 
Shinano  River.  380 
Shipangfang,  Mount,  208 
Shipu,  242 
Shi  taw,  178 
Shiyang,  268 
Shuga  Mountains,  79 
Shuh  Tribe,  271 
bhuhing,  254 
Shui-kow,  244 
Shunning-fu,  271 
Siang  River,  201.  217 
Siao-utai-shan,  164 
Siang  River,  254 
Siangtan,  226 
Siangyang-fu,  229 
.Siangyin,  227 
Siaskotan  Island,  361 
Sibotz,  419 
Sidzuoka,  430 
Si-fan  Tribes,  43,  209 
Si-^a-ken,  432 
Signal  Towers,  China,  309 
Si-hai,  63 
Si-hu,  Ijike,  230 
Si-kiung  River,  1 18,  248 
Si-kiang  Hasin,  247 
Siking-shnn  ilountains,  187 
Sikok,  3.56,  376 
Sikokno-saburo  River,  376 


Sikotnn  Island,  301 
"Silk  Highway,"  .5 
Simabara,  442 

Peninsula,  378 
Siinane-ken,  439 
Simoda,  429 
Hay,  371 
Simono-seki  Strait,  370 
Simusir  Island,  361 
Sinniinato,  423 
Sinskatan  Island,  419 
Sinano  River^  367 
Sinrheng,  125    • 
Sinehow,  281 
Singan-fu,  194 
Singmintiin,  127 
Sing-po  Tribes,  267 
Sining-fu,  192 
Sinlo,  330 
Sinpu-wan,  229 
Sinsu-hai,  79 
Sinto  Religion,  411 
Sionai,  422 
Siongto,  354 
Sira-kava,  378 
Sirane-yama,  Mount,  369 
Sira-yamo,  Mount,  423 
Sirotoko,  Capo,  362 
Siribotz,  Mount,  364  .' 

Siro-yama,  Mount,  373 
Si-tatzo  Race,  120 
Sitling-gonpa,  60 
Si-tsang,  14 

Siunanguto  Islands,  381 
Siuri,  444 
Siuyeu,  127 
Sivantze,  114 
Siwan-hoa,  173 
Siweluug-shan,  Mount,  208 
Siwen-shan,  76 
Siwe-shan,  Mount,  183 
"  :  nowy  Range,"  372 
Sobo-nor,  81 

Social  progress  in  China,  312 
Sogok-uor,  81 
Sok-pa,  20 

Solfataras  of  Yeso,  362 
Solons,  120 
Seng-fan  Tribes,  280 
Song-koi  River,  265,  266 
Song-li  Tribes,  274 
South  Tibet,  23 
Soya,  419 
Stag  Island,  367 
Steam  Navigation,  China,  307 
Stniit  of  Yeso,  359 
Su  River,  201 
Subansiri  River,  33 
Suchow,  83,  193,  222,  230 
Suidun,  93 
Sui-fu,  222 
Siiifun  River,  123 
Sukiahwei,  236 
Sumida  River,  386,  424 
Sumshu  Island,  360 
Sumu  Tribe,  210 
Sunda  Islands,  5 
Sungari  River,  il7 
Sunispan-ting,  22  i 
Sunto,  354 

Surung  Mountains,  207 
Suva  Lake,  372 
Suva-sima  Island,  381 
Swatow,  253 
Sylvia,  Mount,  276 

Tachindo,  220 


f 


\      .. 


:    ■^f.'i.*5it|t".;c^i^' 


fe  ,,,  ;^^S»f.  •llr-«^.*r*S«* 


«-^!^rf*-«MS*S-r 


\ 


INDEX. 


401 


i 


'■«*l 


Tndum,  30,  51 

Ta-hii,  I-iikr,  204 

Tuithi'w  Uivur,  211 

Tiiikii.  :).")1 

'i'Hikii-hirn,  10"» 

TiiiiiKHii-fu,  \'l> 

Tiii-pci-Hliun  Muuntuiui),  334,  339 

Tiiijiiiif^M,  l')9 

Tiiiwai),  2Hi 

Tuiyiiiiii-fii,  195 

Tultiil)()k<),  U2 

Tiikanmts,  t23,  411 

Takaokii,  423 

TakaHaki,  423 

Tu-kiang  Kivor,  274 

Takla-kliar,  fto 

Takla-iiiukuu,  U4 

Takow,  281 

Taku  Korts,  173 

Takii-Hhan,  125,  127 

Tali,  Lak(),  271 

Tali-fii,  270 

Taiki  Muuiitains,  OU 

Talki  I'aBS  «8 

'lainHhui  Uivtr,  279 

TaiK'how,  275 

TancKa  IslunJ,  358,  381 

Taiif?  DynuHty,  5 

Taii(^kati(^,  281 

Tang-la  Mountains,  22 

Tangutans,  79 

Tankow-chen,  19G 

Taiiksth  UivtT,  29 

Taunu-ulii  Alouutuins,  05 

Taiit-la  MountaiuH,  23 

Taoism,  44,  140,  145 

Tapui-shan,  Mount,  187 

Taranatli-lania,  108 

Taranchi,  08,  91 

Tai'bagatai  Mountains,  88 

Turgut-leh  Mountains,  23 

Tai'got-yap,  Mount,  21 

Tarim  Basin,  58 

Kivor,  62 
Tarim tzi,  73 
Tsrtiiry,  Gulf  of,  356 
Tarumai  Volcano,  363 
Ta-8han,  Mount,  174,  275 
Tash-kurgan,  72 
Tashi-lama,  61 
Tashi-luinpo,  51 
Tatu  Tribes,  103 
Tatar  Nomads,  19 
Tato-vama,  Mount,  372 
Tatsii'nlu,  220 
Tatu-ho  Kiver,  221 
Tatung,  230 
Tatung-fu,  173 
Tatung-gol,  76 
Tawan-ho  River,  176 
Tayang-ho,  127 
Taying,  Mount,  237 
Tayu-ling  Mountains,  218 
Tea  Trade,  China,  291 
Tea  Culture,  Japan,  447 
Tekes  Kiver,  90 
Telu  Tribe,  42 
Tengri-uor,  21 
Tengyueh-ting,  269 
Tenriu  Kivor,  3(>7 
Teradnniari,  423 
Torek-davan,  70 
Terekti,  Mount,  70 
Tcshu-lamu,  51 
Tesilio  Kiver,  302 
Thok-yalung,  24 
Tian-shau,  1 


Tian-shan  Nan-lu,  58,  88 

IV-lu,  58,  88 
Tibet,  13 
TibetaUH,  41 
Tib(!tan  Language,  42 
Tiemon-kwan,  185 
T'icnchwaiig,  127 
TienNliu  Hills,  171 
Ticnl.iiii,  172 
Tihiia-chew,  87 
Ti'ling,  125 
Ting  in,  275 
Tingliai,  240 
TingUi,  17!) 
Tiokai  Volcano,  367 
Tisc,  .Mount,  25 
Tiunii'ii-ula  itiver,  314 
Toatuti..,  282 
Tobi  Island,  367 
T'okatsi  Kiver,  302 
Tokatsi-tuke,  Mount,  362,  364 
'I'ok-daurappa,  51 
Ti)-kiang,  214 
Tokio.  423 

Hay,  3()G 
Tok-yaiung.  51 
Tokii-sima,  441 
Tola  Kiver,  111 
Tolai  Kiver,  81 
'I  onuio,  444 
Tomari,  361 
Tomioka,  423 

Tone-gava  Kivor,  365 
Tongkatu,  233 
Toshinia  Kivor,  386 

Tottori,  439 
To-yania,  423 
Hay,  367 

Toyobasi,  430 

Trade  of  Tibet,  54 
Kashgaria,  69 
China,  300 
Korea,  351 
Japan,  462 

Transbaikalia,  3 

Tmus-Hinialayas,  23,  24 

Traniskuenlunian,  15 

Tnins-Ordos,  101,  18(1 

T'roaty  Ports,  China,  303 

Tsagan-khoto,  114 

Tsaidam,  see  Chaidam. 

Tsakars,  105 

Tsang  Mountains,  24 
I'rovinee,  50 

Tsangbo  Kiver,  30 

T'saprang,  50 

Tsiitung,  245 

Tsctien,  110 

Tsiambo,  5* 

Tsiontang  liasin,  239,  240 

Tgi-jen,  121 

Tsikubu  Island,  373 

Tsimi,  179 

Tsinan,  175 

Tsingchew,  194 

Tsiilgchow-fu,  178 

Tsing-hai,  77 

Tsing-ling  Mountains,  187 

Tsinhai,  237 

Tsin-hion,  178 

Tsiongyan-san,  Mount,  340 

Tsiosan,  330 

Tsiosen,  335 

Tsi-siiua,  360 

Tsitsikhar,  124 

Tsiudo,  357 

Tsiuscuzi,  Lake,  367 


Tuo-gumhuMi,  77 

THo-iiia|<aMK.  27 

Tsci-'iiognaluii,  29 

THiMigan,  244 

Tsonkhapa,  44 

'1'hu,  4:io 

Tsugar  .Strait,  303 

Tsung-ling  M<iuntain8,  62 

THUiigining  Island,  203 

Tsui'ugaoka,  422 

Tsuruk^a,  438 

Tsu-sima  Island,  330,  357,  383 

Tsu-yania,  440 

Tswanc'iew,  244 

Tu-fan  Aborigines,  14 

Tiigux-davan,  17 

Tuman  Kiver,  344 

Tribe,  214 
Tumen  Kivtr,  126 
Tungan,  247 
Tung  Tribe,  214 
Tungchang,  175 
Tung-kiang  Kiver,  249 
Tung-kwan,  194 
T'ung-lung-la,  :'4 
Tung-tat/e  Kaco,  120 
Tung-ting,  Lake,  201 
Tungusi.'S,  9 
Tun-kiang  River,  248 
Turfan,  85 
Turug-urt,  70 
Tushetu,  110 
Tzekhulin,  172 
Tzikye,  240 
Tzikuma  Kiver,  367 
Tzuliu-ching,  223 

U  Province,  50 

Ubsa,  Lake,  95 

Uchang,  198 

Udelin  River,  116 

Uigurs,  83 

Ulan-muren  River,  199 

Uliasutui,  111 

Ulungur  Kiver,  88 

I'mritsi,  87 

Unekatan  Island,  419 

Unzen-ga-tako,  Mount,  378 

Unzen-san,  378 

Urga,  98,  111 

Urianhai,  110 

Uriankhs,  110 

Urumtsi,  87 

Urung-kash,  CO 

Urup  Island,  i.Ol 

Ush-tutfan,  73 

Ilsui-toge,  369 

Usuki,  441 

Usu-ling  Pass,  82 

Usuns,  83 

Utai-shan,  Mount,  189 

Utsiura,  Mount,  364 

Uting,  383 

Uvots,  423 

Uvazima,  441 

Vakamats,  422 
Vaka-yaina,  430 
Victoria  (Hong  Kong),  257 
Volcano  llay,  356 
Vries  Volcano,  371 

Wanchew,  275 
Wei-chew  Island,  263 
Weihai,  178 
Wei-hwi-t'u,  196 
Wei-kiuu,  196 


..  .-c 


iaiia 


__— ~.,"i&*'^'*^ 


n 


492 


Woi  Provinro,  50 
Wri  Kiv.r,  IHl 
W.i  Town,  178 
Wcini,  '2(V.» 
AVci-tHamf,  11 
W.ti  Kiv.r.  KM,  200 
Wi.'iichow  Uivcr,  '211 

'J'own,  212 
Wlmnipo!!,  2'>7 
NVhiti'  Cloml,  Mimnt,  208 

Mimtzf  Tribo.  210 

I, old,  211 
"  White  Mountains,"  373 

Kivcr.  :t78 
\Vi-nhiin,  Mount,  244 
\Vu(  tiiini?-fu,  227 
Wuclidw.  2'>1 
Wu-lni,  2;iO 

WukiiiiK-slian  Mountains,  217 
AVulin,  Mount,  1 17 
WuuKkuni  Isliinil,  250 
Wusliili-shan,  273 
WuHUii',',  2y.j 

Yiuli('\v-fu,  221 
Yakuno-sima  Island,  381 
Yania-ijava,  441! 
Yalu-kianK  Kivor.  334,  344 
YalunB  Uivcr,  190 
Yaniada,  430 
Yan>a-gata,  422 
Yaniau;>itHi,  441 
Yainan-(lii);,  108 
Yauiiito  Kaco,  401 
Yanulok  Lako,  31 
Yani,',  197 
Yaii|,'an,  19,5 
Yan>r-<'how,  231 
Yan^i-hiHwr,  72 
Yungi-shahr,  72 


INDEX. 


Yanf):tzo-kinnpr,  190 
Yanjii.  2.11 
Yao'Trihr.  21.'),2.'iO 
Yarkand,  72 

Kivcr,  18,  01 
YailiinK  Hivor,  199 
YaHhi.  271 
Yashil-kul.  01 
YfliiH,  ;)90 
Y.bori,  Mount,  364 
Y<'l)His,  390 
Yedo,  423 

Hay,  300 
Y'i;do-t?avtt,  424 
YodoMio  Bay,  420 
Yollow  I^nds.  189 
Uivor,  7i> 
Sea.  ISC. 
YcmiNi  Uac.',  H90 
Yt'nchow-fu,  177 

Yi'iiisdi  River,  197 

Yi'iitai.  178 

Yrrkftlo.  38,  209 

Y.'HO,  350,  302,  460 

Y(iturui)  iHland,  361 

Yc/nn,  M()\int,  364 

Yt'zasi,  421 

Yiihiiw,  179 

Yinkoa,  118.127 

Yingtzo.  127 

Yiu  Tribes.  250 

Yo,  Mount.  188 

Yochew.  227 

Yodo,434 

River,  386 

Yokohama,  428 

S'oko-sinm  Island.  381 

Yoniodz  Raee.  401 

Yonakuni  Hills,  284 

Yonugi,  430 


YonnRo,  430 
Yone/.ava.  422 
Yonida,  430 
^'aangudnK-yuan,  170 
YubutM,  420  ■ 
Yuen  River,  201 
Yuenching,  19") 
Yuen-kiang,  272 
Yuiuiinsian.  H.'j 
Yu-kiang  Uivur,  247,  248 
Yiilin,  203 
Yulin-fu,  195 
Yunchew,  271 
Yung-ehenn,  243 
YunR-ehing,  178 
YiinKchaiiK-fu,  269 
Yung-ki'ing,  237 
Y'unnping,  244 
Yiuinping-fu,  173 
Yunnun-fu,  271 
Yunnan  rrovince,  203 
Y'upi-tatze  Tribe,  120 
YuBU  Knee.  401 
Yuvari,  Mount.  364 
Yuyao,  237,  240 

Znisan,  89 
Zakuenhinskiy,  l/i 
Zangbo  River,  30 
Zarafshan  River,  61 
Zayton.  245 
Zeguntola.  14 
Zeze,  432 
Zinisa,  87 
Zinna,  336 
Zipangu,  367 
Zkivu.  240 
Zunsaria,  88.  90 
ZuBgarians,  00 


THE  END. 


V- 


Fi~T7xrr-z?-/-«..7^«s?«w«F^-'**'^&«s^ 


^ 


.■'.SS^"^**)' 


